diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/contributing/article.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/contributing/article.sgml index a85ce56ffe..611d7cbf79 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/contributing/article.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/articles/contributing/article.sgml @@ -1,5961 +1,5961 @@ Contributing to FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. So you want to contribute something to FreeBSD? That is great! We can always use the help, and FreeBSD is one of those systems that relies on the contributions of its user base in order to survive. Your contributions are not only appreciated, they are vital to FreeBSD's continued growth! Contrary to what some people might also have you believe, you do not need to be a hot-shot programmer or a close personal friend of the FreeBSD core team in order to have your contributions accepted. The FreeBSD Project's development is done by a large and growing number of international contributors whose ages and areas of technical expertise vary greatly, and there is always more work to be done than there are people available to do it. Since the FreeBSD project is responsible for an entire operating system environment (and its installation) rather than just a kernel or a few scattered utilities, our TODO list also spans a very wide range of tasks, from documentation, beta testing and presentation to highly specialized types of kernel development. No matter what your skill level, there is almost certainly something you can do to help the project! Commercial entities engaged in FreeBSD-related enterprises are also encouraged to contact us. Need a special extension to make your product work? You will find us receptive to your requests, given that they are not too outlandish. Working on a value-added product? Please let us know! We may be able to work cooperatively on some aspect of it. The free software world is challenging a lot of existing assumptions about how software is developed, sold, and maintained throughout its life cycle, and we urge you to at least give it a second look. What is Needed The following list of tasks and sub-projects represents something of an amalgam of the various core team TODO lists and user requests we have collected over the last couple of months. Where possible, tasks have been ranked by degree of urgency. If you are interested in working on one of the tasks you see here, send mail to the coordinator listed by clicking on their names. If no coordinator has been appointed, maybe you would like to volunteer? High priority tasks The following tasks are considered to be urgent, usually because they represent something that is badly broken or sorely needed: 3-stage boot issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Do WinNT compatible drive tagging so that the 3rd stage can provide an accurate mapping of BIOS geometries for disks. Filesystem problems. Overall coordination: &a.fs; Clean up and document the nullfs filesystem code. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Fix the union file system. Coordinator: &a.dg; Implement Int13 vm86 disk driver. Coordinator: &a.hackers; New bus architecture. Coordinator: &a.newbus; Port existing ISA drivers to new architecture. Move all interrupt-management code to appropriate parts of the bus drivers. Port PCI subsystem to new architecture. Coordinator: &a.dfr; Figure out the right way to handle removable devices and then use that as a substrate on which PC-Card and CardBus support can be implemented. Resolve the probe/attach priority issue once and for all. Move any remaining buses over to the new architecture. Kernel issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Add more pro-active security infrastructure. Overall coordination: &a.security; Build something like Tripwire(TM) into the kernel, with a remote and local part. There are a number of cryptographic issues to getting this right; contact the coordinator for details. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Make the entire kernel use suser() instead of comparing to 0. It is presently using about half of each. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Split securelevels into different parts, to allow an administrator to throw away those privileges he can throw away. Setting the overall securelevel needs to have the same effect as now, obviously. Coordinator: &a.eivind; - Make it possible to upload a list of “allowed - program” to BPF, and then block BPF from accepting other + Make it possible to upload a list of allowed + program to BPF, and then block BPF from accepting other programs. This would allow BPF to be used e.g. for DHCP, without allowing an attacker to start snooping the local network. Update the security checker script. We should at least grab all the checks from the other BSD derivatives, and add checks that a system with securelevel increased also have reasonable flags on the relevant parts. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Add authorization infrastructure to the kernel, to allow different authorization policies. Part of this could be done by modifying suser(). Coordinator: &a.eivind; Add code to the NFS layer so that you cannot chdir("..") out of an NFS partition. E.g., /usr is a UFS partition with /usr/src NFS exported. Now it is possible to use the NFS filehandle for /usr/src to get access to /usr. Medium priority tasks The following tasks need to be done, but not with any particular urgency: Full KLD based driver support/Configuration Manager. Write a configuration manager (in the 3rd stage boot?) that probes your hardware in a sane manner, keeps only the KLDs required for your hardware, etc. PCMCIA/PCCARD. Coordinators: &a.msmith; and &a.imp; Documentation! Reliable operation of the pcic driver (needs testing). Recognizer and handler for sio.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ed.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ep.c (mostly done). User-mode recognizer and handler (partially done). Advanced Power Management. Coordinators: &a.msmith; and &a.phk; APM sub-driver (mostly done). IDE/ATA disk sub-driver (partially done). syscons/pcvt sub-driver. Integration with the PCMCIA/PCCARD drivers (suspend/resume). Low priority tasks The following tasks are purely cosmetic or represent such an investment of work that it is not likely that anyone will get them done anytime soon: The first N items are from Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org NetWare Server (protected mode ODI driver) loader and subservices to allow the use of ODI card drivers supplied with network cards. The same thing for NDIS drivers and NetWare SCSI drivers. An "upgrade system" option that works on Linux boxes instead of just previous rev FreeBSD boxes. Symmetric Multiprocessing with kernel preemption (requires kernel preemption). A concerted effort at support for portable computers. This is somewhat handled by changing PCMCIA bridging rules and power management event handling. But there are things like detecting internal vs. external display and picking a different screen resolution based on that fact, not spinning down the disk if the machine is in dock, and allowing dock-based cards to disappear without affecting the machines ability to boot (same issue for PCMCIA). Smaller tasks Most of the tasks listed in the previous sections require either a considerable investment of time or an in-depth knowledge of the FreeBSD kernel (or both). However, there are also many useful tasks which are suitable for "weekend hackers", or people without programming skills. If you run FreeBSD-current and have a good Internet connection, there is a machine current.FreeBSD.org which builds a full release once a day — every now and again, try and install the latest release from it and report any failures in the process. Read the freebsd-bugs mailing list. There might be a problem you can comment constructively on or with patches you can test. Or you could even try to fix one of the problems yourself. Read through the FAQ and Handbook periodically. If anything is badly explained, out of date or even just completely wrong, let us know. Even better, send us a fix (SGML is not difficult to learn, but there is no objection to ASCII submissions). Help translate FreeBSD documentation into your native language (if not already available) — just send an email to &a.doc; asking if anyone is working on it. Note that you are not committing yourself to translating every single FreeBSD document by doing this — in fact, the documentation most in need of translation is the installation instructions. Read the freebsd-questions mailing list and &ng.misc occasionally (or even regularly). It can be very satisfying to share your expertise and help people solve their problems; sometimes you may even learn something new yourself! These forums can also be a source of ideas for things to work on. If you know of any bugfixes which have been successfully applied to -current but have not been merged into -stable after a decent interval (normally a couple of weeks), send the committer a polite reminder. Move contributed software to src/contrib in the source tree. Make sure code in src/contrib is up to date. Look for year 2000 bugs (and fix any you find!) Build the source tree (or just part of it) with extra warnings enabled and clean up the warnings. Fix warnings for ports which do deprecated things like using gets() or including malloc.h. If you have contributed any ports, send your patches back to the original author (this will make your life easier when they bring out the next version) Suggest further tasks for this list! Work through the PR database The FreeBSD PR list shows all the current active problem reports and requests for enhancement that have been submitted by FreeBSD users. Look through the open PRs, and see if anything there takes your interest. Some of these might be very simple tasks, that just need an extra pair of eyes to look over them and confirm that the fix in the PR is a good one. Others might be much more complex. Start with the PRs that have not been assigned to anyone else, but if one them is assigned to someone else, but it looks like something you can handle, e-mail the person it is assigned to and ask if you can work on it—they might already have a patch ready to be tested, or further ideas that you can discuss with them. How to Contribute Contributions to the system generally fall into one or more of the following 6 categories: Bug reports and general commentary An idea or suggestion of general technical interest should be mailed to the &a.hackers;. Likewise, people with an interest in such things (and a tolerance for a high volume of mail!) may subscribe to the hackers mailing list by sending mail to &a.majordomo;. See mailing lists for more information about this and other mailing lists. If you find a bug or are submitting a specific change, please report it using the &man.send-pr.1; program or its WEB-based equivalent. Try to fill-in each field of the bug report. Unless they exceed 65KB, include any patches directly in the report. When including patches, do not use cut-and-paste because cut-and-paste turns tabs into spaces and makes them unusable. Consider compressing patches and using &man.uuencode.1; if they exceed 20KB. Upload very large submissions to ftp.FreeBSD.org:/pub/FreeBSD/incoming/. After filing a report, you should receive confirmation along with a tracking number. Keep this tracking number so that you can update us with details about the problem by sending mail to bug-followup@FreeBSD.org. Use the number as the message subject, e.g. "Re: kern/3377". Additional information for any bug report should be submitted this way. If you do not receive confirmation in a timely fashion (3 days to a week, depending on your email connection) or are, for some reason, unable to use the &man.send-pr.1; command, then you may ask someone to file it for you by sending mail to the &a.bugs;. Changes to the documentation Changes to the documentation are overseen by the &a.doc;. Send submissions and changes (even small ones are welcome!) using send-pr as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Changes to existing source code An addition or change to the existing source code is a somewhat trickier affair and depends a lot on how far out of date you are with the current state of the core FreeBSD development. There is a special - on-going release of FreeBSD known as “FreeBSD-current” + on-going release of FreeBSD known as FreeBSD-current which is made available in a variety of ways for the convenience of developers working actively on the system. See Staying current with FreeBSD for more information about getting and using FreeBSD-current. Working from older sources unfortunately means that your changes may sometimes be too obsolete or too divergent for easy re-integration into FreeBSD. Chances of this can be minimized somewhat by subscribing to the &a.announce; and the &a.current; lists, where discussions on the current state of the system take place. Assuming that you can manage to secure fairly up-to-date sources to base your changes on, the next step is to produce a set of diffs to send to the FreeBSD maintainers. This is done with the &man.diff.1; - command, with the “context diff” form + command, with the context diff form being preferred. For example: &prompt.user; diff -c oldfile newfile or &prompt.user; diff -c -r olddir newdir would generate such a set of context diffs for the given source file or directory hierarchy. See the man page for &man.diff.1; for more details. Once you have a set of diffs (which you may test with the &man.patch.1; command), you should submit them for inclusion with FreeBSD. Use the &man.send-pr.1; program as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Do not just send the diffs to the &a.hackers; or they will get lost! We greatly appreciate your submission (this is a volunteer project!); because we are busy, we may not be able to address it immediately, but it will remain in the pr database until we do. If you feel it appropriate (e.g. you have added, deleted, or renamed files), bundle your changes into a tar file and run the &man.uuencode.1; program on it. Shar archives are also welcome. If your change is of a potentially sensitive nature, e.g. you are unsure of copyright issues governing its further distribution or you are simply not ready to release it without a tighter review first, then you should send it to &a.core; directly rather than submitting it with &man.send-pr.1;. The core mailing list reaches a much smaller group of people who do much of the day-to-day work on FreeBSD. Note that this group is also very busy and so you should only send mail to them where it is truly necessary. Please refer to man 9 intro and man 9 style for some information on coding style. We would appreciate it if you were at least aware of this information before submitting code. New code or major value-added packages In the rare case of a significant contribution of a large body work, or the addition of an important new feature to FreeBSD, it becomes almost always necessary to either send changes as uuencode'd tar files or upload them to our ftp site ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/incoming/. When working with large amounts of code, the touchy subject of copyrights also invariably comes up. Acceptable copyrights for code included in FreeBSD are: The BSD copyright. This copyright is most preferred due to - its “no strings attached” nature and general + its no strings attached nature and general attractiveness to commercial enterprises. Far from discouraging such commercial use, the FreeBSD Project actively encourages such participation by commercial interests who might eventually be inclined to invest something of their own into FreeBSD. - The GNU Public License, or “GPL”. This license is + The GNU Public License, or GPL. This license is not quite as popular with us due to the amount of extra effort demanded of anyone using the code for commercial purposes, but given the sheer quantity of GPL'd code we currently require (compiler, assembler, text formatter, etc) it would be silly to refuse additional contributions under this license. Code under the GPL also goes into a different part of the tree, that being /sys/gnu or /usr/src/gnu, and is therefore easily identifiable to anyone for whom the GPL presents a problem. Contributions coming under any other type of copyright must be carefully reviewed before their inclusion into FreeBSD will be considered. Contributions for which particularly restrictive commercial copyrights apply are generally rejected, though the authors are always encouraged to make such changes available through their own channels. - To place a “BSD-style” copyright on your work, include + To place a BSD-style copyright on your work, include the following text at the very beginning of every source code file you wish to protect, replacing the text between the %% with the appropriate information. Copyright (c) %%proper_years_here%% %%your_name_here%%, %%your_state%% %%your_zip%%. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer as the first lines of this file unmodified. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY %%your_name_here%% ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL %%your_name_here%% BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. $Id$ For your convenience, a copy of this text can be found in /usr/share/examples/etc/bsd-style-copyright. Money, Hardware or Internet access We are always very happy to accept donations to further the cause of the FreeBSD Project and, in a volunteer effort like ours, a little can go a long way! Donations of hardware are also very important to expanding our list of supported peripherals since we generally lack the funds to buy such items ourselves. <anchor id="donations">Donating funds While the FreeBSD Project is not a 501(c)(3) (charitable) corporation and hence cannot offer special tax incentives for any donations made, any such donations will be gratefully accepted on behalf of the project by FreeBSD, Inc. FreeBSD, Inc. was founded in early 1995 by &a.jkh; and &a.dg; with the goal of furthering the aims of the FreeBSD Project and giving it a minimal corporate presence. Any and all funds donated (as well as any profits that may eventually be realized by FreeBSD, Inc.) will be used exclusively to further the project's goals. Please make any checks payable to FreeBSD, Inc., sent in care of the following address:
FreeBSD, Inc. c/o Jordan Hubbard 4041 Pike Lane, Suite F Concord CA, 94520
(currently using the Walnut Creek CDROM address until a PO box can be opened) Wire transfers may also be sent directly to:
Bank Of America Concord Main Office P.O. Box 37176 San Francisco CA, 94137-5176 Routing #: 121-000-358 Account #: 01411-07441 (FreeBSD, Inc.)
Any correspondence related to donations should be sent to &a.jkh, either via email or to the FreeBSD, Inc. postal address given above. If you do not wish to be listed in our donors section, please specify this when making your donation. Thanks! Donating hardware Donations of hardware in any of the 3 following categories are also gladly accepted by the FreeBSD Project: General purpose hardware such as disk drives, memory or complete systems should be sent to the FreeBSD, Inc. address listed in the donating funds section. Hardware for which ongoing compliance testing is desired. We are currently trying to put together a testing lab of all components that FreeBSD supports so that proper regression testing can be done with each new release. We are still lacking many important pieces (network cards, motherboards, etc) and if you would like to make such a donation, please contact &a.dg; for information on which items are still required. Hardware currently unsupported by FreeBSD for which you would like to see such support added. Please contact the &a.core; before sending such items as we will need to find a developer willing to take on the task before we can accept delivery of new hardware. Donating Internet access We can always use new mirror sites for FTP, WWW or cvsup. If you would like to be such a mirror, please contact the FreeBSD project administrators hubs@FreeBSD.org for more information. Donors Gallery The FreeBSD Project is indebted to the following donors and would like to publically thank them here! Contributors to the central server project: The following individuals and businesses made it possible for the FreeBSD Project to build a new central server machine to eventually replace freefall.FreeBSD.org by donating the following items: &a.mbarkah and his employer, Hemisphere Online, donated a Pentium Pro (P6) 200Mhz CPU ASA Computers donated a Tyan 1662 motherboard. Joe McGuckin joe@via.net of ViaNet Communications donated a Kingston ethernet controller. Jack O'Neill jack@diamond.xtalwind.net donated an NCR 53C875 SCSI controller card. Ulf Zimmermann ulf@Alameda.net of Alameda Networks donated 128MB of memory, a 4 Gb disk drive and the case. Direct funding: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed direct funding to the project: Annelise Anderson ANDRSN@HOOVER.STANFORD.EDU &a.dillon Blue Mountain Arts Epilogue Technology Corporation &a.sef Global Technology Associates, Inc Don Scott Wilde Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@masternet.it Josef C. Grosch joeg@truenorth.org Robert T. Morris &a.chuckr Kenneth P. Stox ken@stox.sa.enteract.com of Imaginary Landscape, LLC. Dmitry S. Kohmanyuk dk@dog.farm.org Laser5 of Japan (a portion of the profits from sales of their various FreeBSD CD-ROMs). Fuki Shuppan Publishing Co. donated a portion of their profits from Hajimete no FreeBSD (FreeBSD, Getting started) to the FreeBSD and XFree86 projects. ASCII Corp. donated a portion of their profits from several FreeBSD-related books to the FreeBSD project. Yokogawa Electric Corp has generously donated significant funding to the FreeBSD project. BuffNET Pacific Solutions Siemens AG via Andre Albsmeier Chris Silva Hardware contributors: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed hardware for testing and device driver development/support: Walnut Creek CDROM for providing the Pentium P5-90 and 486/DX2-66 EISA/VL systems that are being used for our development work, to say nothing of the network access and other donations of hardware resources. TRW Financial Systems, Inc. provided 130 PCs, three 68 GB fileservers, twelve Ethernets, two routers and an ATM switch for debugging the diskless code. Dermot McDonnell donated the Toshiba XM3401B CDROM drive currently used in freefall. &a.chuck; contributed his floppy tape streamer for experimental work. Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM, and &a.wilko;, provided Wangtek and Archive QIC-02 tape drives in order to improve the wt driver. Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de contributed a 2.88 MB floppy drive to the project. This will hopefully increase the pressure for rewriting the floppy disk driver. ;-) Tekram Technologies sent one each of their DC-390, DC-390U and DC-390F FAST and ULTRA SCSI host adapter cards for regression testing of the NCR and AMD drivers with their cards. They are also to be applauded for making driver sources for free operating systems available from their FTP server ftp://ftp.tekram.com/scsi/FreeBSD/. Larry M. Augustin contributed not only a Symbios Sym8751S SCSI card, but also a set of data books, including one about the forthcoming Sym53c895 chip with Ultra-2 and LVD support, and the latest programming manual with information on how to safely use the advanced features of the latest Symbios SCSI chips. Thanks a lot! Christoph Kukulies kuku@FreeBSD.org donated an FX120 12 speed Mitsumi CDROM drive for IDE CDROM driver development. Special contributors: Walnut Creek CDROM has donated almost more than we can say (see the history document for more details). In particular, we would like to thank them for the original hardware used for freefall.FreeBSD.org, our primary development machine, and for thud.FreeBSD.org, a testing and build box. We are also indebted to them for funding various contributors over the years and providing us with unrestricted use of their T1 connection to the Internet. The interface business GmbH, Dresden has been patiently supporting &a.joerg; who has often preferred FreeBSD work over paywork, and used to fall back to their (quite expensive) EUnet Internet connection whenever his private connection became too slow or flakey to work with it... Berkeley Software Design, Inc. has contributed their DOS emulator code to the remaining BSD world, which is used in the doscmd command. Core Team Alumni The following people were members of the FreeBSD core team during the periods indicated. We thank them for their past efforts in the service of the FreeBSD project. In rough chronological order: &a.jdp (1997 - 2000) &a.guido (1995 - 1999) &a.dyson (1993 - 1998) &a.nate (1992 - 1996) &a.rgrimes (1992 - 1995) Andreas Schulz (1992 - 1995) &a.csgr (1993 - 1995) &a.paul (1992 - 1995) &a.smace (1993 - 1994) Andrew Moore (1993 - 1994) Christoph Robitschko (1993 - 1994) J. T. Conklin (1992 - 1993) Derived Software Contributors This software was originally derived from William F. Jolitz's 386BSD release 0.1, though almost none of the original 386BSD specific code remains. This software has been essentially re-implemented from the 4.4BSD-Lite release provided by the Computer Science Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California, Berkeley and associated academic contributors. There are also portions of NetBSD and OpenBSD that have been integrated into FreeBSD as well, and we would therefore like to thank all the contributors to NetBSD and OpenBSD for their work. Additional FreeBSD Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): ABURAYA Ryushirou rewsirow@ff.iij4u.or.jp AMAGAI Yoshiji amagai@nue.org Aaron Bornstein aaronb@j51.com Aaron Smith aaron@mutex.org Achim Patzner ap@noses.com Ada T Lim ada@bsd.org Adam Baran badam@mw.mil.pl Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adam McDougall mcdouga9@egr.msu.edu Adam Strohl troll@digitalspark.net Adrian Chadd adrian@freebsd.org Adrian Colley aecolley@ois.ie Adrian Hall adrian@ibmpcug.co.uk Adrian Mariano adrian@cam.cornell.edu Adrian Steinmann ast@marabu.ch Adrian T. Filipi-Martin atf3r@agate.cs.virginia.edu Ajit Thyagarajan unknown Akio Morita amorita@meadow.scphys.kyoto-u.ac.jp Akira SAWADA unknown Akira Watanabe akira@myaw.ei.meisei-u.ac.jp Akito Fujita fujita@zoo.ncl.omron.co.jp Alain Kalker A.C.P.M.Kalker@student.utwente.nl Alan Bawden alan@curry.epilogue.com Alec Wolman wolman@cs.washington.edu Aled Morris aledm@routers.co.uk Aleksandr A Babaylov .@babolo.ru Alex garbanzo@hooked.net Alex D. Chen dhchen@Canvas.dorm7.nccu.edu.tw Alex G. Bulushev bag@demos.su Alex Le Heux alexlh@funk.org Alex Perel veers@disturbed.net Alex Varju varju@webct.com Alexander B. Povolotsky tarkhil@mgt.msk.ru Alexander Langer alex@cichlids.com Alexander Leidinger netchild@wurzelausix.CS.Uni-SB.DE Alexandre Snarskii snar@paranoia.ru Alistair G. Crooks agc@uts.amdahl.com Allan Saddi asaddi@philosophysw.com Allen Campbell allenc@verinet.com Amakawa Shuhei amakawa@hoh.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Amancio Hasty hasty@star-gate.com Amir Farah amir@comtrol.com Amy Baron amee@beer.org Anatoly A. Orehovsky tolik@mpeks.tomsk.su Anatoly Vorobey mellon@pobox.com Anders Nordby anders@fix.no Anders Thulin Anders.X.Thulin@telia.se Andras Olah olah@cs.utwente.nl Andre Albsmeier Andre.Albsmeier@mchp.siemens.de Andre Oppermann andre@pipeline.ch Andreas Haakh ah@alman.robin.de Andreas Kohout shanee@rabbit.augusta.de Andreas Lohr andreas@marvin.RoBIN.de Andreas Schulz unknown Andreas Wetzel mickey@deadline.snafu.de Andreas Wrede andreas@planix.com Andres Vega Garcia unknown Andrew Atrens atreand@statcan.ca Andrew Boothman andrew@cream.org Andrew Gillham gillham@andrews.edu Andrew Gordon andrew.gordon@net-tel.co.uk Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew J. Korty ajk@purdue.edu Andrew L. Moore alm@mclink.com Andrew L. Neporada andrew@chg.ru Andrew McRae amcrae@cisco.com Andrew Stevenson andrew@ugh.net.au Andrew Timonin tim@pool1.convey.ru Andrew V. Stesin stesin@elvisti.kiev.ua Andrew Webster awebster@dataradio.com Andrey Novikov andrey@novikov.com Andy Farkas andyf@speednet.com.au Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com Andy Whitcroft andy@sarc.city.ac.uk Angelo Turetta ATuretta@stylo.it Anthony C. Chavez magus@xmission.com Anthony Yee-Hang Chan yeehang@netcom.com Anton Berezin tobez@plab.ku.dk Anton N. Bruesov antonz@library.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Antti Kaipila anttik@iki.fi arci vega@sophia.inria.fr Are Bryne are.bryne@communique.no Ari Suutari ari@suutari.iki.fi Arindum Mukerji rmukerji@execpc.com Arjan de Vet devet@IAEhv.nl Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Arun Sharma adsharma@sharmas.dhs.org Assar Westerlund assar@sics.se Atsushi Furuta furuta@sra.co.jp Atsushi Murai amurai@spec.co.jp Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Bierbauch pivrnec@vszbr.cz Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Ben Hutchinson benhutch@xfiles.org.uk Ben Jackson unknown Ben Smithurst ben@scientia.demon.co.uk Ben Walter bwalter@itachi.swcp.com Benjamin Lewis bhlewis@gte.net Benno Rice benno@netizen.com.au Berend de Boer berend@pobox.com Bernd Rosauer br@schiele-ct.de Bill Kish kish@osf.org Bill Trost trost@cloud.rain.com Blaz Zupan blaz@amis.net Bob Van Valzah Bob@whitebarn.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Bob Willcox bob@luke.pmr.com Boris Staeblow balu@dva.in-berlin.de Boyd Faulkner faulkner@mpd.tandem.com Boyd R. Faulkner faulkner@asgard.bga.com Brad Hendrickse bradh@uunet.co.za Brad Karp karp@eecs.harvard.edu Bradley Dunn bradley@dunn.org Brandon Fosdick bfoz@glue.umd.edu Brandon Gillespie brandon@roguetrader.com &a.wlloyd Brent J. Nordquist bjn@visi.com Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Brett Taylor brett@peloton.runet.edu Brian Campbell brianc@pobox.com Brian Clapper bmc@willscreek.com Brian Cully shmit@kublai.com Brian Handy handy@lambic.space.lockheed.com Brian Litzinger brian@MediaCity.com Brian McGovern bmcgover@cisco.com Brian Moore ziff@houdini.eecs.umich.edu Brian R. Haug haug@conterra.com Brian Tao taob@risc.org Brion Moss brion@queeg.com Bruce A. Mah bmah@ca.sandia.gov Bruce Albrecht bruce@zuhause.mn.org Bruce Gingery bgingery@gtcs.com Bruce J. Keeler loodvrij@gridpoint.com Bruce Murphy packrat@iinet.net.au Bruce Walter walter@fortean.com Carey Jones mcj@acquiesce.org Carl Fongheiser cmf@netins.net Carl Mascott cmascott@world.std.com Casper casper@acc.am Castor Fu castor@geocast.com Chain Lee chain@110.net Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Charles Henrich henrich@msu.edu Charles Mott cmott@scientech.com Charles Owens owensc@enc.edu Chet Ramey chet@odin.INS.CWRU.Edu Chia-liang Kao clkao@CirX.ORG Chiharu Shibata chi@bd.mbn.or.jp Chip Norkus unknown Choi Jun Ho junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr Chris Csanady cc@tarsier.ca.sandia.gov Chris Dabrowski chris@vader.org Chris Dillon cdillon@wolves.k12.mo.us Chris Shenton cshenton@angst.it.hq.nasa.gov Chris Stenton jacs@gnome.co.uk Chris Timmons skynyrd@opus.cts.cwu.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christian Gusenbauer cg@fimp01.fim.uni-linz.ac.at Christian Haury Christian.Haury@sagem.fr Christian Weisgerber naddy@mips.inka.de Christoph P. Kukulies kuku@FreeBSD.org Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Christoph Weber-Fahr wefa@callcenter.systemhaus.net Christopher G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Christopher T. Johnson cjohnson@neunacht.netgsi.com Chrisy Luke chrisy@flix.net Chuck Hein chein@cisco.com Cliff Rowley dozprompt@onsea.com Clive Lin clive@CiRX.ORG Colman Reilly careilly@tcd.ie Conrad Sabatier conrads@neosoft.com Coranth Gryphon gryphon@healer.com Cornelis van der Laan nils@guru.ims.uni-stuttgart.de Cove Schneider cove@brazil.nbn.com Craig Leres leres@ee.lbl.gov Craig Loomis unknown Craig Metz cmetz@inner.net Craig Spannring cts@internetcds.com Craig Struble cstruble@vt.edu Cristian Ferretti cfs@riemann.mat.puc.cl Curt Mayer curt@toad.com Cy Schubert cschuber@uumail.gov.bc.ca Dai Ishijima ishijima@tri.pref.osaka.jp Daisuke Watanabe NU7D-WTNB@asahi-net.or.jp Damian Hamill damian@cablenet.net Dan Cross tenser@spitfire.ecsel.psu.edu Dan Lukes dan@obluda.cz Dan Nelson dnelson@emsphone.com Dan Papasian bugg@bugg.strangled.net Dan Piponi wmtop@tanelorn.demon.co.uk Dan Walters hannibal@cyberstation.net Daniel Hagan dhagan@cs.vt.edu Daniel M. Eischen deischen@iworks.InterWorks.org Daniel O'Connor doconnor@gsoft.com.au Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Daniel Rock rock@cs.uni-sb.de Danny Egen unknown Danny J. Zerkel dzerkel@phofarm.com Darren Reed avalon@coombs.anu.edu.au Dave Adkins adkin003@tc.umn.edu Dave Andersen angio@aros.net Dave Blizzard dblizzar@sprynet.com Dave Bodenstab imdave@synet.net Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Chapeskie dchapes@ddm.on.ca Dave Cornejo dave@dogwood.com Dave Edmondson davided@sco.com Dave Glowacki dglo@ssec.wisc.edu Dave Marquardt marquard@austin.ibm.com Dave Tweten tweten@FreeBSD.org David A. Adkins adkin003@tc.umn.edu David A. Bader dbader@umiacs.umd.edu David Borman dab@bsdi.com David Dawes dawes@XFree86.org David Filo filo@yahoo.com David Holland dholland@eecs.harvard.edu David Holloway daveh@gwythaint.tamis.com David Horwitt dhorwitt@ucsd.edu David Hovemeyer daveho@infocom.com David Jones dej@qpoint.torfree.net David Kelly dkelly@tomcat1.tbe.com David Kulp dkulp@neomorphic.com David L. Nugent davidn@blaze.net.au David Leonard d@scry.dstc.edu.au David Malone dwmalone@maths.tcd.ie David Muir Sharnoff muir@idiom.com David S. Miller davem@jenolan.rutgers.edu David Wolfskill dhw@whistle.com Dean Gaudet dgaudet@arctic.org Dean Huxley dean@fsa.ca Denis Fortin unknown Dennis Glatting dennis.glatting@software-munitions.com Denton Gentry denny1@home.com der Mouse mouse@Collatz.McRCIM.McGill.EDU Derek Inksetter derek@saidev.com DI. Christian Gusenbauer cg@scotty.edvz.uni-linz.ac.at Dima Sivachenko dima@Chg.RU Dirk Keunecke dk@panda.rhein-main.de Dirk Nehrling nerle@pdv.de Dmitry Khrustalev dima@xyzzy.machaon.ru Dmitry Kohmanyuk dk@farm.org Dom Mitchell dom@myrddin.demon.co.uk Dominik Brettnacher domi@saargate.de Dominik Rother dr@domix.de Don Croyle croyle@gelemna.ft-wayne.in.us &a.whiteside; Don Morrison dmorrisn@u.washington.edu Don Yuniskis dgy@rtd.com Donald Maddox dmaddox@conterra.com Doug Barton Doug@gorean.org Douglas Ambrisko ambrisko@whistle.com Douglas Carmichael dcarmich@mcs.com Douglas Crosher dtc@scrooge.ee.swin.oz.au Drew Derbyshire ahd@kew.com Duncan Barclay dmlb@ragnet.demon.co.uk Dustin Sallings dustin@spy.net Eckart "Isegrim" Hofmann Isegrim@Wunder-Nett.org Ed Gold vegold01@starbase.spd.louisville.edu Ed Hudson elh@p5.spnet.com Edward Chuang edwardc@firebird.org.tw Edward Wang edward@edcom.com Edwin Groothus edwin@nwm.wan.philips.com Edwin Mons e@ik.nu Ege Rekk aagero@aage.priv.no Eiji-usagi-MATSUmoto usagi@clave.gr.jp ELISA Font Project Elmar Bartel bartel@informatik.tu-muenchen.de Eoin Lawless eoin@maths.tcd.ie Eric A. Griff eagriff@global2000.net Eric Blood eblood@cs.unr.edu Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Eric J. Schwertfeger eric@cybernut.com Eric L. Hernes erich@lodgenet.com Eric P. Scott eps@sirius.com Eric Sprinkle eric@ennovatenetworks.com Erich Stefan Boleyn erich@uruk.org Erik H. Bakke erikhb@bgnett.no Erik E. Rantapaa rantapaa@math.umn.edu Erik H. Moe ehm@cris.com Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de Espen Skoglund esk@ira.uka.de Eugene M. Kim astralblue@usa.net Eugene Radchenko genie@qsar.chem.msu.su Eugeny Kuzakov CoreDumped@lab321.ru Evan Champion evanc@synapse.net Faried Nawaz fn@Hungry.COM Flemming Jacobsen fj@tfs.com Fong-Ching Liaw fong@juniper.net Francis M J Hsieh mjshieh@life.nthu.edu.tw Frank Bartels knarf@camelot.de Frank Chen Hsiung Chan frankch@waru.life.nthu.edu.tw Frank Durda IV uhclem@nemesis.lonestar.org Frank MacLachlan fpm@n2.net Frank Nobis fn@Radio-do.de Frank ten Wolde franky@pinewood.nl Frank van der Linden frank@fwi.uva.nl Frank Volf volf@oasis.IAEhv.nl Fred Cawthorne fcawth@jjarray.umn.edu Fred Gilham gilham@csl.sri.com Fred Templin templin@erg.sri.com Frederick Earl Gray fgray@rice.edu FUJIMOTO Kensaku fujimoto@oscar.elec.waseda.ac.jp FUJISHIMA Satsuki k5@respo.or.jp FURUSAWA Kazuhisa furusawa@com.cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp G. Adam Stanislavadam@whizkidtech.net Gabor Kincses gabor@acm.org Gabor Zahemszky zgabor@CoDe.hu Garance A Drosehn gad@eclipse.its.rpi.edu Gareth McCaughan gjm11@dpmms.cam.ac.uk Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Gary J. garyj@rks32.pcs.dec.com Gary Kline kline@thought.org Gaspar Chilingarov nightmar@lemming.acc.am Gea-Suan Lin gsl@tpts4.seed.net.tw Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Georg Wagner georg.wagner@ubs.com Gianlorenzo Masini masini@uniroma3.it Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@giovannelli.it Gil Kloepfer Jr. gil@limbic.ssdl.com Gilad Rom rom_glsa@ein-hashofet.co.il Giles Lean giles@nemeton.com.au Ginga Kawaguti ginga@amalthea.phys.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp Giorgos Keramidas keramida@ceid.upatras.gr Glen Foster gfoster@gfoster.com Glenn Johnson gljohns@bellsouth.net Godmar Back gback@facility.cs.utah.edu Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Gord Matzigkeit gord@enci.ucalgary.ca Gordon Greeff gvg@uunet.co.za Graham Wheeler gram@cdsec.com Greg A. Woods woods@zeus.leitch.com Greg Ansley gja@ansley.com Greg Troxel gdt@ir.bbn.com Greg Ungerer gerg@stallion.oz.au Gregory Bond gnb@itga.com.au Gregory D. Moncreaff moncrg@bt340707.res.ray.com Guy Harris guy@netapp.com Guy Helmer ghelmer@cs.iastate.edu HAMADA Naoki hamada@astec.co.jp Hannu Savolainen hannu@voxware.pp.fi Hans Huebner hans@artcom.de Hans Petter Bieker zerium@webindex.no Hans Zuidam hans@brandinnovators.com Harlan Stenn Harlan.Stenn@pfcs.com Harold Barker hbarker@dsms.com Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Heikki Suonsivu hsu@cs.hut.fi Heiko W. Rupp unknown Helmut F. Wirth hfwirth@ping.at Henrik Vestergaard Draboel hvd@terry.ping.dk Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@NetBSD.org Hideaki Ohmon ohmon@tom.sfc.keio.ac.jp Hidekazu Kuroki hidekazu@cs.titech.ac.jp Hideki Yamamoto hyama@acm.org Hideyuki Suzuki hideyuki@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hirayama Issei iss@mail.wbs.ne.jp Hiroaki Sakai sakai@miya.ee.kagu.sut.ac.jp Hiroharu Tamaru tamaru@ap.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hironori Ikura hikura@kaisei.org Hiroshi Nishikawa nis@pluto.dti.ne.jp Hiroya Tsubakimoto unknown Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Holm Tiffe holm@geophysik.tu-freiberg.de HONDA Yasuhiro honda@kashio.info.mie-u.ac.jp Horance Chou horance@freedom.ie.cycu.edu.tw Horihiro Kumagai kuma@jp.FreeBSD.org HOSOBUCHI Noriyuki hoso@buchi.tama.or.jp HOTARU-YA hotaru@tail.net Hr.Ladavac lada@ws2301.gud.siemens.co.at Hubert Feyrer hubertf@NetBSD.ORG Hugh F. Mahon hugh@nsmdserv.cnd.hp.com Hugh Mahon h_mahon@fc.hp.com Hung-Chi Chu hcchu@r350.ee.ntu.edu.tw Ian Dowse iedowse@maths.tcd.ie Ian Holland ianh@tortuga.com.au Ian Struble ian@broken.net Ian Vaudrey i.vaudrey@bigfoot.com Igor Khasilev igor@jabber.paco.odessa.ua Igor Roshchin str@giganda.komkon.org Igor Sviridov siac@ua.net Igor Vinokurov igor@zynaps.ru Ikuo Nakagawa ikuo@isl.intec.co.jp Ilya V. Komarov mur@lynx.ru IMAI Takeshi take-i@ceres.dti.ne.jp IMAMURA Tomoaki tomoak-i@is.aist-nara.ac.jp Issei Suzuki issei@jp.FreeBSD.org Itsuro Saito saito@miv.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp IWASHITA Yoji shuna@pop16.odn.ne.jp J. Bryant jbryant@argus.flash.net J. David Lowe lowe@saturn5.com J. Han hjh@photino.com J. Hawk jhawk@MIT.EDU J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com J.T. Jang keith@email.gcn.net.tw Jack jack@zeus.xtalwind.net Jacob Bohn Lorensen jacob@jblhome.ping.mk Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com Jake Hamby jehamby@lightside.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James D. Stewart jds@c4systm.com James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James Raynard fhackers@jraynard.demon.co.uk James T. Liu jtliu@phlebas.rockefeller.edu Jamie Heckford jamie@jamiesdomain.co.uk Jan Conard charly@fachschaften.tu-muenchen.de Jan Koum jkb@FreeBSD.org Janick Taillandier Janick.Taillandier@ratp.fr Janusz Kokot janek@gaja.ipan.lublin.pl Jarle Greipsland jarle@idt.unit.no Jason Garman init@risen.org Jason Thorpe thorpej@NetBSD.org Jason Wright jason@OpenBSD.org Jason Young doogie@forbidden-donut.anet-stl.com Javier Martin Rueda jmrueda@diatel.upm.es Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jaye Mathisen mrcpu@cdsnet.net Jeff Bartig jeffb@doit.wisc.edu Jeff Brown jabrown@caida.org Jeff Forys jeff@forys.cranbury.nj.us Jeff Kletsky Jeff@Wagsky.com Jeff Palmer jeff@isni.net Jeffrey Evans evans@scnc.k12.mi.us Jeffrey Wheat jeff@cetlink.net Jens Schweikhardt schweikh@noc.dfn.d Jeremy Allison jallison@whistle.com Jeremy Chadwick yoshi@parodius.com Jeremy Chatfield jdc@xinside.com Jeremy Prior unknown Jeremy Shaffner jeremy@external.org Jesse Rosenstock jmr@ugcs.caltech.edu Jian-Da Li jdli@csie.nctu.edu.tw Jim Babb babb@FreeBSD.org Jim Binkley jrb@cs.pdx.edu Jim Bloom bloom@acm.org Jim Carroll jim@carroll.com Jim Flowers jflowers@ezo.net Jim Leppek jleppek@harris.com Jim Lowe james@cs.uwm.edu Jim Mattson jmattson@sonic.net Jim Mercer jim@komodo.reptiles.org Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jimbo Bahooli griffin@blackhole.iceworld.org Jin Guojun jin@george.lbl.gov Joachim Kuebart unknown Joao Carlos Mendes Luis jonny@jonny.eng.br Jochen Pohl jpo.drs@sni.de Joe "Marcus" Clarke marcus@miami.edu Joe Abley jabley@clear.co.nz Joe Jih-Shian Lu jslu@dns.ntu.edu.tw Joe Orthoefer j_orthoefer@tia.net Joe Traister traister@mojozone.org Joel Faedi Joel.Faedi@esial.u-nancy.fr Joel Ray Holveck joelh@gnu.org Joel Sutton jsutton@bbcon.com.au Johan Granlund johan@granlund.nu Johan Karlsson k@numeri.campus.luth.se Johan Larsson johan@moon.campus.luth.se Johann Tonsing jtonsing@mikom.csir.co.za Johannes Helander unknown Johannes Stille unknown John Beckett jbeckett@southern.edu John Beukema jbeukema@hk.super.net John Brezak unknown John Capo jc@irbs.com John F. Woods jfw@jfwhome.funhouse.com John Goerzen jgoerzen@alexanderwohl.complete.org John Hay jhay@mikom.csir.co.za John Heidemann johnh@isi.edu John Hood cgull@owl.org John Kohl unknown John Lind john@starfire.mn.org John Mackin john@physiol.su.oz.au John P johnp@lodgenet.com John Perry perry@vishnu.alias.net John Preisler john@vapornet.com John Rochester jr@cs.mun.ca John Sadler john_sadler@alum.mit.edu John Saunders john@pacer.nlc.net.au John Wehle john@feith.com John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Jon Morgan morgan@terminus.trailblazer.com Jonathan H N Chin jc254@newton.cam.ac.uk Jonathan Hanna jh@pc-21490.bc.rogers.wave.ca Jorge Goncalves j@bug.fe.up.pt Jorge M. Goncalves ee96199@tom.fe.up.pt Jos Backus jbackus@plex.nl Jose M. Alcaide jose@we.lc.ehu.es Jose Marques jose@nobody.org Josef Grosch jgrosch@superior.mooseriver.com Joseph Stein joes@wstein.com Josh Gilliam josh@quick.net Josh Tiefenbach josh@ican.net Juergen Lock nox@jelal.hb.north.de Juha Inkari inkari@cc.hut.fi Jukka A. Ukkonen jua@iki.fi Julian Assange proff@suburbia.net Julian Coleman j.d.coleman@ncl.ac.uk &a.jhs Julian Jenkins kaveman@magna.com.au Junichi Satoh junichi@jp.FreeBSD.org Junji SAKAI sakai@jp.FreeBSD.org Junya WATANABE junya-w@remus.dti.ne.jp K.Higashino a00303@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Kai Vorma vode@snakemail.hut.fi Kaleb S. Keithley kaleb@ics.com Kaneda Hiloshi vanitas@ma3.seikyou.ne.jp Kapil Chowksey kchowksey@hss.hns.com Karl Denninger karl@mcs.com Karl Dietz Karl.Dietz@triplan.com Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com KATO Tsuguru tkato@prontomail.ne.jp Kawanobe Koh kawanobe@st.rim.or.jp Kazuhiko Kiriyama kiri@kiri.toba-cmt.ac.jp Kazuo Horikawa horikawa@jp.FreeBSD.org Kees Jan Koster kjk1@ukc.ac.uk Keith Bostic bostic@bostic.com Keith E. Walker unknown Keith Moore unknown Keith Sklower unknown Kelly Yancey kbyanc@posi.net Ken Hornstein unknown Ken Key key@cs.utk.edu Ken Mayer kmayer@freegate.com Kenji Saito marukun@mx2.nisiq.net Kenji Tomita tommyk@da2.so-net.or.jp Kenneth Furge kenneth.furge@us.endress.com Kenneth Monville desmo@bandwidth.org Kenneth R. Westerback krw@tcn.net Kenneth Stailey kstailey@gnu.ai.mit.edu Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kent Vander Velden graphix@iastate.edu Kentaro Inagaki JBD01226@niftyserve.ne.jp Kevin Bracey kbracey@art.acorn.co.uk Kevin Day toasty@dragondata.com Kevin Lahey kml@nas.nasa.gov Kevin Lokevlo@hello.com.tw Kevin Meltzer perlguy@perlguy.com Kevin Street street@iname.com Kevin Van Maren vanmaren@fast.cs.utah.edu Kiril Mitev kiril@ideaglobal.com Kiroh HARADA kiroh@kh.rim.or.jp Klaus Klein kleink@layla.inka.de Klaus-J. Wolf Yanestra@t-online.de Koichi Sato copan@ppp.fastnet.or.jp Kostya Lukin lukin@okbmei.msk.su Kouichi Hirabayashi kh@mogami-wire.co.jp Kris Dow kris@vilnya.demon.co.uk KUNISHIMA Takeo kunishi@c.oka-pu.ac.jp Kurt D. Zeilenga Kurt@Boolean.NET Kurt Olsen kurto@tiny.mcs.usu.edu L. Jonas Olsson ljo@ljo-slip.DIALIN.CWRU.Edu Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM Lars Köller Lars.Koeller@Uni-Bielefeld.DE Laurence Lopez lopez@mv.mv.com Lee Cremeans lcremean@tidalwave.net Liang Tai-hwa avatar@www.mmlab.cse.yzu.edu.tw Lon Willett lon%softt.uucp@math.utah.edu Louis A. Mamakos louie@TransSys.COM Louis Mamakos loiue@TransSys.com Lowell Gilbert lowell@world.std.com Lucas James Lucas.James@ldjpc.apana.org.au Lyndon Nerenberg lyndon@orthanc.ab.ca M.C. Wong unknown Magnus Enbom dot@tinto.campus.luth.se Mahesh Neelakanta mahesh@gcomm.com Makoto MATSUSHITA matusita@jp.FreeBSD.org Makoto WATANABE watanabe@zlab.phys.nagoya-u.ac.jp Malte Lance malte.lance@gmx.net MANTANI Nobutaka nobutaka@nobutaka.com Manu Iyengar iyengar@grunthos.pscwa.psca.com Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Marc Ramirez mrami@mramirez.sy.yale.edu Marc Slemko marcs@znep.com Marc van Kempen wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl Marc van Woerkom van.woerkom@netcologne.de Marcin Cieslak saper@system.pl Mario Sergio Fujikawa Ferreira lioux@gns.com.br Mark Andrews unknown Mark Cammidge mark@gmtunx.ee.uct.ac.za Mark Diekhans markd@grizzly.com Mark Huizer xaa@stack.nl Mark J. Taylor mtaylor@cybernet.com Mark Krentel krentel@rice.edu Mark Mayo markm@vmunix.com Mark Thompson thompson@tgsoft.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu Mark Treacy unknown Mark Valentine mark@linus.demon.co.uk Markus Holmberg saska@acc.umu.se Martin Birgmeier Martin Blapp blapp@attic.ch Martin Ibert mib@ppe.bb-data.de Martin Kammerhofer dada@sbox.tu-graz.ac.at Martin Minkus diskiller@cnbinc.com Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Martti Kuparinen martti.kuparinen@ericsson.com Mas.TAKEMURA unknown Masachika ISHIZUKA ishizuka@isis.min.ntt.jp Masafumi NAKANE max@wide.ad.jp Masahiro Sekiguchi seki@sysrap.cs.fujitsu.co.jp Masanobu Saitoh msaitoh@spa.is.uec.ac.jp Masanori Kanaoka kana@saijo.mke.mei.co.jp Masanori Kiriake seiken@ARGV.AC Masatoshi TAMURA tamrin@shinzan.kuee.kyoto-u.ac.jp Mats Lofkvist mal@algonet.se Matt Bartley mbartley@lear35.cytex.com Matt Heckaman matt@LUCIDA.QC.CA Matt Thomas matt@3am-software.com Matt White mwhite+@CMU.EDU Matthew C. Mead mmead@Glock.COM Matthew Cashdollar mattc@rfcnet.com Matthew Flatt mflatt@cs.rice.edu Matthew Fuller fullermd@futuresouth.com Matthew Stein matt@bdd.net Matthew West mwest@uct.ac.za Matthias Pfaller leo@dachau.marco.de Matthias Scheler tron@netbsd.org Mattias Gronlund Mattias.Gronlund@sa.erisoft.se Mattias Pantzare pantzer@ludd.luth.se Maurice Castro maurice@planet.serc.rmit.edu.au Max Euston meuston@jmrodgers.com Max Khon fjoe@husky.iclub.nsu.ru Maxim Bolotin max@rsu.ru Micha Class michael_class@hpbbse.bbn.hp.com Michael Lucas mwlucas@blackhelicopters.org Michael Butler imb@scgt.oz.au Michael Butschky butsch@computi.erols.com Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Elbel me@FreeBSD.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Michael Hancock michaelh@cet.co.jp Michael Hohmuth hohmuth@inf.tu-dresden.de Michael Perlman canuck@caam.rice.edu Michael Petry petry@netwolf.NetMasters.com Michael Reifenberger root@totum.plaut.de Michael Sardo jaeger16@yahoo.com Michael Searle searle@longacre.demon.co.uk Michael Vasilenko acid@stu.cn.ua Michal Listos mcl@Amnesiac.123.org Michio Karl Jinbo karl@marcer.nagaokaut.ac.jp Miguel Angel Sagreras msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar MIHIRA Sanpei Yoshiro sanpei@sanpei.org Mihoko Tanaka m_tonaka@pa.yokogawa.co.jp Mika Nystrom mika@cs.caltech.edu Mikael Hybsch micke@dynas.se Mikael Karpberg karpen@ocean.campus.luth.se Mike Del repenting@hotmail.com Mike Durian durian@plutotech.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Mike E. Matsnev mike@azog.cs.msu.su Mike Evans mevans@candle.com Mike Grupenhoff kashmir@umiacs.umd.edu Mike Hibler mike@marker.cs.utah.edu Mike Karels unknown Mike McGaughey mmcg@cs.monash.edu.au Mike Meyer mwm@shiva.the-park.com Mike Mitchell mitchell@ref.tfs.com Mike Murphy mrm@alpharel.com Mike Peck mike@binghamton.edu Mike Sherwood mike@fate.com Mike Spengler mks@msc.edu Mikhail A. Sokolov mishania@demos.su Mikhail Teterin mi@aldan.ziplink.net Ming-I Hseh PA@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW MITA Yoshio mita@jp.FreeBSD.org MITSUNAGA Noriaki mitchy@er.ams.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp Mitsuru Yoshida mitsuru@riken.go.jp Monte Mitzelfelt monte@gonefishing.org Morgan Davis root@io.cts.com MOROHOSHI Akihiko moro@race.u-tokyo.ac.jp Mostyn Lewis mostyn@mrl.com Motomichi Matsuzaki mzaki@e-mail.ne.jp Motoyuki Kasahara m-kasahr@sra.co.jp N.G.Smith ngs@sesame.hensa.ac.uk Nadav Eiron nadav@barcode.co.il NAGAO Tadaaki nagao@cs.titech.ac.jp NAKAJI Hiroyuki nakaji@tutrp.tut.ac.jp NAKAMURA Kazushi nkazushi@highway.or.jp NAKAMURA Motonori motonori@econ.kyoto-u.ac.jp Nanbor Wang nw1@cs.wustl.edu Naofumi Honda honda@Kururu.math.sci.hokudai.ac.jp Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Narvi narvi@haldjas.folklore.ee Nathan Ahlstrom nrahlstr@winternet.com Nathan Dorfman nathan@rtfm.net Neal Fachan kneel@ishiboo.com Niall Smart rotel@indigo.ie Nick Barnes Nick.Barnes@pobox.com Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com Nick Hilliard nick@foobar.org Nick Johnson freebsd@spatula.net &a.nsayer; Nick Williams njw@cs.city.ac.uk Nickolay N. Dudorov nnd@itfs.nsk.su NIIMI Satoshi sa2c@and.or.jp Niklas Hallqvist niklas@filippa.appli.se Nisha Talagala nisha@cs.berkeley.edu No Name adrian@virginia.edu No Name alex@elvisti.kiev.ua No Name anto@netscape.net No Name bobson@egg.ics.nitch.ac.jp No Name bovynf@awe.be No Name burg@is.ge.com No Name chris@gnome.co.uk No Name colsen@usa.net No Name coredump@nervosa.com No Name dannyman@arh0300.urh.uiuc.edu No Name davids@SECNET.COM No Name derek@free.org No Name devet@adv.IAEhv.nl No Name djv@bedford.net No Name dvv@sprint.net No Name enami@ba2.so-net.or.jp No Name flash@eru.tubank.msk.su No Name flash@hway.ru No Name fn@pain.csrv.uidaho.edu No Name frf@xocolatl.com No Name gclarkii@netport.neosoft.com No Name gordon@sheaky.lonestar.org No Name graaf@iae.nl No Name greg@greg.rim.or.jp No Name grossman@cygnus.com No Name gusw@fub46.zedat.fu-berlin.de No Name hfir@math.rochester.edu No Name hnokubi@yyy.or.jp No Name iaint@css.tuu.utas.edu.au No Name invis@visi.com No Name ishisone@sra.co.jp No Name iverson@lionheart.com No Name jpt@magic.net No Name junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr No Name k-sugyou@ccs.mt.nec.co.jp No Name kenji@reseau.toyonaka.osaka.jp No Name kfurge@worldnet.att.net No Name lh@aus.org No Name lhecking@nmrc.ucc.ie No Name mrgreen@mame.mu.oz.au No Name nakagawa@jp.FreeBSD.org No Name ohki@gssm.otsuka.tsukuba.ac.jp No Name owaki@st.rim.or.jp No Name pechter@shell.monmouth.com No Name pete@pelican.pelican.com No Name pritc003@maroon.tc.umn.edu No Name risner@stdio.com No Name roman@rpd.univ.kiev.ua No Name root@ns2.redline.ru No Name root@uglabgw.ug.cs.sunysb.edu No Name stephen.ma@jtec.com.au No Name sumii@is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp No Name takas-su@is.aist-nara.ac.jp No Name tamone@eig.unige.ch No Name tjevans@raleigh.ibm.com No Name tony-o@iij.ad.jp amurai@spec.co.jp No Name torii@tcd.hitachi.co.jp No Name uenami@imasy.or.jp No Name uhlar@netlab.sk No Name vode@hut.fi No Name wlloyd@mpd.ca No Name wlr@furball.wellsfargo.com No Name wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl No Name yamagata@nwgpc.kek.jp No Name ziggy@ryan.org No Name ZW6T-KND@j.asahi-net.or.jp Nobuhiro Yasutomi nobu@psrc.isac.co.jp Nobuyuki Koganemaru kogane@koganemaru.co.jp NOKUBI Hirotaka h-nokubi@yyy.or.jp Norio Suzuki nosuzuki@e-mail.ne.jp Noritaka Ishizumi graphite@jp.FreeBSD.org Noriyuki Soda soda@sra.co.jp Oh Junseon hollywar@mail.holywar.net Olaf Wagner wagner@luthien.in-berlin.de Oleg Semyonov os@altavista.net Oleg Sharoiko os@rsu.ru Oleg V. Volkov rover@lglobus.ru Oliver Breuninger ob@seicom.NET Oliver Friedrichs oliver@secnet.com Oliver Fromme oliver.fromme@heim3.tu-clausthal.de Oliver Laumann net@informatik.uni-bremen.de Oliver Oberdorf oly@world.std.com Olof Johansson offe@ludd.luth.se Osokin Sergey aka oZZ ozz@FreeBSD.org.ru Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paco Rosich rosich@modico.eleinf.uv.es Palle Girgensohn girgen@partitur.se Parag Patel parag@cgt.com Pascal Pederiva pascal@zuo.dec.com Pasvorn Boonmark boonmark@juniper.net Patrick Hausen unknown Patrick Seal patseal@hyperhost.net Paul Antonov apg@demos.su Paul F. Werkowski unknown Paul Fox pgf@foxharp.boston.ma.us Paul Koch koch@thehub.com.au Paul Kranenburg pk@NetBSD.org Paul M. Lambert plambert@plambert.net Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Paul S. LaFollette, Jr. unknown Paul Sandys myj@nyct.net Paul T. Root proot@horton.iaces.com Paul Vixie paul@vix.com Paulo Menezes paulo@isr.uc.pt Paulo Menezes pm@dee.uc.pt Pedro A M Vazquez vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR Pedro Giffuni giffunip@asme.org Pete Bentley pete@demon.net Peter Childs pjchilds@imforei.apana.org.au Peter Cornelius pc@inr.fzk.de Peter Haight peterh@prognet.com Peter Jeremy perer.jeremy@alcatel.com.au Peter M. Chen pmchen@eecs.umich.edu Peter Much peter@citylink.dinoex.sub.org Peter Olsson unknown Peter Philipp pjp@bsd-daemon.net Peter Stubbs PETERS@staidan.qld.edu.au Phil Maker pjm@cs.ntu.edu.au Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Phil Taylor phil@zipmail.co.uk Philip Musumeci philip@rmit.edu.au Pierre Y. Dampure pierre.dampure@k2c.co.uk Pius Fischer pius@ienet.com Pomegranate daver@flag.blackened.net Powerdog Industries kevin.ruddy@powerdog.com Priit Järv priit@cc.ttu.ee R Joseph Wright rjoseph@mammalia.org R. Kym Horsell Rajesh Vaidheeswarran rv@fore.com Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Randal S. Masutani randal@comtest.com Randall Hopper rhh@ct.picker.com Randall W. Dean rwd@osf.org Randy Bush rbush@bainbridge.verio.net Reinier Bezuidenhout rbezuide@mikom.csir.co.za Remy Card Remy.Card@masi.ibp.fr Ricardas Cepas rch@richard.eu.org Riccardo Veraldi veraldi@cs.unibo.it Rich Wood rich@FreeBSD.org.uk Richard Henderson richard@atheist.tamu.edu Richard Hwang rhwang@bigpanda.com Richard Kiss richard@homemail.com Richard J Kuhns rjk@watson.grauel.com Richard M. Neswold rneswold@drmemory.fnal.gov Richard Seaman, Jr. dick@tar.com Richard Stallman rms@gnu.ai.mit.edu Richard Straka straka@user1.inficad.com Richard Tobin richard@cogsci.ed.ac.uk Richard Wackerbarth rkw@Dataplex.NET Richard Winkel rich@math.missouri.edu Richard Wiwatowski rjwiwat@adelaide.on.net Rick Macklem rick@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Rick Macklin unknown Rob Austein sra@epilogue.com Rob Mallory rmallory@qualcomm.com Rob Snow rsnow@txdirect.net Robert Crowe bob@speakez.com Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Robert Eckardt roberte@MEP.Ruhr-Uni-Bochum.de Robert Sanders rsanders@mindspring.com Robert Sexton robert@kudra.com Robert Shady rls@id.net Robert Swindells swindellsr@genrad.co.uk Robert Withrow witr@rwwa.com Robert Yoder unknown Robin Carey robin@mailgate.dtc.rankxerox.co.uk Roger Hardiman roger@cs.strath.ac.uk Roland Jesse jesse@cs.uni-magdeburg.de Roman Shterenzon roman@xpert.com Ron Bickers rbickers@intercenter.net Ron Lenk rlenk@widget.xmission.com Ronald Kuehn kuehn@rz.tu-clausthal.de Rudolf Cejka cejkar@dcse.fee.vutbr.cz Ruslan Belkin rus@home2.UA.net Ruslan Shevchenko rssh@cam.grad.kiev.ua Russell L. Carter rcarter@pinyon.org Russell Vincent rv@groa.uct.ac.za Ryan Younce ryany@pobox.com Sakai Hiroaki sakai@miya.ee.kagu.sut.ac.jp Sakari Jalovaara sja@tekla.fi Sam Hartman hartmans@mit.edu Samuel Lam skl@ScalableNetwork.com Samuele Zannoli zannoli@cs.unibo.it Sander Janssen janssen@rendo.dekooi.nl Sander Vesik sander@haldjas.folklore.ee Sandro Sigala ssigala@globalnet.it SANETO Takanori sanewo@strg.sony.co.jp SASAKI Shunsuke ele@pop17.odn.ne.jp Sascha Blank blank@fox.uni-trier.de Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Satoh Junichi junichi@astec.co.jp SAWADA Mizuki miz@qb3.so-net.ne.jp Scot Elliott scot@poptart.org Scot W. Hetzel hetzels@westbend.net Scott A. Kenney saken@rmta.ml.org Scott Blachowicz scott.blachowicz@seaslug.org Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Hazen Mueller scott@zorch.sf-bay.org Scott Michel scottm@cs.ucla.edu Scott Mitchel scott@uk.FreeBSD.org Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sebastian Strollo seb@erix.ericsson.se Serge A. Babkin babkin@hq.icb.chel.su Serge V. Vakulenko vak@zebub.msk.su Sergei Chechetkin csl@whale.sunbay.crimea.ua Sergei S. Laskavy laskavy@pc759.cs.msu.su Sergey Gershtein sg@mplik.ru Sergey Kosyakov ks@itp.ac.ru Sergey Potapov sp@alkor.ru Sergey Shkonda serg@bcs.zp.ua Sergey V.Dorokhov svd@kbtelecom.nalnet.ru Sergio Lenzi lenzi@bsi.com.br Shaun Courtney shaun@emma.eng.uct.ac.za Shawn M. Carey smcarey@mailbox.syr.edu Shigio Yamaguchi shigio@tamacom.com Shinya Esu esu@yk.rim.or.jp Shuichi Tanaka stanaka@bb.mbn.or.jp Shunsuke Akiyama akiyama@jp.FreeBSD.org Simon simon@masi.ibp.fr Simon Burge simonb@telstra.com.au Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au Simon Marlow simonm@dcs.gla.ac.uk Simon Shapiro shimon@simon-shapiro.org Sin'ichiro MIYATANI siu@phaseone.co.jp Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de Soochon Radee slr@mitre.org Soren Dayton csdayton@midway.uchicago.edu Soren Dossing sauber@netcom.com Soren S. Jorvang soren@dt.dk Stefan Bethke stb@hanse.de Stefan Eggers seggers@semyam.dinoco.de Stefan Moeding s.moeding@ndh.net Stefan Petri unknown Stefan `Sec` Zehl sec@42.org Steinar Haug sthaug@nethelp.no Stephane E. Potvin sepotvin@videotron.ca Stephane Legrand stephane@lituus.fr Stephen Clawson sclawson@marker.cs.utah.edu Stephen F. Combs combssf@salem.ge.com Stephen Farrell stephen@farrell.org Stephen Hocking sysseh@devetir.qld.gov.au Stephen J. Roznowski sjr@home.net Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Stephen Melvin melvin@zytek.com Steve Bauer sbauer@rock.sdsmt.edu Steve Coltrin spcoltri@unm.edu Steve Deering unknown Steve Gerakines steve2@genesis.tiac.net Steve Gericke steveg@comtrol.com Steve Piette steve@simon.chi.il.US Steve Schwarz schwarz@alpharel.com Steven G. Kargl kargl@troutmask.apl.washington.edu Steven H. Samorodin samorodi@NUXI.com Steven McCanne mccanne@cs.berkeley.edu Steven Plite splite@purdue.edu Steven Wallace unknown Stuart Henderson stuart@internationalschool.co.uk Sue Blake sue@welearn.com.au Sugimoto Sadahiro ixtl@komaba.utmc.or.jp SUGIMURA Takashi sugimura@jp.FreeBSD.org Sugiura Shiro ssugiura@duo.co.jp Sujal Patel smpatel@wam.umd.edu Sune Stjerneby stjerneby@usa.net SURANYI Peter suranyip@jks.is.tsukuba.ac.jp Suzuki Yoshiaki zensyo@ann.tama.kawasaki.jp Tadashi Kumano kumano@strl.nhk.or.jp Taguchi Takeshi taguchi@tohoku.iij.ad.jp Takahiro Yugawa yugawa@orleans.rim.or.jp Takanori Watanabe takawata@shidahara1.planet.sci.kobe-u.ac.jp Takashi Mega mega@minz.org Takashi Uozu j1594016@ed.kagu.sut.ac.jp Takayuki Ariga a00821@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Takeru NAIKI naiki@bfd.es.hokudai.ac.jp Takeshi Amaike amaike@iri.co.jp Takeshi MUTOH mutoh@info.nara-k.ac.jp Takeshi Ohashi ohashi@mickey.ai.kyutech.ac.jp Takeshi WATANABE watanabe@crayon.earth.s.kobe-u.ac.jp Takuya SHIOZAKI tshiozak@makino.ise.chuo-u.ac.jp Tatoku Ogaito tacha@tera.fukui-med.ac.jp Ted Buswell tbuswell@mediaone.net Ted Faber faber@isi.edu Ted Lemon mellon@isc.org Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tetsuya Furukawa tetsuya@secom-sis.co.jp Theo de Raadt deraadt@OpenBSD.org Thomas thomas@mathematik.uni-Bremen.de Thomas D. Dean tomdean@ix.netcom.com Thomas David Rivers rivers@dignus.com Thomas G. McWilliams tgm@netcom.com Thomas Graichen graichen@omega.physik.fu-berlin.de Thomas König Thomas.Koenig@ciw.uni-karlsruhe.de Thomas Ptacek unknown Thomas A. Stephens tas@stephens.org Thomas Stromberg tstrombe@rtci.com Thomas Valentino Crimi tcrimi+@andrew.cmu.edu Thomas Wintergerst thomas@lemur.nord.de Þórður Ívarsson totii@est.is Timothy Jensen toast@blackened.com Tim Kientzle kientzle@netcom.com Tim Singletary tsingle@sunland.gsfc.nasa.gov Tim Wilkinson tim@sarc.city.ac.uk Timo J. Rinne tri@iki.fi Todd Miller millert@openbsd.org Tom root@majestix.cmr.no Tom tom@sdf.com Tom Gray - DCA dcasba@rain.org Tom Jobbins tom@tom.tj Tom Pusateri pusateri@juniper.net Tom Rush tarush@mindspring.com Tom Samplonius tom@misery.sdf.com Tomohiko Kurahashi kura@melchior.q.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Tony Kimball alk@Think.COM Tony Li tli@jnx.com Tony Lynn wing@cc.nsysu.edu.tw Tony Maher Tony.Maher@eBioinformatics.com Torbjorn Granlund tege@matematik.su.se Toshihiko ARAI toshi@tenchi.ne.jp Toshihiko SHIMOKAWA toshi@tea.forus.or.jp Toshihiro Kanda candy@kgc.co.jp Toshiomi Moriki Toshiomi.Moriki@ma1.seikyou.ne.jp Trefor S. trefor@flevel.co.uk Trevor Blackwell tlb@viaweb.com Trevor Johnson trevor@jpj.net Udo Schweigert ust@cert.siemens.de Ugo Paternostro paterno@dsi.unifi.it Ulf Kieber kieber@sax.de Ulli Linzen ulli@perceval.camelot.de URATA Shuichiro s-urata@nmit.tmg.nec.co.jp Ustimenko Semen semen@iclub.nsu.ru Uwe Arndt arndt@mailhost.uni-koblenz.de Vadim Chekan vadim@gc.lviv.ua Vadim Kolontsov vadim@tversu.ac.ru Vadim Mikhailov mvp@braz.ru Valentin Nechayev netch@lucky.net Van Jacobson van@ee.lbl.gov Vasily V. Grechishnikov bazilio@ns1.ied-vorstu.ac.ru Vasim Valejev vasim@uddias.diaspro.com Vernon J. Schryver vjs@mica.denver.sgi.com Vic Abell abe@cc.purdue.edu Ville Eerola ve@sci.fi Vince Valenti vince@blue-box.net Vincent Poy vince@venus.gaianet.net Vincenzo Capuano VCAPUANO@vmprofs.esoc.esa.de Virgil Champlin champlin@pa.dec.com Vladimir A. Jakovenko vovik@ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Vladimir Kushnir kushn@mail.kar.net Vsevolod Lobko seva@alex-ua.com W. Gerald Hicks wghicks@bellsouth.net W. Richard Stevens rstevens@noao.edu Walt Howard howard@ee.utah.edu Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wayne Scott wscott@ichips.intel.com Werner Griessl werner@btp1da.phy.uni-bayreuth.de Wes Santee wsantee@wsantee.oz.net Wietse Venema wietse@wzv.win.tue.nl Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de Willem Jan Withagen wjw@surf.IAE.nl William Jolitz withheld William Liao william@tale.net Wojtek Pilorz wpilorz@celebris.bdk.lublin.pl Wolfgang Helbig helbig@ba-stuttgart.de Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@FreeBSD.org Wu Ching-hong woju@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW Yarema yds@ingress.com Yaroslav Terletsky ts@polynet.lviv.ua Yasuhiro Fukama yasuf@big.or.jp Yasuhito FUTATSUKI futatuki@fureai.or.jp Yen-Ming Lee leeym@bsd.ce.ntu.edu.tw Yen-Shuo Su yssu@CCCA.NCTU.edu.tw Yin-Jieh Chen yinjieh@Crazyman.Dorm13.NCTU.edu.tw Ying-Chieh Liao ijliao@csie.NCTU.edu.tw Yixin Jin yjin@rain.cs.ucla.edu Yoichi Asai yatt@msc.biglobe.ne.jp Yoshiaki Uchikawa yoshiaki@kt.rim.or.jp Yoshihiko OHTA yohta@bres.tsukuba.ac.jp Yoshihisa NAKAGAWA y-nakaga@ccs.mt.nec.co.jp Yoshikazu Goto gotoh@ae.anritsu.co.jp Yoshimasa Ohnishi ohnishi@isc.kyutech.ac.jp Yoshishige Arai ryo2@on.rim.or.jp Yuichi MATSUTAKA matutaka@osa.att.ne.jp Yujiro MIYATA miyata@bioele.nuee.nagoya-u.ac.jp Yu-Shun Wang yushunwa@isi.edu Yusuke Nawano azuki@azkey.org Yuu Yashiki s974123@cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp Yuuichi Narahara aconitum@po.teleway.ne.jp Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il Yves Fonk yves@cpcoup5.tn.tudelft.nl Yves Fonk yves@dutncp8.tn.tudelft.nl Zach Heilig zach@gaffaneys.com Zach Zurflu zach@pabst.bendnet.com Zahemszhky Gabor zgabor@code.hu Zhong Ming-Xun zmx@mail.CDPA.nsysu.edu.tw 386BSD Patch Kit Patch Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adrian Hall adrian@ibmpcug.co.uk Andrey A. Chernov ache@astral.msk.su Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew Moore alm@netcom.com Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com jtk@netcom.com Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Branko Lankester Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Chris G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Rivers rivers@ponds.uucp David Dawes dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU David Greenman dg@Root.COM Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Felix Gaehtgens felix@escape.vsse.in-berlin.de Frank Maclachlan fpm@crash.cts.com Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Guido van Rooij guido@gvr.org Guy Harris guy@auspex.com Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@novatel.cuc.ab.ca Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Ishii Masahiro, R. Kym Horsell J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James W. Dolter James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu et al Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jörg Lohse lohse@tech7.informatik.uni-hamburg.de Jörg Wunsch joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de John Dyson John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Jordan K. Hubbard jkh@whisker.hubbard.ie Julian Elischer julian@dialix.oz.au Julian Stacey jhs@FreeBSD.org Karl Dietz Karl.Dietz@triplan.com Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com karl@one.neosoft.com Keith Bostic bostic@toe.CS.Berkeley.EDU Ken Hughes Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kevin Lahey kml%rokkaku.UUCP@mathcs.emory.edu kml@mosquito.cis.ufl.edu Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Nate Williams nate@bsd.coe.montana.edu Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com nick@madhouse.neosoft.com Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paul Kranenburg pk@cs.few.eur.nl Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Peter da Silva peter@NeoSoft.com Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Poul-Henning Kampphk@FreeBSD.org Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Rick Macklem root@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Rod Taylor rod@idiotswitch.org Rodney W. Grimes rgrimes@cdrom.com Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sean Eric Fagan sef@kithrup.com Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au sjg@zen.void.oz.au Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Terry Lambert terry@icarus.weber.edu Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tor Egge Tor.Egge@idi.ntnu.no Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de William Jolitz withheld Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@dentaro.GUN.de Yuuki SAWADA mami@whale.cc.muroran-it.ac.jp Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml index f80715b6da..c7bb721c09 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml @@ -1,597 +1,597 @@ Kernel Debugging Contributed by &a.paul; and &a.joerg; Debugging a Kernel Crash Dump with <command>kgdb</command> Here are some instructions for getting kernel debugging working on a crash dump. They assume that you have enough swap space for a crash dump. If you have multiple swap partitions and the first one is too small to hold the dump, you can configure your kernel to use an alternate dump device (in the config kernel line), or you can specify an alternate using the &man.dumpon.8; command. The best way to use &man.dumpon.8; is to set the dumpdev variable in /etc/rc.conf. Typically you want to specify one of the swap devices specified in /etc/fstab. Dumps to non-swap devices, tapes for example, are currently not supported. Config your kernel using config -g. See Kernel Configuration for details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel. Use the &man.dumpon.8; command to tell the kernel where to dump to (note that this will have to be done after configuring the partition in question as swap space via &man.swapon.8;). This is normally arranged via /etc/rc.conf and /etc/rc. Alternatively, you can hard-code the dump device via the dump clause in the config line of your kernel config file. This is deprecated and should be used only if you want a crash dump from a kernel that crashes during booting. In the following, the term kgdb refers to - gdb run in “kernel debug mode”. This + gdb run in kernel debug mode. This can be accomplished by either starting the gdb with the option , or by linking and starting it under the name kgdb. This is not being done by default, however, and the idea is basically deprecated since the GNU folks do not like their tools to behave differently when called by another name. This feature may well be discontinued in further releases. When the kernel has been built make a copy of it, say kernel.debug, and then run strip -g on the original. Install the original as normal. You may also install the unstripped kernel, but symbol table lookup time for some programs will drastically increase, and since the whole kernel is loaded entirely at boot time and cannot be swapped out later, several megabytes of physical memory will be wasted. If you are testing a new kernel, for example by typing the new kernel's name at the boot prompt, but need to boot a different one in order to get your system up and running again, boot it only into single user state using the flag at the boot prompt, and then perform the following steps: &prompt.root; fsck -p &prompt.root; mount -a -t ufs # so your file system for /var/crash is writable &prompt.root; savecore -N /kernel.panicked /var/crash &prompt.root; exit # ...to multi-user This instructs &man.savecore.8; to use another kernel for symbol name extraction. It would otherwise default to the currently running kernel and most likely not do anything at all since the crash dump and the kernel symbols differ. Now, after a crash dump, go to /sys/compile/WHATEVER and run kgdb. From kgdb do: symbol-file kernel.debug exec-file /var/crash/kernel.0 core-file /var/crash/vmcore.0 and voila, you can debug the crash dump using the kernel sources just like you can for any other program. Here is a script log of a kgdb session illustrating the procedure. Long lines have been folded to improve readability, and the lines are numbered for reference. Despite this, it is a real-world error trace taken during the development of the pcvt console driver. 1:Script started on Fri Dec 30 23:15:22 1994 2:&prompt.root; cd /sys/compile/URIAH 3:&prompt.root; kgdb kernel /var/crash/vmcore.1 4:Reading symbol data from /usr/src/sys/compile/URIAH/kernel ...done. 5:IdlePTD 1f3000 6:panic: because you said to! 7:current pcb at 1e3f70 8:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/machdep.c...done. 9:(kgdb) where 10:#0 boot (arghowto=256) (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 767) 11:#1 0xf0115159 in panic () 12:#2 0xf01955bd in diediedie () (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 698) 13:#3 0xf010185e in db_fncall () 14:#4 0xf0101586 in db_command (-266509132, -266509516, -267381073) 15:#5 0xf0101711 in db_command_loop () 16:#6 0xf01040a0 in db_trap () 17:#7 0xf0192976 in kdb_trap (12, 0, -272630436, -266743723) 18:#8 0xf019d2eb in trap_fatal (...) 19:#9 0xf019ce60 in trap_pfault (...) 20:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (...) 21:#11 0xf01932a1 in exception:calltrap () 22:#12 0xf0191503 in cnopen (...) 23:#13 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 24:#14 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 25:#15 0xf012a183 in open () 26:#16 0xf019d4eb in syscall (...) 27:(kgdb) up 10 28:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/trap.c...done. 29:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (frame={tf_es = -260440048, tf_ds = 16, tf_\ 30:edi = 3072, tf_esi = -266445372, tf_ebp = -272630356, tf_isp = -27\ 31:2630396, tf_ebx = -266427884, tf_edx = 12, tf_ecx = -266427884, tf\ 32:_eax = 64772224, tf_trapno = 12, tf_err = -272695296, tf_eip = -26\ 33:6672343, tf_cs = -266469368, tf_eflags = 66066, tf_esp = 3072, tf_\ 34:ss = -266427884}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 283) 35:283 (void) trap_pfault(&frame, FALSE); 36:(kgdb) frame frame->tf_ebp frame->tf_eip 37:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c...done. 38:#0 0xf01ae729 in pcopen (dev=3072, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(struct p\ 39:roc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c line 403) 40:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 41:(kgdb) list 42:398 43:399 tp->t_state |= TS_CARR_ON; 44:400 tp->t_cflag |= CLOCAL; /* cannot be a modem (:-) */ 45:401 46:402 #if PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) 47:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 48:404 #else 49:405 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp, flag)); 50:406 #endif /* PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) */ 51:407 } 52:(kgdb) print tp 53:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/cons.c...done. 54:$1 = (struct tty *) 0x1bae 55:(kgdb) print tp->t_line 56:$2 = 1767990816 57:(kgdb) up 58:#1 0xf0191503 in cnopen (dev=0x00000000, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(st\ 59:ruct proc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/i386/cons.c line 126) 60: return ((*cdevsw[major(dev)].d_open)(dev, flag, mode, p)); 61:(kgdb) up 62:#2 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 63:(kgdb) up 64:#3 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 65:(kgdb) up 66:#4 0xf012a183 in open () 67:(kgdb) up 68:#5 0xf019d4eb in syscall (frame={tf_es = 39, tf_ds = 39, tf_edi =\ 69: 2158592, tf_esi = 0, tf_ebp = -272638436, tf_isp = -272629788, tf\ 70:_ebx = 7086, tf_edx = 1, tf_ecx = 0, tf_eax = 5, tf_trapno = 582, \ 71:tf_err = 582, tf_eip = 75749, tf_cs = 31, tf_eflags = 582, tf_esp \ 72:= -272638456, tf_ss = 39}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 673) 73:673 error = (*callp->sy_call)(p, args, rval); 74:(kgdb) up 75:Initial frame selected; you cannot go up. 76:(kgdb) quit 77:&prompt.root; exit 78:exit 79: 80:Script done on Fri Dec 30 23:18:04 1994 Comments to the above script: line 6: This is a dump taken from within DDB (see below), hence the - panic comment “because you said to!”, and a rather + panic comment because you said to!, and a rather long stack trace; the initial reason for going into DDB has been a page fault trap though. line 20: This is the location of function trap() in the stack trace. line 36: Force usage of a new stack frame; this is no longer necessary now. The stack frames are supposed to point to the right locations now, even in case of a trap. (I do not have a new core dump handy <g>, my kernel has not panicked for a rather long time.) From looking at the code in source line 403, there is a high probability that either the pointer access for - “tp” was messed up, or the array access was out of + tp was messed up, or the array access was out of bounds. line 52: The pointer looks suspicious, but happens to be a valid address. line 56: However, it obviously points to garbage, so we have found our error! (For those unfamiliar with that particular piece of code: tp->t_line refers to the line discipline of the console device here, which must be a rather small integer number.) Debugging a Crash Dump with DDD Examining a kernel crash dump with a graphical debugger like ddd is also possible. Add the option to the ddd command line you would use normally. For example; &prompt.root; ddd -k /var/crash/kernel.0 /var/crash/vmcore.0 You should then be able to go about looking at the crash dump using ddd's graphical interface. Post-Mortem Analysis of a Dump What do you do if a kernel dumped core but you did not expect it, and it is therefore not compiled using config -g? Not everything is lost here. Do not panic! Of course, you still need to enable crash dumps. See above on the options you have to specify in order to do this. Go to your kernel config directory (/usr/src/sys/arch/conf) and edit your configuration file. Uncomment (or add, if it does not exist) the following line makeoptions DEBUG=-g #Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols Rebuild the kernel. Due to the time stamp change on the Makefile, there will be some other object files rebuild, for example trap.o. With a bit of luck, the added option will not change anything for the generated code, so you will finally get a new kernel with similar code to the faulting one but some debugging symbols. You should at least verify the old and new sizes with the &man.size.1; command. If there is a mismatch, you probably need to give up here. Go and examine the dump as described above. The debugging symbols might be incomplete for some places, as can be seen in the stack trace in the example above where some functions are displayed without line numbers and argument lists. If you need more debugging symbols, remove the appropriate object files and repeat the kgdb session until you know enough. All this is not guaranteed to work, but it will do it fine in most cases. On-Line Kernel Debugging Using DDB While kgdb as an offline debugger provides a very high level of user interface, there are some things it cannot do. The most important ones being breakpointing and single-stepping kernel code. If you need to do low-level debugging on your kernel, there is an on-line debugger available called DDB. It allows to setting breakpoints, single-stepping kernel functions, examining and changing kernel variables, etc. However, it cannot access kernel source files, and only has access to the global and static symbols, not to the full debug information like kgdb. To configure your kernel to include DDB, add the option line options DDB to your config file, and rebuild. (See Kernel Configuration for details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel. Note that if you have an older version of the boot blocks, your debugger symbols might not be loaded at all. Update the boot blocks; the recent ones load the DDB symbols automagically.) Once your DDB kernel is running, there are several ways to enter DDB. The first, and earliest way is to type the boot flag right at the boot prompt. The kernel will start up in debug mode and enter DDB prior to any device probing. Hence you can even debug the device probe/attach functions. The second scenario is a hot-key on the keyboard, usually Ctrl-Alt-ESC. For syscons, this can be remapped; some of the distributed maps do this, so watch out. There is an option available for serial consoles that allows the use of a serial line BREAK on the console line to enter DDB (options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER in the kernel config file). It is not the default since there are a lot of crappy serial adapters around that gratuitously generate a BREAK condition, for example when pulling the cable. The third way is that any panic condition will branch to DDB if the kernel is configured to use it. For this reason, it is not wise to configure a kernel with DDB for a machine running unattended. The DDB commands roughly resemble some gdb commands. The first thing you probably need to do is to set a breakpoint: b function-name b address Numbers are taken hexadecimal by default, but to make them distinct from symbol names; hexadecimal numbers starting with the letters a-f need to be preceded with 0x (this is optional for other numbers). Simple expressions are allowed, for example: function-name + 0x103. To continue the operation of an interrupted kernel, simply type: c To get a stack trace, use: trace Note that when entering DDB via a hot-key, the kernel is currently servicing an interrupt, so the stack trace might be not of much use for you. If you want to remove a breakpoint, use del del address-expression The first form will be accepted immediately after a breakpoint hit, and deletes the current breakpoint. The second form can remove any breakpoint, but you need to specify the exact address; this can be obtained from: show b To single-step the kernel, try: s This will step into functions, but you can make DDB trace them until the matching return statement is reached by: n This is different from gdb's next statement; it is like gdb's finish. To examine data from memory, use (for example): x/wx 0xf0133fe0,40 x/hd db_symtab_space x/bc termbuf,10 x/s stringbuf for word/halfword/byte access, and hexadecimal/decimal/character/ string display. The number after the comma is the object count. To display the next 0x10 items, simply use: x ,10 Similarly, use x/ia foofunc,10 to disassemble the first 0x10 instructions of foofunc, and display them along with their offset from the beginning of foofunc. To modify memory, use the write command: w/b termbuf 0xa 0xb 0 w/w 0xf0010030 0 0 The command modifier (b/h/w) specifies the size of the data to be written, the first following expression is the address to write to and the remainder is interpreted as data to write to successive memory locations. If you need to know the current registers, use: show reg Alternatively, you can display a single register value by e.g. p $eax and modify it by: set $eax new-value Should you need to call some kernel functions from DDB, simply say: call func(arg1, arg2, ...) The return value will be printed. For a &man.ps.1; style summary of all running processes, use: ps Now you have now examined why your kernel failed, and you wish to reboot. Remember that, depending on the severity of previous malfunctioning, not all parts of the kernel might still be working as expected. Perform one of the following actions to shut down and reboot your system: panic This will cause your kernel to dump core and reboot, so you can later analyze the core on a higher level with kgdb. This command usually must be followed by another continue statement. call boot(0) Which might be a good way to cleanly shut down the running system, sync() all disks, and finally reboot. As long as the disk and file system interfaces of the kernel are not damaged, this might be a good way for an almost clean shutdown. call cpu_reset() is the final way out of disaster and almost the same as hitting the Big Red Button. If you need a short command summary, simply type: help However, it is highly recommended to have a printed copy of the &man.ddb.4; manual page ready for a debugging session. Remember that it is hard to read the on-line manual while single-stepping the kernel. On-Line Kernel Debugging Using Remote GDB This feature has been supported since FreeBSD 2.2, and it is actually a very neat one. GDB has already supported remote debugging for a long time. This is done using a very simple protocol along a serial line. Unlike the other methods described above, you will need two machines for doing this. One is the host providing the debugging environment, including all the sources, and a copy of the kernel binary with all the symbols in it, and the other one is the target machine that simply runs a similar copy of the very same kernel (but stripped of the debugging information). You should configure the kernel in question with config -g, include into the configuration, and compile it as usual. This gives a large blurb of a binary, due to the debugging information. Copy this kernel to the target machine, strip the debugging symbols off with strip -x, and boot it using the boot option. Connect the serial line of the target machine that has "flags 080" set on its sio device to any serial line of the debugging host. Now, on the debugging machine, go to the compile directory of the target kernel, and start gdb: &prompt.user; gdb -k kernel GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details. GDB 4.16 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1996 Free Software Foundation, Inc... (kgdb) Initialize the remote debugging session (assuming the first serial port is being used) by: (kgdb) target remote /dev/cuaa0 Now, on the target host (the one that entered DDB right before even starting the device probe), type: Debugger("Boot flags requested debugger") Stopped at Debugger+0x35: movb $0, edata+0x51bc db> gdb DDB will respond with: Next trap will enter GDB remote protocol mode Every time you type gdb, the mode will be toggled between remote GDB and local DDB. In order to force a next trap immediately, simply type s (step). Your hosting GDB will now gain control over the target kernel: Remote debugging using /dev/cuaa0 Debugger (msg=0xf01b0383 "Boot flags requested debugger") at ../../i386/i386/db_interface.c:257 (kgdb) You can use this session almost as any other GDB session, including full access to the source, running it in gud-mode inside an Emacs window (which gives you an automatic source code display in another Emacs window) etc. Remote GDB can also be used to debug LKMs. First build the LKM with debugging symbols: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lkm/linux &prompt.root; make clean; make COPTS=-g Then install this version of the module on the target machine, load it and use modstat to find out where it was loaded: &prompt.root; linux &prompt.root; modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev Module Name EXEC 0 4 f5109000 001c f510f010 1 linux_mod Take the load address of the module and add 0x20 (probably to account for the a.out header). This is the address that the module code was relocated to. Use the add-symbol-file command in GDB to tell the debugger about the module: (kgdb) add-symbol-file /usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o 0xf5109020 add symbol table from file "/usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o" at text_addr = 0xf5109020? (y or n) y (kgdb) You now have access to all the symbols in the LKM. Debugging a Console Driver Since you need a console driver to run DDB on, things are more complicated if the console driver itself is failing. You might remember the use of a serial console (either with modified boot blocks, or by specifying at the Boot: prompt), and hook up a standard terminal onto your first serial port. DDB works on any configured console driver, of course also on a serial console. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/policies/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/policies/chapter.sgml index 3835571dd6..8e3cb1d5d1 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/policies/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/developers-handbook/policies/chapter.sgml @@ -1,398 +1,398 @@ Source Tree Guidelines and Policies Contributed by &a.phk;. This chapter documents various guidelines and policies in force for the FreeBSD source tree. <makevar>MAINTAINER</makevar> on Makefiles June 1996. If a particular portion of the FreeBSD distribution is being maintained by a person or group of persons, they can communicate this fact to the world by adding a MAINTAINER= email-addresses line to the Makefiles covering this portion of the source tree. The semantics of this are as follows: The maintainer owns and is responsible for that code. This means that he is responsible for fixing bugs and answer problem reports pertaining to that piece of the code, and in the case of contributed software, for tracking new versions, as appropriate. Changes to directories which have a maintainer defined shall be sent to the maintainer for review before being committed. Only if the maintainer does not respond for an unacceptable period of time, to several emails, will it be acceptable to commit changes without review by the maintainer. However, it is suggested that you try and have the changes reviewed by someone else if at all possible. It is of course not acceptable to add a person or group as maintainer unless they agree to assume this duty. On the other hand it doesn't have to be a committer and it can easily be a group of people. Contributed Software Contributed by &a.phk; and &a.obrien;. June 1996. Some parts of the FreeBSD distribution consist of software that is actively being maintained outside the FreeBSD project. For historical reasons, we call this contributed software. Some examples are perl, gcc and patch. Over the last couple of years, various methods have been used in dealing with this type of software and all have some number of advantages and drawbacks. No clear winner has emerged. Since this is the case, after some debate one of these methods has - been selected as the “official” method and will be required + been selected as the official method and will be required for future imports of software of this kind. Furthermore, it is strongly suggested that existing contributed software converge on this model over time, as it has significant advantages over the old method, including the ability to easily obtain diffs relative to the - “official” versions of the source by everyone (even without + official versions of the source by everyone (even without cvs access). This will make it significantly easier to return changes to the primary developers of the contributed software. Ultimately, however, it comes down to the people actually doing the work. If using this model is particularly unsuited to the package being dealt with, exceptions to these rules may be granted only with the approval of the core team and with the general consensus of the other developers. The ability to maintain the package in the future will be a key issue in the decisions. Because of some unfortunate design limitations with the RCS file format and CVS's use of vendor branches, minor, trivial and/or cosmetic changes are strongly discouraged on - files that are still tracking the vendor branch. “Spelling - fixes” are explicitly included here under the - “cosmetic” category and are to be avoided for files with + files that are still tracking the vendor branch. Spelling + fixes are explicitly included here under the + cosmetic category and are to be avoided for files with revision 1.1.x.x. The repository bloat impact from a single character change can be rather dramatic. The Tcl embedded programming language will be used as example of how this model works: src/contrib/tcl contains the source as distributed by the maintainers of this package. Parts that are entirely not applicable for FreeBSD can be removed. In the case of Tcl, the mac, win and compat subdirectories were eliminated before the import src/lib/libtcl contains only a "bmake style" Makefile that uses the standard bsd.lib.mk makefile rules to produce the library and install the documentation. src/usr.bin/tclsh contains only a bmake style Makefile which will produce and install the tclsh program and its associated man-pages using the standard bsd.prog.mk rules. src/tools/tools/tcl_bmake contains a couple of shell-scripts that can be of help when the tcl software needs updating. These are not part of the built or installed software. The important thing here is that the src/contrib/tcl directory is created according to the rules: It is supposed to contain the sources as distributed (on a proper CVS vendor-branch and without RCS keyword expansion) with as few FreeBSD-specific changes as possible. The 'easy-import' tool on freefall will assist in doing the import, but if there are any doubts on how to go about it, it is imperative that you ask first and not blunder - ahead and hope it “works out”. CVS is not forgiving of + ahead and hope it works out. CVS is not forgiving of import accidents and a fair amount of effort is required to back out major mistakes. Because of the previously mentioned design limitations with CVS's - vendor branches, it is required that “official” patches from + vendor branches, it is required that official patches from the vendor be applied to the original distributed sources and the result re-imported onto the vendor branch again. Official patches should never be patched into the FreeBSD checked out version and "committed", as this destroys the vendor branch coherency and makes importing future versions rather difficult as there will be conflicts. Since many packages contain files that are meant for compatibility with other architectures and environments that FreeBSD, it is permissible to remove parts of the distribution tree that are of no interest to FreeBSD in order to save space. Files containing copyright notices and release-note kind of information applicable to the remaining files shall not be removed. If it seems easier, the bmake Makefiles can be produced from the dist tree automatically by some utility, something which would hopefully make it even easier to upgrade to a new version. If this is done, be sure to check in such utilities (as necessary) in the src/tools directory along with the port itself so that it is available to future maintainers. In the src/contrib/tcl level directory, a file called FREEBSD-upgrade should be added and it should states things like: Which files have been left out Where the original distribution was obtained from and/or the official master site. Where to send patches back to the original authors Perhaps an overview of the FreeBSD-specific changes that have been made. However, please do not import FREEBSD-upgrade with the contributed source. Rather you should cvs add FREEBSD-upgrade ; cvs ci after the initial import. Example wording from src/contrib/cpio is below: This directory contains virgin sources of the original distribution files on a "vendor" branch. Do not, under any circumstances, attempt to upgrade the files in this directory via patches and a cvs commit. New versions or official-patch versions must be imported. Please remember to import with "-ko" to prevent CVS from corrupting any vendor RCS Ids. For the import of GNU cpio 2.4.2, the following files were removed: INSTALL cpio.info mkdir.c Makefile.in cpio.texi mkinstalldirs To upgrade to a newer version of cpio, when it is available: 1. Unpack the new version into an empty directory. [Do not make ANY changes to the files.] 2. Remove the files listed above and any others that don't apply to FreeBSD. 3. Use the command: cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU cpio v<version>' \ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_<version> For example, to do the import of version 2.4.2, I typed: cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU v2.4.2' \ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_2_4_2 4. Follow the instructions printed out in step 3 to resolve any conflicts between local FreeBSD changes and the newer version. Do not, under any circumstances, deviate from this procedure. To make local changes to cpio, simply patch and commit to the main branch (aka HEAD). Never make local changes on the GNU branch. All local changes should be submitted to "cpio@gnu.ai.mit.edu" for inclusion in the next vendor release. obrien@FreeBSD.org - 30 March 1997 Encumbered files It might occasionally be necessary to include an encumbered file in the FreeBSD source tree. For example, if a device requires a small piece of binary code to be loaded to it before the device will operate, and we do not have the source to that code, then the binary file is said to be encumbered. The following policies apply to including encumbered files in the FreeBSD source tree. Any file which is interpreted or executed by the system CPU(s) and not in source format is encumbered. Any file with a license more restrictive than BSD or GNU is encumbered. A file which contains downloadable binary data for use by the hardware is not encumbered, unless (1) or (2) apply to it. It must be stored in an architecture neutral ASCII format (file2c or uuencoding is recommended). Any encumbered file requires specific approval from the Core team before it is added to the CVS repository. Encumbered files go in src/contrib or src/sys/contrib. The entire module should be kept together. There is no point in splitting it, unless there is code-sharing with non-encumbered code. Object files are named arch/filename.o.uu>. Kernel files; Should always be referenced in conf/files.* (for build simplicity). Should always be in LINT, but the Core team decides per case if it should be commented out or not. The Core team can, of course, change their minds later on. The Release Engineer decides whether or not it goes in to the release. User-land files; The Core team decides if the code should be part of make world. The Release Engineer decides if it goes in to the release. Shared Libraries Contributed by &a.asami;, &a.peter;, and &a.obrien; 9 December 1996. If you are adding shared library support to a port or other piece of software that doesn't have one, the version numbers should follow these rules. Generally, the resulting numbers will have nothing to do with the release version of the software. The three principles of shared library building are: Start from 1.0 If there is a change that is backwards compatible, bump minor number (note that ELF systems ignore the minor number) If there is an incompatible change, bump major number For instance, added functions and bugfixes result in the minor version number being bumped, while deleted functions, changed function call syntax etc. will force the major version number to change. Stick to version numbers of the form major.minor (x.y). Our a.out dynamic linker does not handle version numbers of the form x.y.z well. Any version number after the y (ie. the third digit) is totally ignored when comparing shared lib version numbers to decide which library to link with. Given two shared - libraries that differ only in the “micro” revision, + libraries that differ only in the micro revision, ld.so will link with the higher one. Ie: if you link with libfoo.so.3.3.3, the linker only records 3.3 in the headers, and will link with anything starting with libfoo.so.3.(anything >= 3).(highest available). ld.so will always use the highest - “minor” revision. Ie: it will use + minor revision. Ie: it will use libc.so.2.2 in preference to libc.so.2.0, even if the program was initially linked with libc.so.2.0. In addition, our ELF dynamic linker does not handle minor version numbers at all. However, one should still specify a major and minor version number as our Makefiles "do the right thing" based on the type of system. For non-port libraries, it is also our policy to change the shared library version number only once between releases. In addition, it is our policy to change the major shared library version number only once between major OS releases. Ie: X.0 to (X+1).0. When you make a change to a system library that requires the version number to be bumped, check the Makefile's commit logs. It is the responsibility of the committer to ensure that the first such change since the release will result in the shared library version number in the Makefile to be updated, and any subsequent changes will not. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml index 438549e67f..2268cea7d6 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1813 +1,1813 @@ Advanced Networking Synopsis The following chapter will cover some of the more frequently used network services on UNIX systems. This, of course, will pertain to configuring said services on your FreeBSD system. Gateways and Routes Contributed by &a.gryphon;. 6 October 1995. For one machine to be able to find another, there must be a mechanism in place to describe how to get from one to the other. This is - called Routing. A “route” is a defined pair of addresses: a - “destination” and a “gateway”. The pair + called Routing. A route is a defined pair of addresses: a + destination and a gateway. The pair indicates that if you are trying to get to this destination, send along through this gateway. There are three types of destinations: - individual hosts, subnets, and “default”. The - “default route” is used if none of the other routes apply. + individual hosts, subnets, and default. The + default route is used if none of the other routes apply. We will talk a little bit more about default routes later on. There are also three types of gateways: individual hosts, interfaces (also called - “links”), and ethernet hardware addresses. + links), and ethernet hardware addresses. An example To illustrate different aspects of routing, we will use the following example which is the output of the command netstat -r: Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire default outside-gw UGSc 37 418 ppp0 localhost localhost UH 0 181 lo0 test0 0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f UHLW 5 63288 ed0 77 10.20.30.255 link#1 UHLW 1 2421 foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 host1 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 3 4601 lo0 host2 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 0 5 lo0 => host2.foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 224 link#1 UC 0 0 The first two lines specify the default route (which we will cover in the next section) and the localhost route. The interface (Netif column) that it specifies to use for localhost is lo0, also known as the loopback device. This says to keep all traffic for this destination internal, rather than sending it out over the LAN, since it will only end up back where it started anyway. The next thing that stands out are the 0:e0:... addresses. These are ethernet hardware addresses. FreeBSD will automatically identify any hosts (test0 in the example) on the local ethernet and add a route for that host, directly to it over the ethernet interface, ed0. There is also a timeout (Expire column) associated with this type of route, which is used if we fail to hear from the host in a specific amount of time. In this case the route will be automatically deleted. These hosts are identified using a mechanism known as RIP (Routing Information Protocol), which figures out routes to local hosts based upon a shortest path determination. FreeBSD will also add subnet routes for the local subnet (10.20.30.255 is the broadcast address for the subnet 10.20.30, and foobar.com is the domain name associated with that subnet). The designation link#1 refers to the first ethernet card in the machine. You will notice no additional interface is specified for those. Both of these groups (local network hosts and local subnets) have their routes automatically configured by a daemon called routed. If this is not run, then only routes which are statically defined (ie. entered explicitly) will exist. The host1 line refers to our host, which it knows by ethernet address. Since we are the sending host, FreeBSD knows to use the loopback interface (lo0) rather than sending it out over the ethernet interface. The two host2 lines are an example of what happens when we use an ifconfig alias (see the section of ethernet for reasons why we would do this). The => symbol after the lo0 interface says that not only are we using the loopback (since this is address also refers to the local host), but specifically it is an alias. Such routes only show up on the host that supports the alias; all other hosts on the local network will simply have a link#1 line for such. The final line (destination subnet 224) deals with MultiCasting, which will be covered in a another section. The other column that we should talk about are the Flags. Each route has different attributes that are described in the column. Below is a short table of some of these flags and their meanings: U Up: The route is active. H Host: The route destination is a single host. G Gateway: Send anything for this destination on to this remote system, which will figure out from there where to send it. S Static: This route was configured manually, not automatically generated by the system. C Clone: Generates a new route based upon this route for machines we connect to. This type of route is normally used for local networks. W WasCloned: Indicated a route that was auto-configured based upon a local area network (Clone) route. L Link: Route involves references to ethernet hardware. Default routes When the local system needs to make a connection to remote host, it checks the routing table to determine if a known path exists. If the remote host falls into a subnet that we know how to reach (Cloned routes), then the system checks to see if it can connect along that interface. If all known paths fail, the system has one last option: the - “default” route. This route is a special type of gateway + default route. This route is a special type of gateway route (usually the only one present in the system), and is always marked with a c in the flags field. For hosts on a local area network, this gateway is set to whatever machine has a direct connection to the outside world (whether via PPP link, or your hardware device attached to a dedicated data line). If you are configuring the default route for a machine which itself is functioning as the gateway to the outside world, then the default route will be the gateway machine at your Internet Service Provider's (ISP) site. Let us look at an example of default routes. This is a common configuration: [Local2] <--ether--> [Local1] <--PPP--> [ISP-Serv] <--ether--> [T1-GW] The hosts Local1 and Local2 are at your site, with the formed being your PPP connection to your ISP's Terminal Server. Your ISP has a local network at their site, which has, among other things, the server where you connect and a hardware device (T1-GW) attached to the ISP's Internet feed. The default routes for each of your machines will be: host default gateway interface Local2 Local1 ethernet Local1 T1-GW PPP - A common question is “Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to + A common question is Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to be the default gateway for Local1, rather than the ISP server it is - connected to?”. + connected to?. Remember, since the PPP interface is using an address on the ISP's local network for your side of the connection, routes for any other machines on the ISP's local network will be automatically generated. Hence, you will already know how to reach the T1-GW machine, so there is no need for the intermediate step of sending traffic to the ISP server. As a final note, it is common to use the address ...1 as the gateway address for your local network. So (using the same example), if your local class-C address space was 10.20.30 and your ISP was using 10.9.9 then the default routes would be: Local2 (10.20.30.2) --> Local1 (10.20.30.1) Local1 (10.20.30.1, 10.9.9.30) --> T1-GW (10.9.9.1) Dual homed hosts There is one other type of configuration that we should cover, and that is a host that sits on two different networks. Technically, any machine functioning as a gateway (in the example above, using a PPP connection) counts as a dual-homed host. But the term is really only used to refer to a machine that sits on two local-area networks. In one case, the machine as two ethernet cards, each having an address on the separate subnets. Alternately, the machine may only have one ethernet card, and be using ifconfig aliasing. The former is used if two physically separate ethernet networks are in use, the latter if there is one physical network segment, but two logically separate subnets. Either way, routing tables are set up so that each subnet knows that this machine is the defined gateway (inbound route) to the other subnet. This configuration, with the machine acting as a Bridge between the two subnets, is often used when we need to implement packet filtering or firewall security in either or both directions. Routing propagation We have already talked about how we define our routes to the outside world, but not about how the outside world finds us. We already know that routing tables can be set up so that all traffic for a particular address space (in our examples, a class-C subnet) can be sent to a particular host on that network, which will forward the packets inbound. When you get an address space assigned to your site, your service provider will set up their routing tables so that all traffic for your subnet will be sent down your PPP link to your site. But how do sites across the country know to send to your ISP? There is a system (much like the distributed DNS information) that keeps track of all assigned address-spaces, and defines their point of - connection to the Internet Backbone. The “Backbone” are + connection to the Internet Backbone. The Backbone are the main trunk lines that carry Internet traffic across the country, and around the world. Each backbone machine has a copy of a master set of tables, which direct traffic for a particular network to a specific backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service providers until it reaches your network. It is the task of your service provider to advertise to the backbone sites that they are the point of connection (and thus the path inward) for your site. This is known as route propagation. Troubleshooting Sometimes, there is a problem with routing propagation, and some sites are unable to connect to you. Perhaps the most useful command for trying to figure out where a routing is breaking down is the &man.traceroute.8; command. It is equally useful if you cannot seem to make a connection to a remote machine (i.e. &man.ping.8; fails). The &man.traceroute.8; command is run with the name of the remote host you are trying to connect to. It will show the gateway hosts along the path of the attempt, eventually either reaching the target host, or terminating because of a lack of connection. For more information, see the manual page for &man.traceroute.8;. NFS Written by &a.unfurl;, 4 March 2000. Among the many different file systems that FreeBSD supports is a very unique type, the Network File System or NFS. NFS allows you to share directories and files on one machine with one or more other machines via the network they are attached to. Using NFS, users and programs can access files on remote systems as if they were local files. NFS has several benefits: Local workstations dont need as much disk space because commonly used data can be stored on a single machine and still remain accessible to everyone on the network. There is no need for users to have unique home directories on every machine on your network. Once they have an established directory that is available via NFS it can be accessed from anywhere. Storage devices such as floppies and CD-ROM drives can be used by other machines on the network eliminating the need for extra hardware. How It Works NFS is composed of two sides – a client side and a server side. Think of it as a want/have relationship. The client wants the data that the server side has. The server shares its data with the client. In order for this system to function properly a few processes have to be configured and running properly. The server has to be running the following daemons: nfsd - The NFS Daemon which services requests from NFS clients. mountd - The NFS Mount Daemon which actually carries out requests that nfsd passes on to it. The client side only needs to run a single daemon: nfsiod - The NFS async I/O Daemon which services requests from its NFS server. Configuring NFS Luckily for us, on a FreeBSD system this setup is a snap. The processes that need to be running can all be run at boot time with a few modificationss to your /etc/rc.conf file. On the NFS server make sure you have: nfs_server_enable="YES" nfs_server_flags="-u -t -n 4" mountd_flags="-r" mountd is automatically run whenever the NFS server is enabled. The and flags to nfsd tell it to serve UDP and TCP clients. The flag tells nfsd to start 4 copies of itself. On the client, make sure you have: nfs_client_enable="YES" nfs_client_flags="-n 4" Like nfsd, the tells nfsiod to start 4 copies of itself. The last configuration step requires that you create a file called /etc/exports. The exports file specifies which file systems on your server will be shared - (a.k.a., “exported”) and with what clients they will + (a.k.a., exported) and with what clients they will be shared. Each line in the file specifies a file system to be shared. There are a handful of options that can be used in this file but I will only touch on a few of them. You can find out about the rest in the &man.exports.5; man page. Here are a few example /etc/exports entries: The following line exports /cdrom to three silly machines that have the same domain name as the server (hence the lack of a domain name for each) or have entries in your /etc/hosts file. The flag makes the shared file system read-only. With this flag, the remote system will not be able to make any changes to the the shared file system. /cdrom -ro moe larry curly The following line exports /home to three hosts by IP address. This is a useful setup if you have a private network but do not have DNS running. The flag allows all the directories below the specified file system to be exported as well. /home -alldirs 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.4 The following line exports /a to two machines that have different domain names than the server. The flag allows the root user on the remote system to write to the shared file system as root. Without the -maproot=0 flag even if someone has root access on the remote system they won't be able to modify files on the shared file system. /a -maproot=0 host.domain.com box.example.com In order for a client to share an exported file system it must have permission to do so. Make sure your client is listed in your /etc/exports file. Now that you have made all these changes you can just reboot and let FreeBSD start everything for you at boot time or you can run the following commands as root: On the NFS server: &prompt.root; nfsd -u -t -n 4 &prompt.root; mountd -r On the NFS client: &prompt.root; nfsiod -n 4 Now you should be ready to actually mount a remote file system. This can be done one of two ways. In these examples the server's name will be server and the client's name will be client. If you just want to temporarily mount a remote file system or just want to test out your config you can run a command like this as root on the client: &prompt.root; mount server:/home /mnt This will mount /home on the server on /mnt on the client. If everything is setup correctly you should be able to go into /mnt on the client and see all the files that are on the server. If you want to permanently (each time you reboot) mount a remote file system you need to add it to your /etc/fstab file. Here is an example line: server:/home /mnt nfs rw 0 0 Read the &man.fstab.5; man page for more options. Practical Uses There are many very cool uses for NFS. I use it quite a bit on the LAN I admin. Here are a few ways I have found it to be useful. I have several machines on my network but only one of them has a CD-ROM drive. Why? Because I have that one CD-ROM drive shared with all the others via NFS. The same can be done with floppy drives. With so many machines on the network it gets old having your personal files strewn all over the place. I have a central NFS server that houses all user home directories and shares them with the rest of the machines on the LAN, so no matter where I login I have the same home directory. When you get to reinstalling FreeBSD on one of your machines, NFS is the way to go. Just pop your distribution CD into your file server and away you go. I have a common /usr/ports/distfiles directory that all my machines share. That way when I go to install a port that I already installed on a different machine I do not have to download the source all over again. Problems integrating with other systems Contributed by &a.jlind;. Certain Ethernet adapters for ISA PC systems have limitations which can lead to serious network problems, particularly with NFS. This difficulty is not specific to FreeBSD, but FreeBSD systems are affected by it. The problem nearly always occurs when (FreeBSD) PC systems are networked with high-performance workstations, such as those made by Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Sun Microsystems, Inc. The NFS mount will work fine, and some operations may succeed, but suddenly the server will seem to become unresponsive to the client, even though requests to and from other systems continue to be processed. This happens to the client system, whether the client is the FreeBSD system or the workstation. On many systems, there is no way to shut down the client gracefully once this problem has manifested itself. The only solution is often to reset the client, because the NFS situation cannot be resolved. - Though the “correct” solution is to get a higher + Though the correct solution is to get a higher performance and capacity Ethernet adapter for the FreeBSD system, there is a simple workaround that will allow satisfactory operation. If the FreeBSD system is the server, include the option on the mount from the client. If the FreeBSD system is the client, then mount the NFS file system with the option . These options may be specified using the fourth field of the fstab entry on the client for automatic mounts, or by using the parameter of the mount command for manual mounts. It should be noted that there is a different problem, sometimes mistaken for this one, when the NFS servers and clients are on different networks. If that is the case, make certain that your routers are routing the necessary UDP information, or you will not get anywhere, no matter what else you are doing. In the following examples, fastws is the host (interface) name of a high-performance workstation, and freebox is the host (interface) name of a FreeBSD system with a lower-performance Ethernet adapter. Also, /sharedfs will be the exported NFS filesystem (see man exports), and /project will be the mount point on the client for the exported file system. In all cases, note that additional options, such as or and may be desirable in your application. Examples for the FreeBSD system (freebox) as the client: in /etc/fstab on freebox: fastws:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-r=1024 0 0 As a manual mount command on freebox: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -r=1024 fastws:/sharedfs /project Examples for the FreeBSD system as the server: in /etc/fstab on fastws: freebox:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-w=1024 0 0 As a manual mount command on fastws: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -w=1024 freebox:/sharedfs /project Nearly any 16-bit Ethernet adapter will allow operation without the above restrictions on the read or write size. For anyone who cares, here is what happens when the failure occurs, which also explains why it is unrecoverable. NFS - typically works with a “block” size of 8k (though it + typically works with a block size of 8k (though it may do fragments of smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet - packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS “block” gets + packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS block gets split into multiple Ethernet packets, even though it is still a single unit to the upper-level code, and must be received, assembled, and acknowledged as a unit. The high-performance workstations can pump out the packets which comprise the NFS unit one right after the other, just as close together as the standard allows. On the smaller, lower capacity cards, the later packets overrun the earlier packets of the same unit before they can be transferred to the host and the unit as a whole cannot be reconstructed or acknowledged. As a result, the workstation will time out and try again, but it will try again with the entire 8K unit, and the process will be repeated, ad infinitum. By keeping the unit size below the Ethernet packet size limitation, we ensure that any complete Ethernet packet received can be acknowledged individually, avoiding the deadlock situation. Overruns may still occur when a high-performance workstations is slamming data out to a PC system, but with the better cards, - such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS “units”. When + such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS units. When an overrun occurs, the units affected will be retransmitted, and there will be a fair chance that they will be received, assembled, and acknowledged. Diskless Operation Contributed by &a.martin;. netboot.com/netboot.rom allow you to boot your FreeBSD machine over the network and run FreeBSD without having a disk on your client. Under 2.0 it is now possible to have local swap. Swapping over NFS is also still supported. Supported Ethernet cards include: Western Digital/SMC 8003, 8013, 8216 and compatibles; NE1000/NE2000 and compatibles (requires recompile) Setup Instructions Find a machine that will be your server. This machine will require enough disk space to hold the FreeBSD 2.0 binaries and have bootp, tftp and NFS services available. Tested machines: HP9000/8xx running HP-UX 9.04 or later (pre 9.04 doesn't work) Sun/Solaris 2.3. (you may need to get bootp) Set up a bootp server to provide the client with IP, gateway, netmask. diskless:\ :ht=ether:\ :ha=0000c01f848a:\ :sm=255.255.255.0:\ :hn:\ :ds=192.1.2.3:\ :ip=192.1.2.4:\ :gw=192.1.2.5:\ :vm=rfc1048: Set up a TFTP server (on same machine as bootp server) to provide booting information to client. The name of this file is cfg.X.X.X.X (or /tftpboot/cfg.X.X.X.X, it will try both) where X.X.X.X is the IP address of the client. The contents of this file can be any valid netboot commands. Under 2.0, netboot has the following commands: help print help list ip print/set client's IP address server print/set bootp/tftp server address netmask print/set netmask hostname name print/set hostname kernel print/set kernel name rootfs print/set root filesystem swapfs print/set swap filesystem swapsize set diskless swapsize in Kbytes diskboot boot from disk autoboot continue boot process trans | turn transceiver on|off flags set boot flags A typical completely diskless cfg file might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient swapfs 192.1.2.3:/swapfs swapsize 20000 hostname myclient.mydomain A cfg file for a machine with local swap might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient hostname myclient.mydomain Ensure that your NFS server has exported the root (and swap if applicable) filesystems to your client, and that the client has root access to these filesystems A typical /etc/exports file on FreeBSD might look like: /rootfs/myclient -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain /swapfs -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain And on HP-UX: /rootfs/myclient -root=myclient.mydomain /swapfs -root=myclient.mydomain If you are swapping over NFS (completely diskless configuration) create a swap file for your client using dd. If your swapfs command has the arguments /swapfs and the size 20000 as in the example above, the swapfile for myclient will be called /swapfs/swap.X.X.X.X where X.X.X.X is the client's IP addr, eg: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 bs=1k count=20000 Also, the client's swap space might contain sensitive information once swapping starts, so make sure to restrict read and write access to this file to prevent unauthorized access: &prompt.root; chmod 0600 /swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 Unpack the root filesystem in the directory the client will use for its root filesystem (/rootfs/myclient in the example above). On HP-UX systems: The server should be running HP-UX 9.04 or later for HP9000/800 series machines. Prior versions do not allow the creation of device files over NFS. When extracting /dev in /rootfs/myclient, beware that some systems (HPUX) will not create device files that FreeBSD is happy with. You may have to go to single user mode on the first bootup (press control-c during the bootup phase), cd /dev and do a sh ./MAKEDEV all from the client to fix this. Run netboot.com on the client or make an EPROM from the netboot.rom file Using Shared <filename>/</filename> and <filename>/usr</filename> filesystems At present there isn't an officially sanctioned way of doing this, although I have been using a shared /usr filesystem and individual / filesystems for each client. If anyone has any suggestions on how to do this cleanly, please let me and/or the &a.core; know. Compiling netboot for specific setups Netboot can be compiled to support NE1000/2000 cards by changing the configuration in /sys/i386/boot/netboot/Makefile. See the comments at the top of this file. ISDN Last modified by &a.wlloyd;. A good resource for information on ISDN technology and hardware is Dan Kegel's ISDN Page. A quick simple roadmap to ISDN follows: If you live in Europe I suggest you investigate the ISDN card section. If you are planning to use ISDN primarily to connect to the Internet with an Internet Provider on a dialup non-dedicated basis, I suggest you look into Terminal Adapters. This will give you the most flexibility, with the fewest problems, if you change providers. If you are connecting two lans together, or connecting to the Internet with a dedicated ISDN connection, I suggest you consider the stand alone router/bridge option. Cost is a significant factor in determining what solution you will choose. The following options are listed from least expensive to most expensive. ISDN Cards Contributed by &a.hm;. This section is really only relevant to ISDN users in countries where the DSS1/Q.931 ISDN standard is supported. Some growing number of PC ISDN cards are supported under FreeBSD 2.2.x and up by the isdn4bsd driver package. It is still under development but the reports show that it is successfully used all over Europe. The latest isdn4bsd version is available from ftp://isdn4bsd@ftp.consol.de/pub/, the main isdn4bsd ftp site (you have to log in as user isdn4bsd , give your mail address as the password and change to the pub directory. Anonymous ftp as user ftp or anonymous will not give the desired result). Isdn4bsd allows you to connect to other ISDN routers using either IP over raw HDLC or by using synchronous PPP. A telephone answering machine application is also available. Many ISDN PC cards are supported, mostly the ones with a Siemens ISDN chipset (ISAC/HSCX), support for other chipsets (from Motorola, Cologne Chip Designs) is currently under development. For an up-to-date list of supported cards, please have a look at the README file. In case you are interested in adding support for a different ISDN protocol, a currently unsupported ISDN PC card or otherwise enhancing isdn4bsd, please get in touch with hm@kts.org. A majordomo maintained mailing list is available. To join the list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify: subscribe freebsd-isdn in the body of your message. ISDN Terminal Adapters Terminal adapters(TA), are to ISDN what modems are to regular phone lines. Most TA's use the standard hayes modem AT command set, and can be used as a drop in replacement for a modem. A TA will operate basically the same as a modem except connection and throughput speeds will be much faster than your old modem. You will need to configure PPP exactly the same as for a modem setup. Make sure you set your serial speed as high as possible. The main advantage of using a TA to connect to an Internet Provider is that you can do Dynamic PPP. As IP address space becomes more and more scarce, most providers are not willing to provide you with a static IP anymore. Most standalone routers are not able to accommodate dynamic IP allocation. TA's completely rely on the PPP daemon that you are running for their features and stability of connection. This allows you to upgrade easily from using a modem to ISDN on a FreeBSD machine, if you already have PPP setup. However, at the same time any problems you experienced with the PPP program and are going to persist. If you want maximum stability, use the kernel PPP option, not the user-land iijPPP. The following TA's are know to work with FreeBSD. Motorola BitSurfer and Bitsurfer Pro Adtran Most other TA's will probably work as well, TA vendors try to make sure their product can accept most of the standard modem AT command set. The real problem with external TA's is like modems you need a good serial card in your computer. You should read the serial ports section in the handbook for a detailed understanding of serial devices, and the differences between asynchronous and synchronous serial ports. A TA running off a standard PC serial port (asynchronous) limits you to 115.2Kbs, even though you have a 128Kbs connection. To fully utilize the 128Kbs that ISDN is capable of, you must move the TA to a synchronous serial card. Do not be fooled into buying an internal TA and thinking you have avoided the synchronous/asynchronous issue. Internal TA's simply have a standard PC serial port chip built into them. All this will do, is save you having to buy another serial cable, and find another empty electrical socket. A synchronous card with a TA is at least as fast as a standalone router, and with a simple 386 FreeBSD box driving it, probably more flexible. The choice of sync/TA vs standalone router is largely a religious issue. There has been some discussion of this in the mailing lists. I suggest you search the archives for the complete discussion. Standalone ISDN Bridges/Routers ISDN bridges or routers are not at all specific to FreeBSD or any other operating system. For a more complete description of routing and bridging technology, please refer to a Networking reference book. In the context of this page, I will use router and bridge interchangeably. As the cost of low end ISDN routers/bridges comes down, it will likely become a more and more popular choice. An ISDN router is a small box that plugs directly into your local Ethernet network(or card), and manages its own connection to the other bridge/router. It has all the software to do PPP and other protocols built in. A router will allow you much faster throughput that a standard TA, since it will be using a full synchronous ISDN connection. The main problem with ISDN routers and bridges is that interoperability between manufacturers can still be a problem. If you are planning to connect to an Internet provider, I recommend that you discuss your needs with them. If you are planning to connect two lan segments together, ie: home lan to the office lan, this is the simplest lowest maintenance solution. Since you are buying the equipment for both sides of the connection you can be assured that the link will work. For example to connect a home computer or branch office network to a head office network the following setup could be used. Branch office or Home network Network is 10 Base T Ethernet. Connect router to network cable with AUI/10BT transceiver, if necessary. ---Sun workstation | ---FreeBSD box | ---Windows 95 (Do not admit to owning it) | Standalone router | ISDN BRI line If your home/branch office is only one computer you can use a twisted pair crossover cable to connect to the standalone router directly. Head office or other lan Network is Twisted Pair Ethernet. -------Novell Server | H | | ---Sun | | | U ---FreeBSD | | | ---Windows 95 | B | |___---Standalone router | ISDN BRI line One large advantage of most routers/bridges is that they allow you to have 2 separate independent PPP connections to 2 separate sites at the same time. This is not supported on most TA's, except for specific(expensive) models that have two serial ports. Do not confuse this with channel bonding, MPP etc. This can be very useful feature, for example if you have an dedicated internet ISDN connection at your office and would like to tap into it, but don't want to get another ISDN line at work. A router at the office location can manage a dedicated B channel connection (64Kbs) to the internet, as well as a use the other B channel for a separate data connection. The second B channel can be used for dialin, dialout or dynamically bond(MPP etc.) with the first B channel for more bandwidth. An Ethernet bridge will also allow you to transmit more than just IP traffic, you can also send IPX/SPX or whatever other protocols you use. NIS/YP Written by &a.unfurl;, 21 January 2000. What is it? NIS is an RPC-based client/server system that allows a group of machines within an NIS domain to share a common set of configuration files. This permits a system administrator to set up NIS client systems with only minimal configuration data and add, remove or modify configuration data from a single location. How does it work? There are 3 types of hosts in an NIS enviornment; master servers, slave servers, and clients. Servers act as a central repository for host configuration information. Master servers hold the authoritatve copy of this information, while slave servers mirror this information for redundancy. Clients rely on the servers to provide this information to them. Information in many files can be shared in this manner. The master.passwd, group, and hosts files are commonly shared via NIS. Whenever a process on a client needs information that would normally be found in these files locally, it makes a query to the server it is bound to, to get this information. Using NIS/YP Planning If you are setting up a NIS scheme for the first time, it is a good idea to think through how you want to go about it. No matter what the size of your network, there are a few decisions that need to be made. Choosing a NIS Domain Name - This might not be the “domainname” that you + This might not be the domainname that you are used to. It is more accurately called the - “NIS domainname”. When a client broadcasts its + NIS domainname. When a client broadcasts its requests for info, it includes the name of the NIS domain that it is part of. This is how multiple servers on one network can tell which server should answer which request. Think of the NIS domainname as the name for a group of hosts that are related in someway way. Some organizations choose to use their Internet domainname for their NIS domainname. This is not recommended as it can cause confusion when trying to debug network problems. The NIS domainname should be unique within your network and it is helpful if it describes the group of machines it represents. For example, the Art department at Acme Inc. might be in the "acme-art" NIS domain. Physical Server Requirements There are several things to keep in mind when chosing a machine to use as a NIS server. One of the unfortunate things about NIS is the level of dependency the clients have on the server. If a client cannot contact the server for its NIS domain, very often the machine becomes unusable. The lack of user and group information causes most systems to temporarily freeze up. With this in mind you should make sure to choose a machine that won't be prone to being rebooted regularly, or one that might be used for development. The NIS server should ideally be a stand alone machine whose sole purpose in life is to be an NIS server. If you have a network that is not very heavily used, it is acceptable to put the NIS server on a machine running other services, just keep in mind that if the NIS server becomes unavailable, it will affect all of your NIS clients adversely. NIS Servers The canonical copies of all NIS information are stored on a single machine called the NIS master server. The databases used to store the information are called NIS maps. In FreeBSD, these maps are stored in /var/yp/[domainname] where [domainname] is the name of the NIS domain being served. A single NIS server can support several domains at once, therefore it is possible to have several such directories, one for each supported domain. Each domain will have its own independent set of maps. NIS master and slave servers handle all NIS requests with the ypserv daemon. Ypserv is responsible for receiving incoming requests from NIS clients, translating the requested domain and map name to a path to the corresponding database file and transmitting data from the database back to the client. Setting up a NIS master server Setting up a master NIS server can be relativly straight forward, depending on your needs. FreeBSD comes with a handy script called ypinit that makes the initial setup procedure very easy. A few steps are needed ahead of time to make the setup process go smoothly. Make sure your NIS domainname is set, using the domainname command. You can run ypinit for domains other than the one your host is in but if domainname is not set, now is a good time to do so. Make sure a copy of the master.passwd file is in /var/yp. This where NIS will get the password entries it will share with it's clients. ypinit runs with errors if this file is not present. You can either start a new master.passwd or copy the existing one from /etc/master.passwd. If you do the latter, make sure the permissions are set properly to disallow world/group reading of the file. Start the ypserv daemon. ypinit requires ypserv to be running to answer some RPC calls it makes. In its basic configuration ypserv does not need to be run with any flags. Once you've done the above steps, run ypinit with the flag. You might want to specify the domain you are building a master server for if it is different than what the domainname is set to. In this example, test-domain will be our NIS domainname. # ypinit -m test-domain Server Type: MASTER Domain: test-domain Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If you don't, something might not work. At this point, we have to construct a list of this domains YP servers. master.example.com is already known as master server. Please continue to add any slave servers, one per line. When you are done with the list, type a <Control D>. master server : master.example.com next host to add: ^D The current list of NIS servers looks like this: master.example.com Is this correct? [y/n: y] y Building /var/yp/test-domain/ypservers... Running /var/yp/Makefile... NIS Map update started on Fri Dec 3 16:54:12 PST 1999 for domain test-domain Updating hosts.byname... Creating new /var/yp/passwd file from /var/yp/master.passwd... Updating netid.byname... Updating hosts.byaddr... Updating networks.byaddr... Updating networks.byname... Updating protocols.bynumber... Updating protocols.byname... Updating rpc.byname... Updating rpc.bynumber... Updating services.byname... Updating group.byname... Updating group.bygid... Updating passwd.byname... Updating passwd.byuid... Updating master.passwd.byname... Updating master.passwd.byuid... NIS Map update completed. master.example.com has been setup as an YP master server without any errors. There are a few crucial lines that need to be added to your /etc/rc.conf in order for the NIS server to start properly. Make sure that these lines are included: nis_server_enable="YES" nis_server_flags="" nis_yppasswdd_enable="YES" nis_yppasswdd_flags="" You will most likely want to run yppasswd on the NIS server. This allows users on NIS client machines to change their passwords and other user information remotely. Setting up a NIS slave server Setting up an NIS slave server is even more simple than setting up the master. Again the ypinit command helps out a great deal. As in the previous example - we'll use “test-domain” as our target NIS + we'll use test-domain as our target NIS domainname. # ypinit -s master.example.com test-domain Server Type: SLAVE Domain: test-domain Master: master.example.com Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If you don't, something might not work. There will be no further questions. The remainder of the procedure should take a few minutes, to copy the databases from master.example.com. Transfering netgroup... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering netgroup.byuser... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering netgroup.byhost... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering master.passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering group.bygid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering group.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering services.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering rpc.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering rpc.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering protocols.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering master.passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering networks.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering networks.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering netid.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering hosts.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering protocols.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering ypservers... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering hosts.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered slave.example.com has been setup as an YP slave server without any errors. Don't forget to update map ypservers on master.example.com. You should now have a directory called /var/yp/test-domain. Copies of the NIS master server's maps should be in this directory. You will need to make sure that these stay updated. The following /etc/crontab entries on your slave servers should do the job: 20 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byname 21 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byuid These two lines force the slave to sync its maps with the maps on the master server. Although this is not mandatory, because the master server tries to make sure any changes to it's NIS maps are communicated to it's slaves, the password information is so vital to systems that depend on the server, that it is a good idea to force the updates. This is more important on busy networks where map updates might not always complete. NIS Clients An NIS client establishes what is called a binding to a particular NIS server using the ypbind daemon. Ypbind checks the system's default domain (as set by the domainname command), and begins broadcasting RPC requests on the local network. These requests specify the name of the domain for which ypbind is attempting to establish a binding. If a server that has been configured to serve the requested domain receives one of the broadcasts, it will respond to ypbind, which will record the server's address. If there are several servers available (a master and several slaves, for example), ypbind will use the address of the first one to respond. From that point on, the client system will direct all of its NIS requests to that server. Ypbind will - occasionally “ping” the server to make sure it is + occasionally ping the server to make sure it is still up and running. If it fails to receive a reply to one of its pings within a reasonable amount of time, ypbind will mark the domain as unbound and begin broadcasting again in the hopes of locating another server. Setting up an NIS client Setting up a FreeBSD machine to be a NIS client is fairly straight forward. Set the host's NIS domainname with the domainname command, or at boot time with this entry in /etc/rc.conf: nisdomainname="test-domain" To import all possible password entries from the NIS server, add this line to your /etc/master.passwd file, using vipw: +::::::::: This line will afford anyone with a valid account in the NIS server's password maps an account. There are many ways to configure your NIS client by changing this line. For more detailed reading see O'Reilly's book on Managing NFS and NIS. To import all possible group entries from the NIS server, add this line to your /etc/group file: +:*:: After completing these steps, you should be able to run ypcat passwd and see the NIS server's passwd map. NIS Security In general, any remote user can issue an RPC to ypserv and retrieve the contents of your NIS maps, provided the remote user knows your domainname. To prevent such unauthorized transactions, ypserv supports a feature called securenets which can be used to restrict access to a given set of hosts. At startup, ypserv will attempt to load the securenets information from a file called /var/yp/securenets. This path varies depending on the path specified with the option. This file contains entries that consist of a network specification and a network mask separated - by white space. Lines starting with “#” are + by white space. Lines starting with # are considered to be comments. A sample securenets file might look like this: # allow connections from local host -- mandatory 127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 # allow connections from any host # on the 192.168.128.0 network 192.168.128.0 255.255.255.0 # allow connections from any host # between 10.0.0.0 to 10.0.15.255 10.0.0.0 255.255.240.0 If ypserv receives a request from an address that matches one of these rules, it will process the request normally. If the address fails to match a rule, the request will be ignored and a warning message will be logged. If the /var/yp/securenets file does not exist, ypserv will allow connections from any host. The ypserv program also has support for Wietse Venema's tcpwrapper package. This allows the administrator to use the tcpwrapper configuration files for access control instead of /var/yp/securenets. While both of these access control mechanisms provide some security, they, like the privileged port test, are both - vulnerable to “IP spoofing” attacks. + vulnerable to IP spoofing attacks. NIS v1 compatibility FreeBSD's ypserv has some support for serving NIS v1 clients. FreeBSD's NIS implementation only uses the NIS v2 protocol, however other implementations include support for the v1 protocol for backwards compatibility with older systems. The ypbind daemons supplied with these systems will try to establish a binding to an NIS v1 server even though they may never actually need it (and they may persist in broadcasting in search of one even after they receive a response from a v2 server). Note that while support for normal client calls is provided, this version of ypserv does not handle v1 map transfer requests; consequently, it can not be used as a master or slave in conjunction with older NIS servers that only support the v1 protocol. Fortunately, there probably are not any such servers still in use today. NIS servers that are also NIS clients Care must be taken when running ypserv in a multi-server domain where the server machines are also NIS clients. It is generally a good idea to force the servers to bind to themselves rather than allowing them to broadcast bind requests and possibly become bound to each other. Strange failure modes can result if one server goes down and others are dependent upon on it. Eventually all the clients will time out and attempt to bind to other servers, but the delay involved can be considerable and the failure mode is still present since the servers might bind to each other all over again. You can force a host to bind to a particular server by running ypbind with the flag. libscrypt vs. libdescrypt One of the most common issues that people run into when trying to implement NIS is crypt library compatibility. If your NIS server is using the DES crypt libraries, it will only support clients that are using DES as well. To check which one your server and clients are using look at the symlinks in /usr/lib. If the machine is configured to use the DES libraries, it will look something like this: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/*crypt* lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 13 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.a@ -> libdescrypt.a lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 14 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.so@ -> libdescrypt.so lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 16 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.so.2@ -> libdescrypt.so.2 lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 15 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt_p.a@ -> libdescrypt_p.a -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 13018 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libdescrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 16 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libdescrypt.so@ -> libdescrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 12965 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libdescrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 14750 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libdescrypt_p.a If the machine is configured to use the standard FreeBSD MD5 crypt libraries they will look somethine like this: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/*crypt* lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 13 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.a@ -> libscrypt.a lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 14 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.so@ -> libscrypt.so lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 16 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.so.2@ -> libscrypt.so.2 lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 15 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt_p.a@ -> libscrypt_p.a -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 6194 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libscrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 14 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libscrypt.so@ -> libscrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 7579 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libscrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 6684 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libscrypt_p.a If you have trouble authenticating on an NIS client, this is a pretty good place to start looking for possible problems. DHCP Written by &a.gsutter;, March 2000. What is DHCP? DHCP, the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, describes the means by which a system can connect to a network and obtain the necessary information for communication upon that network. FreeBSD uses the ISC (Internet Software Consortium) DHCP implementation, so all implementation-specific information here is for use with the ISC distribution. What This Section Covers This handbook section attempts to describe only the parts of the DHCP system that are integrated with FreeBSD; consequently, the server portions are not described. The DHCP manual pages, in addition to the references below, are useful resources. How it Works When dhclient, the DHCP client, is executed on the client machine, it begins broadcasting requests for configuration information. By default, these requests are on UDP port 68. The server replies on UDP 67, giving the client an IP address and other relevant network information such as netmask, router, and DNS servers. All of this information comes in the form of a DHCP "lease" and is only valid for a certain time (configured by the DHCP server maintainer). In this manner, stale IP addresses for clients no longer connected to the network can be automatically reclaimed. DHCP clients can obtain a great deal of information from the server. An exhaustive list may be found in &man.dhcp-options.5;. FreeBSD Integration FreeBSD fully integrates the ISC DHCP client, dhclient. DHCP client support is provided within both the installer and the base system, obviating the need for detailed knowledge of network configurations on any network that runs a DHCP server. dhclient has been included in all FreeBSD distributions since 3.2. DHCP is supported by sysinstall. When configuring a network interface within sysinstall, the first question asked is, "Do you want to try dhcp configuration of this interface?" Answering affirmatively will execute dhclient, and if successful, will fill in the network configuration information automatically. To have your system use DHCP to obtain network information upon startup, edit your /etc/rc.conf to include the following: ifconfig_fxp0="DHCP" Be sure to replace fxp0 with the designation for the interface that you wish to dynamically configure. If you are using a different location for dhclient, or if you wish to pass additional flags to dhclient, also include the following (editing as necessary): dhcp_program="/sbin/dhclient" dhcp_flags="" The DHCP server, dhcpd, is included as part of the isc-dhcp2 port in the ports collection. This port contains the full ISC DHCP distribution, consisting of client, server, relay agent and documentation. Files /etc/dhclient.conf dhclient requires a configuration file, /etc/dhclient.conf. Typically the file contains only comments, the defaults being reasonably sane. This configuration file is described by the &man.dhclient.conf.5; man page. /sbin/dhclient dhclient is statically linked and resides in /sbin. The &man.dhclient.8; manual page gives more information about dhclient. /sbin/dhclient-script dhclient-script is the FreeBSD-specific DHCP client configuration script. It is described in &man.dhclient-script.8;, but should not need any user modification to function properly. /var/db/dhclient.leases The DHCP client keeps a database of valid leases in this file, which is written as a log. &man.dhclient.leases.5; gives a slightly longer description. Further Reading The DHCP protocol is fully described in RFC 2131. An informational resource has also been set up at dhcp.org. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/backups/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/backups/chapter.sgml index 4d4478454d..b6c5c3c292 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/backups/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/backups/chapter.sgml @@ -1,732 +1,732 @@ Backups Synopsis The following chapter will cover methods of backing up data, and the programs used to create those backups. If you would like to contribute something to this section, send it to the &a.doc;. Tape Media The major tape media are the 4mm, 8mm, QIC, mini-cartridge and DLT. 4mm (DDS: Digital Data Storage) 4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup media of choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner purchased Archive, a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and then stopped production of QIC drives. 4mm drives are small and quiet but do not have the reputation for reliability that is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The cartridges are less expensive and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51 x 12 mm) than 8mm cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short head life for the same reason, both use helical scan. Data thruput on these drives starts ~150kB/s, peaking at ~500kB/s. Data capacity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library units can have 6 drives in a single cabinet with automatic tape changing. Library capacities reach 240 GB. The DDS-3 standard now supports tape capacities up to 12GB (or 24GB compressed). 4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the benefits and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and 8mm drives. Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100 full backups. 8mm (Exabyte) 8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are the best choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an exabyte 2 GB 8mm tape drive. 8mm drives are reliable, convenient and quiet. Cartridges are inexpensive and small (4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm). One downside of 8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to the high rate of relative motion of the tape across the heads. Data thruput ranges from ~250kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data sizes start at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. These drives are available as single units or multi-drive tape libraries with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a single cabinet. Tapes are changed automatically by the unit. Library capacities reach 840+ GB. - The Exabyte “Mammoth” model supports 12GB on one tape + The Exabyte Mammoth model supports 12GB on one tape (24MB with compression) and costs approximately twice as much as conventional tape drives. Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the heads are positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6 degrees). The tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that holds the heads. The spool spins while the tape slides over the spool. The result is a high density of data and closely packed tracks that angle across the tape from one edge to the other. QIC QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common tape drive and media around. QIC tape drives are the least expensive "serious" backup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the most common tape drive. Every site has a QIC drive of some density or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a large number of densities on physically similar (sometimes identical) tapes. QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever reading, writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7 inches; 15.2 x 10.2 x 1.7 mm). Mini-cartridges, which also use 1/4" wide tape are discussed separately. Tape libraries and changers are not available. Data thruput ranges from ~150kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data capacity ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is available on many of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are less frequently installed; they are being supplanted by DAT drives. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run along the long axis of the tape media from one end to the other. The number of tracks, and therefore the width of a track, varies with the tape's capacity. Most if not all newer drives provide backward-compatibility at least for reading (but often also for writing). QIC has a good reputation regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler and more robust than for helical scan drives). Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000 backups. * Mini-Cartridge ]]> DLT DLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive types listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a single spool cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm). The cartridge has a swinging gate along one entire side of the cartridge. The drive mechanism opens this gate to extract the tape leader. The tape leader has an oval hole in it which the drive uses to "hook" the tape. The take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape cartridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge itself. Data thruput is approximately 1.5MB/s, three times the thruput of 4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities range from 10GB to 20GB for a single drive. Drives are available in both multi-tape changers and multi-tape, multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900 tapes over 1 to 20 drives, providing from 50GB to 9TB of storage. With compression, DLT Type IV format supports up to 70GB capacity. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the direction of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are written at once. Read/write head lifetimes are relatively long; once the tape stops moving, there is no relative motion between the heads and the tape. AIT AIT is a new format from Sony, and can hold up to 50GB (with compression) per tape. The tapes contain memory chips which retain an index of the tape's contents. This index can be rapidly read by the tape drive to determine the position of files on the tape, instead of the several minutes that would be required for other tapes. Software such as SAMS:Alexandria can operate forty or more AIT tape libraries, communicating directly with the tape's memory chip to display the contents on screen, determine what files where backed up to which tape, locate the correct tape, load it, and restore the data from the tape. Libraries like this cost in the region of $20,000, pricing them a little out of the hobbyist market. Using a New Tape for the First Time The first time that you try to read or write a new, completely blank tape, the operation will fail. The console messages should be similar to: sa0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1 sa0(ncr1:4:0): Logical unit is in process of becoming ready The tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number 0). All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard write an Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions: mt fsf 1 causes the tape drive to write an Identifier Block to the tape. Use the front panel button to eject the tape. Re-insert the tape and &man.dump.8; data to the tape. &man.dump.8; will report DUMP: End of tape detected and the console will show: HARDWARE FAILURE info:280 asc:80,96 rewind the tape using: mt rewind Subsequent tape operations are successful. Backup Programs The three major programs are &man.dump.8;, &man.tar.1;, and &man.cpio.1;. Dump and Restore &man.dump.8; and &man.restore.8; are the traditional Unix backup programs. They operate on the drive as a collection of disk blocks, below the abstractions of files, links and directories that are created by the filesystems. &man.dump.8; backs up devices, entire filesystems, not parts of a filesystem and not directory trees that span more than one filesystem, using either soft links &man.ln.1; or mounting one filesystem onto another. &man.dump.8; does not write files and directories to tape, but rather writes the data blocks that are the building blocks of files and directories. &man.dump.8; has quirks that remain from its early days in Version 6 of ATT Unix (circa 1975). The default parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the capacity of current tape drives. &man.rdump.8; and &man.rrestore.8; backup data across the network to a tape drive attached to another computer. Both programs rely upon &man.rcmd.3; and &man.ruserok.3; to access the remote tape drive. Therefore, the user performing the backup must have rhosts access to the remote computer. The arguments to &man.rdump.8; and &man.rrestore.8; must suitable to use on the remote computer. (e.g. When rdump'ing from a FreeBSD computer to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: /sbin/rdump 0dsbfu 54000 13000 126 komodo:/dev/nrsa8 /dev/rda0a 2>&1) Beware: there are security implications to allowing rhosts commands. Evaluate your situation carefully. Tar &man.tar.1; also dates back to Version 6 of ATT Unix (circa 1975). &man.tar.1; operates in cooperation with the filesystem; &man.tar.1; writes files and directories to tape. &man.tar.1; does not support the full range of options that are available from &man.cpio.1;, but &man.tar.1; does not require the unusual command pipeline that &man.cpio.1; uses. Most versions of &man.tar.1; do not support backups across the network. The GNU version of &man.tar.1;, which FreeBSD utilizes, supports remote devices using the same syntax as &man.rdump.8;. To &man.tar.1; to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: /usr/bin/tar cf komodo:/dev/nrsa8 . 2>&1. For versions without remote device support, you can use a pipeline and &man.rsh.1; to send the data to a remote tape drive. &prompt.root; tar cf - . | rsh hostname dd of=tape-device obs=20b If you're worried about the security of backing over a network you should use the &man.ssh.1; command instead of &man.rsh.1;. Cpio &man.cpio.1; is the original Unix file interchange tape program for magnetic media. &man.cpio.1; has options (among many others) to perform byte-swapping, write a number of different archives format, and pipe the data to other programs. This last feature makes &man.cpio.1; and excellent choice for installation media. &man.cpio.1; does not know how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be provided through stdin. &man.cpio.1; does not support backups across the network. You can use a pipeline and &man.rsh.1; to send the data to a remote tape drive. (XXX add an example command) Pax &man.pax.1; is IEEE/POSIX's answer to &man.tar.1; and &man.cpio.1;. Over the years the various versions of &man.tar.1; and &man.cpio.1; have gotten slightly incompatible. So rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, POSIX created a new archive utility. &man.pax.1; attempts to read and write many of the various &man.cpio.1; and &man.tar.1; formats, plus new formats of its own. Its command set more resembles &man.cpio.1; than &man.tar.1;. Amanda Amanda (Advanced Maryland Network Disk Archiver) is a client/server backup system, rather than a single program. An Amanda server will backup to a single tape drive any number of computers that have Amanda clients and network communications with the Amanda server. A common problem at locations with a number of large disks is the length of time required to backup to data directly to tape exceeds the amount of time available for the task. Amanda solves this problem. Amanda can use a "holding disk" to backup several filesystems at the same time. Amanda creates "archive sets": a group of tapes used over a period of time to create full backups of all the filesystems listed in Amanda's configuration file. The "archive set" also contains nightly incremental (or differential) backups of all the filesystems. Restoring a damaged filesystem requires the most recent full backup and the incremental backups. The configuration file provides fine control backups and the network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use any of the above backup programs to write the data to tape. Amanda is available as either a port or a package, it is not installed by default. Do Nothing - “Do nothing” is not a computer program, but it is the + Do nothing is not a computer program, but it is the most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens to your data, grin and bear it! If your time and your data is worth little to nothing, then - “Do nothing” is the most suitable backup program for your + Do nothing is the most suitable backup program for your computer. But beware, Unix is a useful tool, you may find that within six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to you. - “Do nothing” is the correct backup method for + Do nothing is the correct backup method for /usr/obj and other directory trees that can be exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the files that comprise these handbook pages-they have been generated from SGML input files. Creating backups of these HTML files is not necessary. The SGML source files are backed up regularly. Which Backup Program is Best? &man.dump.8; Period. Elizabeth D. Zwicky torture tested all the backup programs discussed here. The clear choice for preserving all your data and all the peculiarities of Unix filesystems is &man.dump.8;. Elizabeth created filesystems containing a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not so unusual ones) and tested each program by do a backup and restore of that filesystems. The peculiarities included: files with holes, files with holes and a block of nulls, files with funny characters in their names, unreadable and unwritable files, devices, files that change size during the backup, files that are created/deleted during the backup and more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct. 1991. See torture-testing Backup and Archive Programs. Emergency Restore Procedure Before the Disaster There are only four steps that you need to perform in preparation for any disaster that may occur. First, print the disklabel from each of your disks (e.g. disklabel da0 | lpr), your filesystem table (/etc/fstab) and all boot messages, two copies of each. Second, determine that the boot and fixit floppies (boot.flp and fixit.flp) have all your devices. The easiest way to check is to reboot your machine with the boot floppy in the floppy drive and check the boot messages. If all your devices are listed and functional, skip on to step three. Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable floppies which has a kernel that can mount your all of your disks and access your tape drive. These floppies must contain: &man.fdisk.8;, &man.disklabel.8;, &man.newfs.8;, &man.mount.8;, and whichever backup program you use. These programs must be statically linked. If you use &man.dump.8;, the floppy must contain &man.restore.8;. Third, create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you make after your last backup may be irretrievably lost. Write-protect the backup tapes. Fourth, test the floppies (either boot.flp and fixit.flp or the two custom bootable floppies you made in step two.) and backup tapes. Make notes of the procedure. Store these notes with the bootable floppy, the printouts and the backup tapes. You will be so distraught when restoring that the notes may prevent you from destroying your backup tapes (How? In place of tar xvf /dev/rsa0, you might accidently type tar cvf /dev/rsa0 and over-write your backup tape). For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies and two backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote location. A remote location is NOT the basement of the same office building. A number of firms in the World Trade Center learned this lesson the hard way. A remote location should be physically separated from your computers and disk drives by a significant distance. An example script for creating a bootable floppy: /mnt/sbin/init gzip -c -best /sbin/fsck > /mnt/sbin/fsck gzip -c -best /sbin/mount > /mnt/sbin/mount gzip -c -best /sbin/halt > /mnt/sbin/halt gzip -c -best /sbin/restore > /mnt/sbin/restore gzip -c -best /bin/sh > /mnt/bin/sh gzip -c -best /bin/sync > /mnt/bin/sync cp /root/.profile /mnt/root cp -f /dev/MAKEDEV /mnt/dev chmod 755 /mnt/dev/MAKEDEV chmod 500 /mnt/sbin/init chmod 555 /mnt/sbin/fsck /mnt/sbin/mount /mnt/sbin/halt chmod 555 /mnt/bin/sh /mnt/bin/sync chmod 6555 /mnt/sbin/restore # # create the devices nodes # cd /mnt/dev ./MAKEDEV std ./MAKEDEV da0 ./MAKEDEV da1 ./MAKEDEV da2 ./MAKEDEV sa0 ./MAKEDEV pty0 cd / # # create minimum filesystem table # cat > /mnt/etc/fstab < /mnt/etc/passwd < /mnt/etc/master.passwd < After the Disaster The key question is: did your hardware survive? You have been doing regular backups so there is no need to worry about the software. If the hardware has been damaged. First, replace those parts that have been damaged. If your hardware is okay, check your floppies. If you are using a custom boot floppy, boot single-user (type -s at the boot: prompt). Skip the following paragraph. If you are using the boot.flp and fixit.flp floppies, keep reading. Insert the boot.flp floppy in the first floppy drive and boot the computer. The original install menu will be displayed on the screen. Select the Fixit--Repair mode with CDROM or floppy. option. Insert the fixit.flp when prompted. restore and the other programs that you need are located in /mnt2/stand. Recover each filesystem separately. Try to &man.mount.8; (e.g. mount /dev/da0a /mnt) the root partition of your first disk. If the disklabel was damaged, use &man.disklabel.8; to re-partition and label the disk to match the label that your printed and saved. Use &man.newfs.8; to re-create the filesystems. Re-mount the root partition of the floppy read-write (mount -u -o rw /mnt). Use your backup program and backup tapes to recover the data for this filesystem (e.g. restore vrf /dev/sa0). Unmount the filesystem (e.g. umount /mnt) Repeat for each filesystem that was damaged. Once your system is running, backup your data onto new tapes. Whatever caused the crash or data loss may strike again. An another hour spent now, may save you from further distress later. * I did not prepare for the Disaster, What Now? ]]> What about Backups to Floppies? Can I use floppies for backing up my data? Floppy disks are not really a suitable media for making backups as: The media is unreliable, especially over long periods of time Backing up and restoring is very slow They have a very limited capacity (the days of backing up an entire hard disk onto a dozen or so floppies has long since passed). However, if you have no other method of backing up your data then floppy disks are better than no backup at all. If you do have to use floppy disks then ensure that you use good quality ones. Floppies that have been lying around the office for a couple of years are a bad choice. Ideally use new ones from a reputable manufacturer. So how do I backup my data to floppies? The best way to backup to floppy disk is to use &man.tar.1; with the (multi volume) option, which allows backups to span multiple floppies. To backup all the files in the current directory and sub-directory use this (as root): &prompt.root; tar Mcvf /dev/rfd0 * When the first floppy is full &man.tar.1; will prompt you to insert the next volume (because &man.tar.1; is media independent it refers to volumes. In this context it means floppy disk) Prepare volume #2 for /dev/rfd0 and hit return: This is repeated (with the volume number incrementing) until all the specified files have been archived. Can I compress my backups? Unfortunately, &man.tar.1; will not allow the option to be used for multi-volume archives. You could, of course, &man.gzip.1; all the files, &man.tar.1; them to the floppies, then &man.gunzip.1; the files again! How do I restore my backups? To restore the entire archive use: &prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/rfd0 To restore only specific files you can either start with the first floppy and use: &prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/rfd0 filename &man.tar.1; will prompt you to insert subsequent floppies until it finds the required file. Alternatively, if you know which floppy the file is on then you can simply insert that floppy and use the same command as above. Note that if the first file on the floppy is a continuation from the previous one then &man.tar.1; will warn you that it cannot restore it, even if you have not asked it to! diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml index a430b5584a..65b507e785 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml @@ -1,536 +1,536 @@ Unix Basics Synopsis Rewritten by Chris Shumway cshumway@cdrom.com, 10 Mar 2000. The following chapter will cover the basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD operating system. If you are new to FreeBSD, you will definitely want to read through this chapter before asking for help. Permissions FreeBSD, having its history rooted in BSD UNIX, has its fundamentals based on several key UNIX concepts. The first, and most pronounced, is that FreeBSD is a multi-user operating system. The system can handle several users all working simultaneously on completely unrelated tasks. The system is responsible for properly sharing and managing requests for hardware devices, peripherals, memory, and CPU time evenly to each user. Because the system is capable of supporting multiple users, everything the system manages has a set of permissions governing who can read, write, and execute the resource. These permissions are stored as an octet broken into three pieces, one for the owner of the file, one for the group that the file belongs to, and one for everyone else. This numerical representation works like this: Value Permission Directory Listing 0 No read, no write, no execute --- 1 No read, no write, execute --x 2 No read, write, no execute -w- 3 No read, write, execute -wx 4 Read, no write, no execute r-- 5 Read, no write, execute r-x 6 Read, write, no execute rw- 7 Read, write, execute rwx For the long directory listing by ls -l, a column will show a file's permissions for the owner, group, and everyone else. Here's how it is broken up: -rw-r--r-- The first character, from left to right, is a special character that tells if this is a regular file, a directory, a special character or block device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file device. The next three characters, designated as rw- gives the permissions for the owner of the file. The next three characters, r-- gives the permissions for the group that the file belongs to. The final three characters, r--, gives the permissions for the rest of the world. A dash means that the permission is turned off. In the case of this file, the permissions are set so the owner can read and write to the file, the group can read the file, and the rest of the world can only read the file. According to the table above, the permissions for this file would be 644, where each digit represents the three parts of the file's permission. This is all well and good, but how does the system control permissions on devices? FreeBSD actually treats most hardware devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data to just like any other file. These special device files are stored on the /dev directory. Directories are also treated as files. They have read, write, and execute permissions. The executable bit for a directory has a slightly different meaning than that of files. When a directory is marked executable, it means it can be searched into, for example, a directory listing can be done in that directory. There are more to permissions, but they are primarily used in special circumstances such as setuid binaries and sticky directories. If you want more information on file permissions and how to set them, be sure to look at the &man.chmod.1; man page. Directory Structures Since FreeBSD uses its file systems to determine many fundamental system operations, the hierarchy of the file system is extremely important. Due to the fact that the &man.hier.7; man page provides a complete description of the directory structure, it will not be duplicated here. Please read &man.hier.7; for more information. Of significant importance is the root of all directories, the / directory. This directory is the first directory mounted at boot time and it contains the base system necessary at boot time. The root directory also contains mount points for every other file system that you want to mount. A mount point is a directory where additional file systems can be grafted onto the root file system. Standard mount points include /usr, /var, /mnt, and /cdrom. These directories are usually referenced to entries in the file /etc/fstab. /etc/fstab is a table of various file systems and mount points for reference by the system. Most of the file systems in /etc/fstab are mounted automatically at boot time from the script &man.rc.8; unless they contain the option. Consult the &man.fstab.5; manual page for more information on the format of the /etc/fstab file and the options it contains. Shells In FreeBSD, a lot of everyday work is done in a command line interface called a shell. A shell's main job is to take commands from the input channel and execute them. A lot of shells also have built in functions to help everyday tasks such a file management, file globing, command line editing, command macros, and environment variables. FreeBSD comes with a set of shells, such as sh, the Bourne Shell, and csh, the C-shell. Many other shells are available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection that have much more power, such as tcsh and bash. Which shell do you use? It is really a matter of taste. If you are a C programmer you might feel more comfortable with a C-like shell such as tcsh. If you've come from Linux or are new to a UNIX command line interface you might try bash. The point is that each shell has unique properties that may or may not work with your preferred working environment, and that you have a choice of what shell to use. One common feature in a shell is file-name completion. Given the typing of the first few letters of a command or filename, you can usually have the shell automatically complete the rest of the command or filename by hitting the TAB key on the keyboard. Here is an example. I have two files called foobar and foo.bar. I want to delete foo.bar. So what I would type on the keyboard is: rm fo[TAB].[TAB]. The shell would print out rm foo[BEEP].bar. The [BEEP] is the console bell, which is the shell telling me it was unable to totally complete the filename because there is more than one match. Both foobar and foo.bar start with fo, but it was able to complete to foo. Once I typed in ., then hit TAB again, the shell was able to fill in the rest of the filename for me. Another function of the shell is environment variables. Environment variables are a variable key pair stored in the shell's environment space. This space can be read by any program invoked by the shell, and thus contains a lot of program configuration. Here is a list of common environment variables and what they mean: Variable Description USER Current logged in user's name. PATH Colon separated list of directories to search for binaries. DISPLAY Network name of the X11 display to connect to, if available. SHELL The current shell. TERM The name of the user's terminal. Used to determine the capabilities of the terminal. TERMCAP Database entry of the terminal escape codes to perform various terminal functions. OSTYPE Type of operating system. E.g., FreeBSD. MACHTYPE The CPU architecture that the system is running on. EDITOR The user's preferred text editor. PAGER The user's preferred text pager. MANPATH Colon separated list of directories to search for manual pages. To view or set an environment variable differs somewhat from shell to shell. For example, in the C-Style shells such as tcsh and csh, you would use setenv to set and view environment variables. Under Bourne shells such as sh and bash, you would use set and export to view and set your current environment variables. For example, to set or modify the EDITOR environment variable, under csh or tcsh a command like this would set EDITOR to /usr/local/bin/emacs: setenv EDITOR /usr/local/bin/emacs Under Bourne shells: export EDITOR="/usr/local/bin/emacs" You can also make most shells expand the environment variable by placing a $ character in front of it on the command line. For example, echo $TERM would print out whatever $TERM is set to, because the shell expands $TERM and passes it on to echo. Shells treat a lot of special characters, called meta-characters as special representations of data. The most common one is the * character, which represents any number of characters in a filename. These special meta-characters can be used to do file name globing. For example, typing in echo * is almost the same as typing in ls because the shell takes all the files that match * and puts them on the command line for echo to see. To prevent the shell from interpreting these special characters, they can be escaped from the shell by putting a backslash (\) character in front of them. echo $TERM prints whatever your terminal is set to. echo \$TERM prints $TERM as is. Changing your shell The easiest way to change your shell is to use the chsh command. Running chsh will place you into the editor that is in your EDITOR environment variable; if it is not set, you will be placed in - vi. Change the “Shell:” line + vi. Change the Shell: line accordingly. You can also give chsh the option; this will set your shell for you, without requiring you to enter an editor. For example, if you wanted to change your shell to bash, the following should do the trick: &prompt.user; chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash Running chsh with no parameters and editing the shell from there would work also. The shell that you wish to use must be present in the /etc/shells file. If you have installed a shell from the ports collection, then this should have been done for you already. If you installed the shell by hand, you must do this. For example, if you installed bash by hand and placed it into /usr/local/bin, you would want to: &prompt.root; echo "/usr/local/bin/bash" >> /etc/shells Then rerun chsh. Text Editors A lot of configuration in FreeBSD is done by editing a text file. Because of this, it would be a good idea to become familiar with a text editor. FreeBSD comes with a few as part of the base system, and many more are available in the ports collection. The easiest and simplest editor to learn is an editor called ee, which stands for easy editor. To start ee, one would type at the command line ee filename where filename is the name of the file to be edited. For example, to edit /etc/rc.conf, type in ee /etc/rc.conf. Once inside of ee, all of the commands for manipulating the editor's functions are listed at the top of the display. The caret ^ character means the control key on the keyboard, so ^e expands to pressing the control key plus the letter e. To leave ee, hit the escape key, then choose leave editor. The editor will prompt you to save any changes if the file has been modified. FreeBSD also comes with more powerful text editors such as vi as part of the base system, and emacs and vim as part of the FreeBSD ports collection. These editors offer much more functionality and power at the expense of being a little more complicated to learn. However if you plan on doing a lot of text editing, learning a more powerful editor such as vim or emacs will save you much more time in the long run. For more information... Manual pages The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form of man pages. Nearly every program on the system comes with a short reference manual explaining the basic operation and various arguments. These manuals can be viewed with the man command. Use of the man command is simple: &prompt.user; man command command is the name of the command you wish to learn about. For example, to learn more about ls command type: &prompt.user; man ls The online manual is divided up into numbered sections: User commands. System calls and error numbers. Functions in the C libraries. Device drivers. File formats. Games and other diversions. Miscellaneous information. System maintenance and operation commands. Kernel developers. In some cases, the same topic may appear in more than one section of the online manual. For example, there is a chmod user command and a chmod() system call. In this case, you can tell the man command which one you want by specifying the section: &prompt.user; man 1 chmod This will display the manual page for the user command chmod. References to a particular section of the online manual are traditionally placed in parenthesis in written documentation, so &man.chmod.1; refers to the chmod user command and &man.chmod.2; refers to the system call. This is fine if you know the name of the command and simply wish to know how to use it, but what if you cannot recall the command name? You can use man to search for keywords in the command descriptions by using the switch: &prompt.user; man -k mail With this command you will be presented with a list of - commands that have the keyword “mail” in their + commands that have the keyword mail in their descriptions. This is actually functionally equivalent to using the apropos command. So, you are looking at all those fancy commands in /usr/bin but do not have the faintest idea what most of them actually do? Simply do a &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin; man -f * or &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin; whatis * which does the same thing. GNU Info Files FreeBSD includes many applications and utilities produced by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to man pages, these programs come with more extensive hypertext documents called info files which can be viewed with the info command or, if you installed emacs, the info mode of emacs. To use the &man.info.1; command, simply type: &prompt.user; info For a brief introduction, type h. For a quick command reference, type ?. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/bibliography/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/bibliography/chapter.sgml index 8d62f217d8..44ce8ca23b 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/bibliography/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/bibliography/chapter.sgml @@ -1,478 +1,478 @@ Bibliography While the manual pages provide the definitive reference for individual pieces of the FreeBSD operating system, they are notorious for not illustrating how to put the pieces together to make the whole operating system run smoothly. For this, there is no substitute for a good book on UNIX system administration and a good users' manual. Books & Magazines Specific to FreeBSD International books & Magazines: Using FreeBSD (in Chinese). FreeBSD for PC 98'ers (in Japanese), published by SHUWA System Co, LTD. ISBN 4-87966-468-5 C3055 P2900E. FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by CUTT. ISBN 4-906391-22-2 C3055 P2400E. Complete Introduction to FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by Shoeisha Co., Ltd. ISBN 4-88135-473-6 P3600E. Personal UNIX Starter Kit FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by ASCII. ISBN 4-7561-1733-3 P3000E. FreeBSD Handbook (Japanese translation), published by ASCII. ISBN 4-7561-1580-2 P3800E. FreeBSD mit Methode (in German), published by Computer und Literatur Verlag/Vertrieb Hanser, 1998. ISBN 3-932311-31-0. FreeBSD Install and Utilization Manual (in Japanese), published by Mainichi Communications Inc.. English language books & Magazines: The Complete FreeBSD, published by Walnut Creek CDROM. Users' Guides Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD User's Reference Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-075-9 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD User's Supplementary Documents. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-076-7 UNIX in a Nutshell. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1990. ISBN 093717520X Mui, Linda. What You Need To Know When You Can't Find Your UNIX System Administrator. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-104-6 Ohio State University has written a UNIX Introductory Course which is available online in HTML and postscript format. Jpman Project, Japan FreeBSD Users Group. FreeBSD User's Reference Manual (Japanese translation). Mainichi Communications Inc., 1998. ISBN4-8399-0088-4 P3800E. Administrators' Guides Albitz, Paul and Liu, Cricket. DNS and BIND, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1997. ISBN 1-56592-236-0 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD System Manager's Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-080-5 Costales, Brian, et al. Sendmail, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1997. ISBN 1-56592-222-0 Frisch, Æleen. Essential System Administration, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-127-5 Hunt, Craig. TCP/IP Network Administration. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1992. ISBN 0-937175-82-X Nemeth, Evi. UNIX System Administration Handbook. 2nd Ed. Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN 0131510517 Stern, Hal Managing NFS and NIS O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-937175-75-7 Jpman Project, Japan FreeBSD Users Group. FreeBSD System Administrator's Manual (Japanese translation). Mainichi Communications Inc., 1998. ISBN4-8399-0109-0 P3300E. Programmers' Guides Asente, Paul. X Window System Toolkit. Digital Press. ISBN 1-55558-051-3 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD Programmer's Reference Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-078-3 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD Programmer's Supplementary Documents. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-079-1 Harbison, Samuel P. and Steele, Guy L. Jr. C: A Reference Manual. 4rd ed. Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN 0-13-326224-3 Kernighan, Brian and Dennis M. Ritchie. The C Programming Language.. PTR Prentice Hall, 1988. ISBN 0-13-110362-9 Lehey, Greg. Porting UNIX Software. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-126-7 Plauger, P. J. The Standard C Library. Prentice Hall, 1992. ISBN 0-13-131509-9 Stevens, W. Richard. Advanced Programming in the UNIX Environment. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1992 ISBN 0-201-56317-7 Stevens, W. Richard. UNIX Network Programming. 2nd Ed, PTR Prentice Hall, 1998. ISBN 0-13-490012-X - Wells, Bill. “Writing Serial Drivers for UNIX”. + Wells, Bill. Writing Serial Drivers for UNIX. Dr. Dobb's Journal. 19(15), December 1994. pp68-71, 97-99. Operating System Internals Andleigh, Prabhat K. UNIX System Architecture. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1990. ISBN 0-13-949843-5 - Jolitz, William. “Porting UNIX to the 386”. + Jolitz, William. Porting UNIX to the 386. Dr. Dobb's Journal. January 1991-July 1992. Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, Michael J Karels and John Quarterman The Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating System. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1989. ISBN 0-201-06196-1 Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, The Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating System: Answer Book. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1991. ISBN 0-201-54629-9 McKusick, Marshall Kirk, Keith Bostic, Michael J Karels, and John Quarterman. The Design and Implementation of the 4.4BSD Operating System. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-54979-4 Stevens, W. Richard. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-63346-9 Schimmel, Curt. Unix Systems for Modern Architectures. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1994. ISBN 0-201-63338-8 Stevens, W. Richard. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP and the UNIX Domain Protocols. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-63495-3 Vahalia, Uresh. UNIX Internals -- The New Frontiers. Prentice Hall, 1996. ISBN 0-13-101908-2 Wright, Gary R. and W. Richard Stevens. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-63354-X Security Reference Cheswick, William R. and Steven M. Bellovin. Firewalls and Internet Security: Repelling the Wily Hacker. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-63357-4 Garfinkel, Simson and Gene Spafford. Practical UNIX Security. 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1996. ISBN 1-56592-148-8 Garfinkel, Simson. PGP Pretty Good Privacy O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-098-8 Hardware Reference Anderson, Don and Tom Shanley. Pentium Processor System Architecture. 2nd Ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40992-5 Ferraro, Richard F. Programmer's Guide to the EGA, VGA, and Super VGA Cards. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-62490-7 Intel Corporation publishes documentation on their CPUs, chipsets and standards on their developer web site, usually as PDF files. Shanley, Tom. 80486 System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40994-1 Shanley, Tom. ISA System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40996-8 Shanley, Tom. PCI System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40993-3 Van Gilluwe, Frank. The Undocumented PC. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1994. ISBN 0-201-62277-7 UNIX History Lion, John Lion's Commentary on UNIX, 6th Ed. With Source Code. ITP Media Group, 1996. ISBN 1573980137 Raymond, Eric S. The New Hacker's Dictionary, 3rd edition. MIT Press, 1996. ISBN 0-262-68092-0. Also known as the Jargon File Salus, Peter H. A quarter century of UNIX. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1994. ISBN 0-201-54777-5 Simon Garfinkel, Daniel Weise, Steven Strassmann. The UNIX-HATERS Handbook. IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56884-203-1 Don Libes, Sandy Ressler Life with UNIX — special edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1989. ISBN 0-13-536657-7 The BSD family tree. 1997. ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/share/misc/bsd-family-tree or local on a FreeBSD-current machine. The BSD Release Announcements collection. 1997. http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/de/ftp/releases/ Networked Computer Science Technical Reports Library. http://www.ncstrl.org/ Old BSD releases from the Computer Systems Research group (CSRG). http://www.mckusick.com/csrg/: The 4CD set covers all BSD versions from 1BSD to 4.4BSD and 4.4BSD-Lite2 (but not 2.11BSD, unfortunately). As well, the last disk holds the final sources plus the SCCS files. Magazines and Journals The C/C++ Users Journal. R&D Publications Inc. ISSN 1075-2838 Sys Admin — The Journal for UNIX System Administrators Miller Freeman, Inc., ISSN 1061-2688 diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml index a85ce56ffe..611d7cbf79 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml @@ -1,5961 +1,5961 @@ Contributing to FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. So you want to contribute something to FreeBSD? That is great! We can always use the help, and FreeBSD is one of those systems that relies on the contributions of its user base in order to survive. Your contributions are not only appreciated, they are vital to FreeBSD's continued growth! Contrary to what some people might also have you believe, you do not need to be a hot-shot programmer or a close personal friend of the FreeBSD core team in order to have your contributions accepted. The FreeBSD Project's development is done by a large and growing number of international contributors whose ages and areas of technical expertise vary greatly, and there is always more work to be done than there are people available to do it. Since the FreeBSD project is responsible for an entire operating system environment (and its installation) rather than just a kernel or a few scattered utilities, our TODO list also spans a very wide range of tasks, from documentation, beta testing and presentation to highly specialized types of kernel development. No matter what your skill level, there is almost certainly something you can do to help the project! Commercial entities engaged in FreeBSD-related enterprises are also encouraged to contact us. Need a special extension to make your product work? You will find us receptive to your requests, given that they are not too outlandish. Working on a value-added product? Please let us know! We may be able to work cooperatively on some aspect of it. The free software world is challenging a lot of existing assumptions about how software is developed, sold, and maintained throughout its life cycle, and we urge you to at least give it a second look. What is Needed The following list of tasks and sub-projects represents something of an amalgam of the various core team TODO lists and user requests we have collected over the last couple of months. Where possible, tasks have been ranked by degree of urgency. If you are interested in working on one of the tasks you see here, send mail to the coordinator listed by clicking on their names. If no coordinator has been appointed, maybe you would like to volunteer? High priority tasks The following tasks are considered to be urgent, usually because they represent something that is badly broken or sorely needed: 3-stage boot issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Do WinNT compatible drive tagging so that the 3rd stage can provide an accurate mapping of BIOS geometries for disks. Filesystem problems. Overall coordination: &a.fs; Clean up and document the nullfs filesystem code. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Fix the union file system. Coordinator: &a.dg; Implement Int13 vm86 disk driver. Coordinator: &a.hackers; New bus architecture. Coordinator: &a.newbus; Port existing ISA drivers to new architecture. Move all interrupt-management code to appropriate parts of the bus drivers. Port PCI subsystem to new architecture. Coordinator: &a.dfr; Figure out the right way to handle removable devices and then use that as a substrate on which PC-Card and CardBus support can be implemented. Resolve the probe/attach priority issue once and for all. Move any remaining buses over to the new architecture. Kernel issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Add more pro-active security infrastructure. Overall coordination: &a.security; Build something like Tripwire(TM) into the kernel, with a remote and local part. There are a number of cryptographic issues to getting this right; contact the coordinator for details. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Make the entire kernel use suser() instead of comparing to 0. It is presently using about half of each. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Split securelevels into different parts, to allow an administrator to throw away those privileges he can throw away. Setting the overall securelevel needs to have the same effect as now, obviously. Coordinator: &a.eivind; - Make it possible to upload a list of “allowed - program” to BPF, and then block BPF from accepting other + Make it possible to upload a list of allowed + program to BPF, and then block BPF from accepting other programs. This would allow BPF to be used e.g. for DHCP, without allowing an attacker to start snooping the local network. Update the security checker script. We should at least grab all the checks from the other BSD derivatives, and add checks that a system with securelevel increased also have reasonable flags on the relevant parts. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Add authorization infrastructure to the kernel, to allow different authorization policies. Part of this could be done by modifying suser(). Coordinator: &a.eivind; Add code to the NFS layer so that you cannot chdir("..") out of an NFS partition. E.g., /usr is a UFS partition with /usr/src NFS exported. Now it is possible to use the NFS filehandle for /usr/src to get access to /usr. Medium priority tasks The following tasks need to be done, but not with any particular urgency: Full KLD based driver support/Configuration Manager. Write a configuration manager (in the 3rd stage boot?) that probes your hardware in a sane manner, keeps only the KLDs required for your hardware, etc. PCMCIA/PCCARD. Coordinators: &a.msmith; and &a.imp; Documentation! Reliable operation of the pcic driver (needs testing). Recognizer and handler for sio.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ed.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ep.c (mostly done). User-mode recognizer and handler (partially done). Advanced Power Management. Coordinators: &a.msmith; and &a.phk; APM sub-driver (mostly done). IDE/ATA disk sub-driver (partially done). syscons/pcvt sub-driver. Integration with the PCMCIA/PCCARD drivers (suspend/resume). Low priority tasks The following tasks are purely cosmetic or represent such an investment of work that it is not likely that anyone will get them done anytime soon: The first N items are from Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org NetWare Server (protected mode ODI driver) loader and subservices to allow the use of ODI card drivers supplied with network cards. The same thing for NDIS drivers and NetWare SCSI drivers. An "upgrade system" option that works on Linux boxes instead of just previous rev FreeBSD boxes. Symmetric Multiprocessing with kernel preemption (requires kernel preemption). A concerted effort at support for portable computers. This is somewhat handled by changing PCMCIA bridging rules and power management event handling. But there are things like detecting internal vs. external display and picking a different screen resolution based on that fact, not spinning down the disk if the machine is in dock, and allowing dock-based cards to disappear without affecting the machines ability to boot (same issue for PCMCIA). Smaller tasks Most of the tasks listed in the previous sections require either a considerable investment of time or an in-depth knowledge of the FreeBSD kernel (or both). However, there are also many useful tasks which are suitable for "weekend hackers", or people without programming skills. If you run FreeBSD-current and have a good Internet connection, there is a machine current.FreeBSD.org which builds a full release once a day — every now and again, try and install the latest release from it and report any failures in the process. Read the freebsd-bugs mailing list. There might be a problem you can comment constructively on or with patches you can test. Or you could even try to fix one of the problems yourself. Read through the FAQ and Handbook periodically. If anything is badly explained, out of date or even just completely wrong, let us know. Even better, send us a fix (SGML is not difficult to learn, but there is no objection to ASCII submissions). Help translate FreeBSD documentation into your native language (if not already available) — just send an email to &a.doc; asking if anyone is working on it. Note that you are not committing yourself to translating every single FreeBSD document by doing this — in fact, the documentation most in need of translation is the installation instructions. Read the freebsd-questions mailing list and &ng.misc occasionally (or even regularly). It can be very satisfying to share your expertise and help people solve their problems; sometimes you may even learn something new yourself! These forums can also be a source of ideas for things to work on. If you know of any bugfixes which have been successfully applied to -current but have not been merged into -stable after a decent interval (normally a couple of weeks), send the committer a polite reminder. Move contributed software to src/contrib in the source tree. Make sure code in src/contrib is up to date. Look for year 2000 bugs (and fix any you find!) Build the source tree (or just part of it) with extra warnings enabled and clean up the warnings. Fix warnings for ports which do deprecated things like using gets() or including malloc.h. If you have contributed any ports, send your patches back to the original author (this will make your life easier when they bring out the next version) Suggest further tasks for this list! Work through the PR database The FreeBSD PR list shows all the current active problem reports and requests for enhancement that have been submitted by FreeBSD users. Look through the open PRs, and see if anything there takes your interest. Some of these might be very simple tasks, that just need an extra pair of eyes to look over them and confirm that the fix in the PR is a good one. Others might be much more complex. Start with the PRs that have not been assigned to anyone else, but if one them is assigned to someone else, but it looks like something you can handle, e-mail the person it is assigned to and ask if you can work on it—they might already have a patch ready to be tested, or further ideas that you can discuss with them. How to Contribute Contributions to the system generally fall into one or more of the following 6 categories: Bug reports and general commentary An idea or suggestion of general technical interest should be mailed to the &a.hackers;. Likewise, people with an interest in such things (and a tolerance for a high volume of mail!) may subscribe to the hackers mailing list by sending mail to &a.majordomo;. See mailing lists for more information about this and other mailing lists. If you find a bug or are submitting a specific change, please report it using the &man.send-pr.1; program or its WEB-based equivalent. Try to fill-in each field of the bug report. Unless they exceed 65KB, include any patches directly in the report. When including patches, do not use cut-and-paste because cut-and-paste turns tabs into spaces and makes them unusable. Consider compressing patches and using &man.uuencode.1; if they exceed 20KB. Upload very large submissions to ftp.FreeBSD.org:/pub/FreeBSD/incoming/. After filing a report, you should receive confirmation along with a tracking number. Keep this tracking number so that you can update us with details about the problem by sending mail to bug-followup@FreeBSD.org. Use the number as the message subject, e.g. "Re: kern/3377". Additional information for any bug report should be submitted this way. If you do not receive confirmation in a timely fashion (3 days to a week, depending on your email connection) or are, for some reason, unable to use the &man.send-pr.1; command, then you may ask someone to file it for you by sending mail to the &a.bugs;. Changes to the documentation Changes to the documentation are overseen by the &a.doc;. Send submissions and changes (even small ones are welcome!) using send-pr as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Changes to existing source code An addition or change to the existing source code is a somewhat trickier affair and depends a lot on how far out of date you are with the current state of the core FreeBSD development. There is a special - on-going release of FreeBSD known as “FreeBSD-current” + on-going release of FreeBSD known as FreeBSD-current which is made available in a variety of ways for the convenience of developers working actively on the system. See Staying current with FreeBSD for more information about getting and using FreeBSD-current. Working from older sources unfortunately means that your changes may sometimes be too obsolete or too divergent for easy re-integration into FreeBSD. Chances of this can be minimized somewhat by subscribing to the &a.announce; and the &a.current; lists, where discussions on the current state of the system take place. Assuming that you can manage to secure fairly up-to-date sources to base your changes on, the next step is to produce a set of diffs to send to the FreeBSD maintainers. This is done with the &man.diff.1; - command, with the “context diff” form + command, with the context diff form being preferred. For example: &prompt.user; diff -c oldfile newfile or &prompt.user; diff -c -r olddir newdir would generate such a set of context diffs for the given source file or directory hierarchy. See the man page for &man.diff.1; for more details. Once you have a set of diffs (which you may test with the &man.patch.1; command), you should submit them for inclusion with FreeBSD. Use the &man.send-pr.1; program as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Do not just send the diffs to the &a.hackers; or they will get lost! We greatly appreciate your submission (this is a volunteer project!); because we are busy, we may not be able to address it immediately, but it will remain in the pr database until we do. If you feel it appropriate (e.g. you have added, deleted, or renamed files), bundle your changes into a tar file and run the &man.uuencode.1; program on it. Shar archives are also welcome. If your change is of a potentially sensitive nature, e.g. you are unsure of copyright issues governing its further distribution or you are simply not ready to release it without a tighter review first, then you should send it to &a.core; directly rather than submitting it with &man.send-pr.1;. The core mailing list reaches a much smaller group of people who do much of the day-to-day work on FreeBSD. Note that this group is also very busy and so you should only send mail to them where it is truly necessary. Please refer to man 9 intro and man 9 style for some information on coding style. We would appreciate it if you were at least aware of this information before submitting code. New code or major value-added packages In the rare case of a significant contribution of a large body work, or the addition of an important new feature to FreeBSD, it becomes almost always necessary to either send changes as uuencode'd tar files or upload them to our ftp site ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/incoming/. When working with large amounts of code, the touchy subject of copyrights also invariably comes up. Acceptable copyrights for code included in FreeBSD are: The BSD copyright. This copyright is most preferred due to - its “no strings attached” nature and general + its no strings attached nature and general attractiveness to commercial enterprises. Far from discouraging such commercial use, the FreeBSD Project actively encourages such participation by commercial interests who might eventually be inclined to invest something of their own into FreeBSD. - The GNU Public License, or “GPL”. This license is + The GNU Public License, or GPL. This license is not quite as popular with us due to the amount of extra effort demanded of anyone using the code for commercial purposes, but given the sheer quantity of GPL'd code we currently require (compiler, assembler, text formatter, etc) it would be silly to refuse additional contributions under this license. Code under the GPL also goes into a different part of the tree, that being /sys/gnu or /usr/src/gnu, and is therefore easily identifiable to anyone for whom the GPL presents a problem. Contributions coming under any other type of copyright must be carefully reviewed before their inclusion into FreeBSD will be considered. Contributions for which particularly restrictive commercial copyrights apply are generally rejected, though the authors are always encouraged to make such changes available through their own channels. - To place a “BSD-style” copyright on your work, include + To place a BSD-style copyright on your work, include the following text at the very beginning of every source code file you wish to protect, replacing the text between the %% with the appropriate information. Copyright (c) %%proper_years_here%% %%your_name_here%%, %%your_state%% %%your_zip%%. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer as the first lines of this file unmodified. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY %%your_name_here%% ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL %%your_name_here%% BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. $Id$ For your convenience, a copy of this text can be found in /usr/share/examples/etc/bsd-style-copyright. Money, Hardware or Internet access We are always very happy to accept donations to further the cause of the FreeBSD Project and, in a volunteer effort like ours, a little can go a long way! Donations of hardware are also very important to expanding our list of supported peripherals since we generally lack the funds to buy such items ourselves. <anchor id="donations">Donating funds While the FreeBSD Project is not a 501(c)(3) (charitable) corporation and hence cannot offer special tax incentives for any donations made, any such donations will be gratefully accepted on behalf of the project by FreeBSD, Inc. FreeBSD, Inc. was founded in early 1995 by &a.jkh; and &a.dg; with the goal of furthering the aims of the FreeBSD Project and giving it a minimal corporate presence. Any and all funds donated (as well as any profits that may eventually be realized by FreeBSD, Inc.) will be used exclusively to further the project's goals. Please make any checks payable to FreeBSD, Inc., sent in care of the following address:
FreeBSD, Inc. c/o Jordan Hubbard 4041 Pike Lane, Suite F Concord CA, 94520
(currently using the Walnut Creek CDROM address until a PO box can be opened) Wire transfers may also be sent directly to:
Bank Of America Concord Main Office P.O. Box 37176 San Francisco CA, 94137-5176 Routing #: 121-000-358 Account #: 01411-07441 (FreeBSD, Inc.)
Any correspondence related to donations should be sent to &a.jkh, either via email or to the FreeBSD, Inc. postal address given above. If you do not wish to be listed in our donors section, please specify this when making your donation. Thanks! Donating hardware Donations of hardware in any of the 3 following categories are also gladly accepted by the FreeBSD Project: General purpose hardware such as disk drives, memory or complete systems should be sent to the FreeBSD, Inc. address listed in the donating funds section. Hardware for which ongoing compliance testing is desired. We are currently trying to put together a testing lab of all components that FreeBSD supports so that proper regression testing can be done with each new release. We are still lacking many important pieces (network cards, motherboards, etc) and if you would like to make such a donation, please contact &a.dg; for information on which items are still required. Hardware currently unsupported by FreeBSD for which you would like to see such support added. Please contact the &a.core; before sending such items as we will need to find a developer willing to take on the task before we can accept delivery of new hardware. Donating Internet access We can always use new mirror sites for FTP, WWW or cvsup. If you would like to be such a mirror, please contact the FreeBSD project administrators hubs@FreeBSD.org for more information. Donors Gallery The FreeBSD Project is indebted to the following donors and would like to publically thank them here! Contributors to the central server project: The following individuals and businesses made it possible for the FreeBSD Project to build a new central server machine to eventually replace freefall.FreeBSD.org by donating the following items: &a.mbarkah and his employer, Hemisphere Online, donated a Pentium Pro (P6) 200Mhz CPU ASA Computers donated a Tyan 1662 motherboard. Joe McGuckin joe@via.net of ViaNet Communications donated a Kingston ethernet controller. Jack O'Neill jack@diamond.xtalwind.net donated an NCR 53C875 SCSI controller card. Ulf Zimmermann ulf@Alameda.net of Alameda Networks donated 128MB of memory, a 4 Gb disk drive and the case. Direct funding: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed direct funding to the project: Annelise Anderson ANDRSN@HOOVER.STANFORD.EDU &a.dillon Blue Mountain Arts Epilogue Technology Corporation &a.sef Global Technology Associates, Inc Don Scott Wilde Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@masternet.it Josef C. Grosch joeg@truenorth.org Robert T. Morris &a.chuckr Kenneth P. Stox ken@stox.sa.enteract.com of Imaginary Landscape, LLC. Dmitry S. Kohmanyuk dk@dog.farm.org Laser5 of Japan (a portion of the profits from sales of their various FreeBSD CD-ROMs). Fuki Shuppan Publishing Co. donated a portion of their profits from Hajimete no FreeBSD (FreeBSD, Getting started) to the FreeBSD and XFree86 projects. ASCII Corp. donated a portion of their profits from several FreeBSD-related books to the FreeBSD project. Yokogawa Electric Corp has generously donated significant funding to the FreeBSD project. BuffNET Pacific Solutions Siemens AG via Andre Albsmeier Chris Silva Hardware contributors: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed hardware for testing and device driver development/support: Walnut Creek CDROM for providing the Pentium P5-90 and 486/DX2-66 EISA/VL systems that are being used for our development work, to say nothing of the network access and other donations of hardware resources. TRW Financial Systems, Inc. provided 130 PCs, three 68 GB fileservers, twelve Ethernets, two routers and an ATM switch for debugging the diskless code. Dermot McDonnell donated the Toshiba XM3401B CDROM drive currently used in freefall. &a.chuck; contributed his floppy tape streamer for experimental work. Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM, and &a.wilko;, provided Wangtek and Archive QIC-02 tape drives in order to improve the wt driver. Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de contributed a 2.88 MB floppy drive to the project. This will hopefully increase the pressure for rewriting the floppy disk driver. ;-) Tekram Technologies sent one each of their DC-390, DC-390U and DC-390F FAST and ULTRA SCSI host adapter cards for regression testing of the NCR and AMD drivers with their cards. They are also to be applauded for making driver sources for free operating systems available from their FTP server ftp://ftp.tekram.com/scsi/FreeBSD/. Larry M. Augustin contributed not only a Symbios Sym8751S SCSI card, but also a set of data books, including one about the forthcoming Sym53c895 chip with Ultra-2 and LVD support, and the latest programming manual with information on how to safely use the advanced features of the latest Symbios SCSI chips. Thanks a lot! Christoph Kukulies kuku@FreeBSD.org donated an FX120 12 speed Mitsumi CDROM drive for IDE CDROM driver development. Special contributors: Walnut Creek CDROM has donated almost more than we can say (see the history document for more details). In particular, we would like to thank them for the original hardware used for freefall.FreeBSD.org, our primary development machine, and for thud.FreeBSD.org, a testing and build box. We are also indebted to them for funding various contributors over the years and providing us with unrestricted use of their T1 connection to the Internet. The interface business GmbH, Dresden has been patiently supporting &a.joerg; who has often preferred FreeBSD work over paywork, and used to fall back to their (quite expensive) EUnet Internet connection whenever his private connection became too slow or flakey to work with it... Berkeley Software Design, Inc. has contributed their DOS emulator code to the remaining BSD world, which is used in the doscmd command. Core Team Alumni The following people were members of the FreeBSD core team during the periods indicated. We thank them for their past efforts in the service of the FreeBSD project. In rough chronological order: &a.jdp (1997 - 2000) &a.guido (1995 - 1999) &a.dyson (1993 - 1998) &a.nate (1992 - 1996) &a.rgrimes (1992 - 1995) Andreas Schulz (1992 - 1995) &a.csgr (1993 - 1995) &a.paul (1992 - 1995) &a.smace (1993 - 1994) Andrew Moore (1993 - 1994) Christoph Robitschko (1993 - 1994) J. T. Conklin (1992 - 1993) Derived Software Contributors This software was originally derived from William F. Jolitz's 386BSD release 0.1, though almost none of the original 386BSD specific code remains. This software has been essentially re-implemented from the 4.4BSD-Lite release provided by the Computer Science Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California, Berkeley and associated academic contributors. There are also portions of NetBSD and OpenBSD that have been integrated into FreeBSD as well, and we would therefore like to thank all the contributors to NetBSD and OpenBSD for their work. Additional FreeBSD Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): ABURAYA Ryushirou rewsirow@ff.iij4u.or.jp AMAGAI Yoshiji amagai@nue.org Aaron Bornstein aaronb@j51.com Aaron Smith aaron@mutex.org Achim Patzner ap@noses.com Ada T Lim ada@bsd.org Adam Baran badam@mw.mil.pl Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adam McDougall mcdouga9@egr.msu.edu Adam Strohl troll@digitalspark.net Adrian Chadd adrian@freebsd.org Adrian Colley aecolley@ois.ie Adrian Hall adrian@ibmpcug.co.uk Adrian Mariano adrian@cam.cornell.edu Adrian Steinmann ast@marabu.ch Adrian T. Filipi-Martin atf3r@agate.cs.virginia.edu Ajit Thyagarajan unknown Akio Morita amorita@meadow.scphys.kyoto-u.ac.jp Akira SAWADA unknown Akira Watanabe akira@myaw.ei.meisei-u.ac.jp Akito Fujita fujita@zoo.ncl.omron.co.jp Alain Kalker A.C.P.M.Kalker@student.utwente.nl Alan Bawden alan@curry.epilogue.com Alec Wolman wolman@cs.washington.edu Aled Morris aledm@routers.co.uk Aleksandr A Babaylov .@babolo.ru Alex garbanzo@hooked.net Alex D. Chen dhchen@Canvas.dorm7.nccu.edu.tw Alex G. Bulushev bag@demos.su Alex Le Heux alexlh@funk.org Alex Perel veers@disturbed.net Alex Varju varju@webct.com Alexander B. Povolotsky tarkhil@mgt.msk.ru Alexander Langer alex@cichlids.com Alexander Leidinger netchild@wurzelausix.CS.Uni-SB.DE Alexandre Snarskii snar@paranoia.ru Alistair G. Crooks agc@uts.amdahl.com Allan Saddi asaddi@philosophysw.com Allen Campbell allenc@verinet.com Amakawa Shuhei amakawa@hoh.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Amancio Hasty hasty@star-gate.com Amir Farah amir@comtrol.com Amy Baron amee@beer.org Anatoly A. Orehovsky tolik@mpeks.tomsk.su Anatoly Vorobey mellon@pobox.com Anders Nordby anders@fix.no Anders Thulin Anders.X.Thulin@telia.se Andras Olah olah@cs.utwente.nl Andre Albsmeier Andre.Albsmeier@mchp.siemens.de Andre Oppermann andre@pipeline.ch Andreas Haakh ah@alman.robin.de Andreas Kohout shanee@rabbit.augusta.de Andreas Lohr andreas@marvin.RoBIN.de Andreas Schulz unknown Andreas Wetzel mickey@deadline.snafu.de Andreas Wrede andreas@planix.com Andres Vega Garcia unknown Andrew Atrens atreand@statcan.ca Andrew Boothman andrew@cream.org Andrew Gillham gillham@andrews.edu Andrew Gordon andrew.gordon@net-tel.co.uk Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew J. Korty ajk@purdue.edu Andrew L. Moore alm@mclink.com Andrew L. Neporada andrew@chg.ru Andrew McRae amcrae@cisco.com Andrew Stevenson andrew@ugh.net.au Andrew Timonin tim@pool1.convey.ru Andrew V. Stesin stesin@elvisti.kiev.ua Andrew Webster awebster@dataradio.com Andrey Novikov andrey@novikov.com Andy Farkas andyf@speednet.com.au Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com Andy Whitcroft andy@sarc.city.ac.uk Angelo Turetta ATuretta@stylo.it Anthony C. Chavez magus@xmission.com Anthony Yee-Hang Chan yeehang@netcom.com Anton Berezin tobez@plab.ku.dk Anton N. Bruesov antonz@library.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Antti Kaipila anttik@iki.fi arci vega@sophia.inria.fr Are Bryne are.bryne@communique.no Ari Suutari ari@suutari.iki.fi Arindum Mukerji rmukerji@execpc.com Arjan de Vet devet@IAEhv.nl Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Arun Sharma adsharma@sharmas.dhs.org Assar Westerlund assar@sics.se Atsushi Furuta furuta@sra.co.jp Atsushi Murai amurai@spec.co.jp Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Bierbauch pivrnec@vszbr.cz Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Ben Hutchinson benhutch@xfiles.org.uk Ben Jackson unknown Ben Smithurst ben@scientia.demon.co.uk Ben Walter bwalter@itachi.swcp.com Benjamin Lewis bhlewis@gte.net Benno Rice benno@netizen.com.au Berend de Boer berend@pobox.com Bernd Rosauer br@schiele-ct.de Bill Kish kish@osf.org Bill Trost trost@cloud.rain.com Blaz Zupan blaz@amis.net Bob Van Valzah Bob@whitebarn.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Bob Willcox bob@luke.pmr.com Boris Staeblow balu@dva.in-berlin.de Boyd Faulkner faulkner@mpd.tandem.com Boyd R. Faulkner faulkner@asgard.bga.com Brad Hendrickse bradh@uunet.co.za Brad Karp karp@eecs.harvard.edu Bradley Dunn bradley@dunn.org Brandon Fosdick bfoz@glue.umd.edu Brandon Gillespie brandon@roguetrader.com &a.wlloyd Brent J. Nordquist bjn@visi.com Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Brett Taylor brett@peloton.runet.edu Brian Campbell brianc@pobox.com Brian Clapper bmc@willscreek.com Brian Cully shmit@kublai.com Brian Handy handy@lambic.space.lockheed.com Brian Litzinger brian@MediaCity.com Brian McGovern bmcgover@cisco.com Brian Moore ziff@houdini.eecs.umich.edu Brian R. Haug haug@conterra.com Brian Tao taob@risc.org Brion Moss brion@queeg.com Bruce A. Mah bmah@ca.sandia.gov Bruce Albrecht bruce@zuhause.mn.org Bruce Gingery bgingery@gtcs.com Bruce J. Keeler loodvrij@gridpoint.com Bruce Murphy packrat@iinet.net.au Bruce Walter walter@fortean.com Carey Jones mcj@acquiesce.org Carl Fongheiser cmf@netins.net Carl Mascott cmascott@world.std.com Casper casper@acc.am Castor Fu castor@geocast.com Chain Lee chain@110.net Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Charles Henrich henrich@msu.edu Charles Mott cmott@scientech.com Charles Owens owensc@enc.edu Chet Ramey chet@odin.INS.CWRU.Edu Chia-liang Kao clkao@CirX.ORG Chiharu Shibata chi@bd.mbn.or.jp Chip Norkus unknown Choi Jun Ho junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr Chris Csanady cc@tarsier.ca.sandia.gov Chris Dabrowski chris@vader.org Chris Dillon cdillon@wolves.k12.mo.us Chris Shenton cshenton@angst.it.hq.nasa.gov Chris Stenton jacs@gnome.co.uk Chris Timmons skynyrd@opus.cts.cwu.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christian Gusenbauer cg@fimp01.fim.uni-linz.ac.at Christian Haury Christian.Haury@sagem.fr Christian Weisgerber naddy@mips.inka.de Christoph P. Kukulies kuku@FreeBSD.org Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Christoph Weber-Fahr wefa@callcenter.systemhaus.net Christopher G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Christopher T. Johnson cjohnson@neunacht.netgsi.com Chrisy Luke chrisy@flix.net Chuck Hein chein@cisco.com Cliff Rowley dozprompt@onsea.com Clive Lin clive@CiRX.ORG Colman Reilly careilly@tcd.ie Conrad Sabatier conrads@neosoft.com Coranth Gryphon gryphon@healer.com Cornelis van der Laan nils@guru.ims.uni-stuttgart.de Cove Schneider cove@brazil.nbn.com Craig Leres leres@ee.lbl.gov Craig Loomis unknown Craig Metz cmetz@inner.net Craig Spannring cts@internetcds.com Craig Struble cstruble@vt.edu Cristian Ferretti cfs@riemann.mat.puc.cl Curt Mayer curt@toad.com Cy Schubert cschuber@uumail.gov.bc.ca Dai Ishijima ishijima@tri.pref.osaka.jp Daisuke Watanabe NU7D-WTNB@asahi-net.or.jp Damian Hamill damian@cablenet.net Dan Cross tenser@spitfire.ecsel.psu.edu Dan Lukes dan@obluda.cz Dan Nelson dnelson@emsphone.com Dan Papasian bugg@bugg.strangled.net Dan Piponi wmtop@tanelorn.demon.co.uk Dan Walters hannibal@cyberstation.net Daniel Hagan dhagan@cs.vt.edu Daniel M. Eischen deischen@iworks.InterWorks.org Daniel O'Connor doconnor@gsoft.com.au Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Daniel Rock rock@cs.uni-sb.de Danny Egen unknown Danny J. Zerkel dzerkel@phofarm.com Darren Reed avalon@coombs.anu.edu.au Dave Adkins adkin003@tc.umn.edu Dave Andersen angio@aros.net Dave Blizzard dblizzar@sprynet.com Dave Bodenstab imdave@synet.net Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Chapeskie dchapes@ddm.on.ca Dave Cornejo dave@dogwood.com Dave Edmondson davided@sco.com Dave Glowacki dglo@ssec.wisc.edu Dave Marquardt marquard@austin.ibm.com Dave Tweten tweten@FreeBSD.org David A. Adkins adkin003@tc.umn.edu David A. Bader dbader@umiacs.umd.edu David Borman dab@bsdi.com David Dawes dawes@XFree86.org David Filo filo@yahoo.com David Holland dholland@eecs.harvard.edu David Holloway daveh@gwythaint.tamis.com David Horwitt dhorwitt@ucsd.edu David Hovemeyer daveho@infocom.com David Jones dej@qpoint.torfree.net David Kelly dkelly@tomcat1.tbe.com David Kulp dkulp@neomorphic.com David L. Nugent davidn@blaze.net.au David Leonard d@scry.dstc.edu.au David Malone dwmalone@maths.tcd.ie David Muir Sharnoff muir@idiom.com David S. Miller davem@jenolan.rutgers.edu David Wolfskill dhw@whistle.com Dean Gaudet dgaudet@arctic.org Dean Huxley dean@fsa.ca Denis Fortin unknown Dennis Glatting dennis.glatting@software-munitions.com Denton Gentry denny1@home.com der Mouse mouse@Collatz.McRCIM.McGill.EDU Derek Inksetter derek@saidev.com DI. Christian Gusenbauer cg@scotty.edvz.uni-linz.ac.at Dima Sivachenko dima@Chg.RU Dirk Keunecke dk@panda.rhein-main.de Dirk Nehrling nerle@pdv.de Dmitry Khrustalev dima@xyzzy.machaon.ru Dmitry Kohmanyuk dk@farm.org Dom Mitchell dom@myrddin.demon.co.uk Dominik Brettnacher domi@saargate.de Dominik Rother dr@domix.de Don Croyle croyle@gelemna.ft-wayne.in.us &a.whiteside; Don Morrison dmorrisn@u.washington.edu Don Yuniskis dgy@rtd.com Donald Maddox dmaddox@conterra.com Doug Barton Doug@gorean.org Douglas Ambrisko ambrisko@whistle.com Douglas Carmichael dcarmich@mcs.com Douglas Crosher dtc@scrooge.ee.swin.oz.au Drew Derbyshire ahd@kew.com Duncan Barclay dmlb@ragnet.demon.co.uk Dustin Sallings dustin@spy.net Eckart "Isegrim" Hofmann Isegrim@Wunder-Nett.org Ed Gold vegold01@starbase.spd.louisville.edu Ed Hudson elh@p5.spnet.com Edward Chuang edwardc@firebird.org.tw Edward Wang edward@edcom.com Edwin Groothus edwin@nwm.wan.philips.com Edwin Mons e@ik.nu Ege Rekk aagero@aage.priv.no Eiji-usagi-MATSUmoto usagi@clave.gr.jp ELISA Font Project Elmar Bartel bartel@informatik.tu-muenchen.de Eoin Lawless eoin@maths.tcd.ie Eric A. Griff eagriff@global2000.net Eric Blood eblood@cs.unr.edu Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Eric J. Schwertfeger eric@cybernut.com Eric L. Hernes erich@lodgenet.com Eric P. Scott eps@sirius.com Eric Sprinkle eric@ennovatenetworks.com Erich Stefan Boleyn erich@uruk.org Erik H. Bakke erikhb@bgnett.no Erik E. Rantapaa rantapaa@math.umn.edu Erik H. Moe ehm@cris.com Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de Espen Skoglund esk@ira.uka.de Eugene M. Kim astralblue@usa.net Eugene Radchenko genie@qsar.chem.msu.su Eugeny Kuzakov CoreDumped@lab321.ru Evan Champion evanc@synapse.net Faried Nawaz fn@Hungry.COM Flemming Jacobsen fj@tfs.com Fong-Ching Liaw fong@juniper.net Francis M J Hsieh mjshieh@life.nthu.edu.tw Frank Bartels knarf@camelot.de Frank Chen Hsiung Chan frankch@waru.life.nthu.edu.tw Frank Durda IV uhclem@nemesis.lonestar.org Frank MacLachlan fpm@n2.net Frank Nobis fn@Radio-do.de Frank ten Wolde franky@pinewood.nl Frank van der Linden frank@fwi.uva.nl Frank Volf volf@oasis.IAEhv.nl Fred Cawthorne fcawth@jjarray.umn.edu Fred Gilham gilham@csl.sri.com Fred Templin templin@erg.sri.com Frederick Earl Gray fgray@rice.edu FUJIMOTO Kensaku fujimoto@oscar.elec.waseda.ac.jp FUJISHIMA Satsuki k5@respo.or.jp FURUSAWA Kazuhisa furusawa@com.cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp G. Adam Stanislavadam@whizkidtech.net Gabor Kincses gabor@acm.org Gabor Zahemszky zgabor@CoDe.hu Garance A Drosehn gad@eclipse.its.rpi.edu Gareth McCaughan gjm11@dpmms.cam.ac.uk Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Gary J. garyj@rks32.pcs.dec.com Gary Kline kline@thought.org Gaspar Chilingarov nightmar@lemming.acc.am Gea-Suan Lin gsl@tpts4.seed.net.tw Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Georg Wagner georg.wagner@ubs.com Gianlorenzo Masini masini@uniroma3.it Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@giovannelli.it Gil Kloepfer Jr. gil@limbic.ssdl.com Gilad Rom rom_glsa@ein-hashofet.co.il Giles Lean giles@nemeton.com.au Ginga Kawaguti ginga@amalthea.phys.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp Giorgos Keramidas keramida@ceid.upatras.gr Glen Foster gfoster@gfoster.com Glenn Johnson gljohns@bellsouth.net Godmar Back gback@facility.cs.utah.edu Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Gord Matzigkeit gord@enci.ucalgary.ca Gordon Greeff gvg@uunet.co.za Graham Wheeler gram@cdsec.com Greg A. Woods woods@zeus.leitch.com Greg Ansley gja@ansley.com Greg Troxel gdt@ir.bbn.com Greg Ungerer gerg@stallion.oz.au Gregory Bond gnb@itga.com.au Gregory D. Moncreaff moncrg@bt340707.res.ray.com Guy Harris guy@netapp.com Guy Helmer ghelmer@cs.iastate.edu HAMADA Naoki hamada@astec.co.jp Hannu Savolainen hannu@voxware.pp.fi Hans Huebner hans@artcom.de Hans Petter Bieker zerium@webindex.no Hans Zuidam hans@brandinnovators.com Harlan Stenn Harlan.Stenn@pfcs.com Harold Barker hbarker@dsms.com Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Heikki Suonsivu hsu@cs.hut.fi Heiko W. Rupp unknown Helmut F. Wirth hfwirth@ping.at Henrik Vestergaard Draboel hvd@terry.ping.dk Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@NetBSD.org Hideaki Ohmon ohmon@tom.sfc.keio.ac.jp Hidekazu Kuroki hidekazu@cs.titech.ac.jp Hideki Yamamoto hyama@acm.org Hideyuki Suzuki hideyuki@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hirayama Issei iss@mail.wbs.ne.jp Hiroaki Sakai sakai@miya.ee.kagu.sut.ac.jp Hiroharu Tamaru tamaru@ap.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hironori Ikura hikura@kaisei.org Hiroshi Nishikawa nis@pluto.dti.ne.jp Hiroya Tsubakimoto unknown Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Holm Tiffe holm@geophysik.tu-freiberg.de HONDA Yasuhiro honda@kashio.info.mie-u.ac.jp Horance Chou horance@freedom.ie.cycu.edu.tw Horihiro Kumagai kuma@jp.FreeBSD.org HOSOBUCHI Noriyuki hoso@buchi.tama.or.jp HOTARU-YA hotaru@tail.net Hr.Ladavac lada@ws2301.gud.siemens.co.at Hubert Feyrer hubertf@NetBSD.ORG Hugh F. Mahon hugh@nsmdserv.cnd.hp.com Hugh Mahon h_mahon@fc.hp.com Hung-Chi Chu hcchu@r350.ee.ntu.edu.tw Ian Dowse iedowse@maths.tcd.ie Ian Holland ianh@tortuga.com.au Ian Struble ian@broken.net Ian Vaudrey i.vaudrey@bigfoot.com Igor Khasilev igor@jabber.paco.odessa.ua Igor Roshchin str@giganda.komkon.org Igor Sviridov siac@ua.net Igor Vinokurov igor@zynaps.ru Ikuo Nakagawa ikuo@isl.intec.co.jp Ilya V. Komarov mur@lynx.ru IMAI Takeshi take-i@ceres.dti.ne.jp IMAMURA Tomoaki tomoak-i@is.aist-nara.ac.jp Issei Suzuki issei@jp.FreeBSD.org Itsuro Saito saito@miv.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp IWASHITA Yoji shuna@pop16.odn.ne.jp J. Bryant jbryant@argus.flash.net J. David Lowe lowe@saturn5.com J. Han hjh@photino.com J. Hawk jhawk@MIT.EDU J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com J.T. Jang keith@email.gcn.net.tw Jack jack@zeus.xtalwind.net Jacob Bohn Lorensen jacob@jblhome.ping.mk Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com Jake Hamby jehamby@lightside.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James D. Stewart jds@c4systm.com James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James Raynard fhackers@jraynard.demon.co.uk James T. Liu jtliu@phlebas.rockefeller.edu Jamie Heckford jamie@jamiesdomain.co.uk Jan Conard charly@fachschaften.tu-muenchen.de Jan Koum jkb@FreeBSD.org Janick Taillandier Janick.Taillandier@ratp.fr Janusz Kokot janek@gaja.ipan.lublin.pl Jarle Greipsland jarle@idt.unit.no Jason Garman init@risen.org Jason Thorpe thorpej@NetBSD.org Jason Wright jason@OpenBSD.org Jason Young doogie@forbidden-donut.anet-stl.com Javier Martin Rueda jmrueda@diatel.upm.es Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jaye Mathisen mrcpu@cdsnet.net Jeff Bartig jeffb@doit.wisc.edu Jeff Brown jabrown@caida.org Jeff Forys jeff@forys.cranbury.nj.us Jeff Kletsky Jeff@Wagsky.com Jeff Palmer jeff@isni.net Jeffrey Evans evans@scnc.k12.mi.us Jeffrey Wheat jeff@cetlink.net Jens Schweikhardt schweikh@noc.dfn.d Jeremy Allison jallison@whistle.com Jeremy Chadwick yoshi@parodius.com Jeremy Chatfield jdc@xinside.com Jeremy Prior unknown Jeremy Shaffner jeremy@external.org Jesse Rosenstock jmr@ugcs.caltech.edu Jian-Da Li jdli@csie.nctu.edu.tw Jim Babb babb@FreeBSD.org Jim Binkley jrb@cs.pdx.edu Jim Bloom bloom@acm.org Jim Carroll jim@carroll.com Jim Flowers jflowers@ezo.net Jim Leppek jleppek@harris.com Jim Lowe james@cs.uwm.edu Jim Mattson jmattson@sonic.net Jim Mercer jim@komodo.reptiles.org Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jimbo Bahooli griffin@blackhole.iceworld.org Jin Guojun jin@george.lbl.gov Joachim Kuebart unknown Joao Carlos Mendes Luis jonny@jonny.eng.br Jochen Pohl jpo.drs@sni.de Joe "Marcus" Clarke marcus@miami.edu Joe Abley jabley@clear.co.nz Joe Jih-Shian Lu jslu@dns.ntu.edu.tw Joe Orthoefer j_orthoefer@tia.net Joe Traister traister@mojozone.org Joel Faedi Joel.Faedi@esial.u-nancy.fr Joel Ray Holveck joelh@gnu.org Joel Sutton jsutton@bbcon.com.au Johan Granlund johan@granlund.nu Johan Karlsson k@numeri.campus.luth.se Johan Larsson johan@moon.campus.luth.se Johann Tonsing jtonsing@mikom.csir.co.za Johannes Helander unknown Johannes Stille unknown John Beckett jbeckett@southern.edu John Beukema jbeukema@hk.super.net John Brezak unknown John Capo jc@irbs.com John F. Woods jfw@jfwhome.funhouse.com John Goerzen jgoerzen@alexanderwohl.complete.org John Hay jhay@mikom.csir.co.za John Heidemann johnh@isi.edu John Hood cgull@owl.org John Kohl unknown John Lind john@starfire.mn.org John Mackin john@physiol.su.oz.au John P johnp@lodgenet.com John Perry perry@vishnu.alias.net John Preisler john@vapornet.com John Rochester jr@cs.mun.ca John Sadler john_sadler@alum.mit.edu John Saunders john@pacer.nlc.net.au John Wehle john@feith.com John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Jon Morgan morgan@terminus.trailblazer.com Jonathan H N Chin jc254@newton.cam.ac.uk Jonathan Hanna jh@pc-21490.bc.rogers.wave.ca Jorge Goncalves j@bug.fe.up.pt Jorge M. Goncalves ee96199@tom.fe.up.pt Jos Backus jbackus@plex.nl Jose M. Alcaide jose@we.lc.ehu.es Jose Marques jose@nobody.org Josef Grosch jgrosch@superior.mooseriver.com Joseph Stein joes@wstein.com Josh Gilliam josh@quick.net Josh Tiefenbach josh@ican.net Juergen Lock nox@jelal.hb.north.de Juha Inkari inkari@cc.hut.fi Jukka A. Ukkonen jua@iki.fi Julian Assange proff@suburbia.net Julian Coleman j.d.coleman@ncl.ac.uk &a.jhs Julian Jenkins kaveman@magna.com.au Junichi Satoh junichi@jp.FreeBSD.org Junji SAKAI sakai@jp.FreeBSD.org Junya WATANABE junya-w@remus.dti.ne.jp K.Higashino a00303@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Kai Vorma vode@snakemail.hut.fi Kaleb S. Keithley kaleb@ics.com Kaneda Hiloshi vanitas@ma3.seikyou.ne.jp Kapil Chowksey kchowksey@hss.hns.com Karl Denninger karl@mcs.com Karl Dietz Karl.Dietz@triplan.com Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com KATO Tsuguru tkato@prontomail.ne.jp Kawanobe Koh kawanobe@st.rim.or.jp Kazuhiko Kiriyama kiri@kiri.toba-cmt.ac.jp Kazuo Horikawa horikawa@jp.FreeBSD.org Kees Jan Koster kjk1@ukc.ac.uk Keith Bostic bostic@bostic.com Keith E. Walker unknown Keith Moore unknown Keith Sklower unknown Kelly Yancey kbyanc@posi.net Ken Hornstein unknown Ken Key key@cs.utk.edu Ken Mayer kmayer@freegate.com Kenji Saito marukun@mx2.nisiq.net Kenji Tomita tommyk@da2.so-net.or.jp Kenneth Furge kenneth.furge@us.endress.com Kenneth Monville desmo@bandwidth.org Kenneth R. Westerback krw@tcn.net Kenneth Stailey kstailey@gnu.ai.mit.edu Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kent Vander Velden graphix@iastate.edu Kentaro Inagaki JBD01226@niftyserve.ne.jp Kevin Bracey kbracey@art.acorn.co.uk Kevin Day toasty@dragondata.com Kevin Lahey kml@nas.nasa.gov Kevin Lokevlo@hello.com.tw Kevin Meltzer perlguy@perlguy.com Kevin Street street@iname.com Kevin Van Maren vanmaren@fast.cs.utah.edu Kiril Mitev kiril@ideaglobal.com Kiroh HARADA kiroh@kh.rim.or.jp Klaus Klein kleink@layla.inka.de Klaus-J. Wolf Yanestra@t-online.de Koichi Sato copan@ppp.fastnet.or.jp Kostya Lukin lukin@okbmei.msk.su Kouichi Hirabayashi kh@mogami-wire.co.jp Kris Dow kris@vilnya.demon.co.uk KUNISHIMA Takeo kunishi@c.oka-pu.ac.jp Kurt D. Zeilenga Kurt@Boolean.NET Kurt Olsen kurto@tiny.mcs.usu.edu L. Jonas Olsson ljo@ljo-slip.DIALIN.CWRU.Edu Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM Lars Köller Lars.Koeller@Uni-Bielefeld.DE Laurence Lopez lopez@mv.mv.com Lee Cremeans lcremean@tidalwave.net Liang Tai-hwa avatar@www.mmlab.cse.yzu.edu.tw Lon Willett lon%softt.uucp@math.utah.edu Louis A. Mamakos louie@TransSys.COM Louis Mamakos loiue@TransSys.com Lowell Gilbert lowell@world.std.com Lucas James Lucas.James@ldjpc.apana.org.au Lyndon Nerenberg lyndon@orthanc.ab.ca M.C. Wong unknown Magnus Enbom dot@tinto.campus.luth.se Mahesh Neelakanta mahesh@gcomm.com Makoto MATSUSHITA matusita@jp.FreeBSD.org Makoto WATANABE watanabe@zlab.phys.nagoya-u.ac.jp Malte Lance malte.lance@gmx.net MANTANI Nobutaka nobutaka@nobutaka.com Manu Iyengar iyengar@grunthos.pscwa.psca.com Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Marc Ramirez mrami@mramirez.sy.yale.edu Marc Slemko marcs@znep.com Marc van Kempen wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl Marc van Woerkom van.woerkom@netcologne.de Marcin Cieslak saper@system.pl Mario Sergio Fujikawa Ferreira lioux@gns.com.br Mark Andrews unknown Mark Cammidge mark@gmtunx.ee.uct.ac.za Mark Diekhans markd@grizzly.com Mark Huizer xaa@stack.nl Mark J. Taylor mtaylor@cybernet.com Mark Krentel krentel@rice.edu Mark Mayo markm@vmunix.com Mark Thompson thompson@tgsoft.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu Mark Treacy unknown Mark Valentine mark@linus.demon.co.uk Markus Holmberg saska@acc.umu.se Martin Birgmeier Martin Blapp blapp@attic.ch Martin Ibert mib@ppe.bb-data.de Martin Kammerhofer dada@sbox.tu-graz.ac.at Martin Minkus diskiller@cnbinc.com Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Martti Kuparinen martti.kuparinen@ericsson.com Mas.TAKEMURA unknown Masachika ISHIZUKA ishizuka@isis.min.ntt.jp Masafumi NAKANE max@wide.ad.jp Masahiro Sekiguchi seki@sysrap.cs.fujitsu.co.jp Masanobu Saitoh msaitoh@spa.is.uec.ac.jp Masanori Kanaoka kana@saijo.mke.mei.co.jp Masanori Kiriake seiken@ARGV.AC Masatoshi TAMURA tamrin@shinzan.kuee.kyoto-u.ac.jp Mats Lofkvist mal@algonet.se Matt Bartley mbartley@lear35.cytex.com Matt Heckaman matt@LUCIDA.QC.CA Matt Thomas matt@3am-software.com Matt White mwhite+@CMU.EDU Matthew C. Mead mmead@Glock.COM Matthew Cashdollar mattc@rfcnet.com Matthew Flatt mflatt@cs.rice.edu Matthew Fuller fullermd@futuresouth.com Matthew Stein matt@bdd.net Matthew West mwest@uct.ac.za Matthias Pfaller leo@dachau.marco.de Matthias Scheler tron@netbsd.org Mattias Gronlund Mattias.Gronlund@sa.erisoft.se Mattias Pantzare pantzer@ludd.luth.se Maurice Castro maurice@planet.serc.rmit.edu.au Max Euston meuston@jmrodgers.com Max Khon fjoe@husky.iclub.nsu.ru Maxim Bolotin max@rsu.ru Micha Class michael_class@hpbbse.bbn.hp.com Michael Lucas mwlucas@blackhelicopters.org Michael Butler imb@scgt.oz.au Michael Butschky butsch@computi.erols.com Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Elbel me@FreeBSD.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Michael Hancock michaelh@cet.co.jp Michael Hohmuth hohmuth@inf.tu-dresden.de Michael Perlman canuck@caam.rice.edu Michael Petry petry@netwolf.NetMasters.com Michael Reifenberger root@totum.plaut.de Michael Sardo jaeger16@yahoo.com Michael Searle searle@longacre.demon.co.uk Michael Vasilenko acid@stu.cn.ua Michal Listos mcl@Amnesiac.123.org Michio Karl Jinbo karl@marcer.nagaokaut.ac.jp Miguel Angel Sagreras msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar MIHIRA Sanpei Yoshiro sanpei@sanpei.org Mihoko Tanaka m_tonaka@pa.yokogawa.co.jp Mika Nystrom mika@cs.caltech.edu Mikael Hybsch micke@dynas.se Mikael Karpberg karpen@ocean.campus.luth.se Mike Del repenting@hotmail.com Mike Durian durian@plutotech.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Mike E. Matsnev mike@azog.cs.msu.su Mike Evans mevans@candle.com Mike Grupenhoff kashmir@umiacs.umd.edu Mike Hibler mike@marker.cs.utah.edu Mike Karels unknown Mike McGaughey mmcg@cs.monash.edu.au Mike Meyer mwm@shiva.the-park.com Mike Mitchell mitchell@ref.tfs.com Mike Murphy mrm@alpharel.com Mike Peck mike@binghamton.edu Mike Sherwood mike@fate.com Mike Spengler mks@msc.edu Mikhail A. Sokolov mishania@demos.su Mikhail Teterin mi@aldan.ziplink.net Ming-I Hseh PA@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW MITA Yoshio mita@jp.FreeBSD.org MITSUNAGA Noriaki mitchy@er.ams.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp Mitsuru Yoshida mitsuru@riken.go.jp Monte Mitzelfelt monte@gonefishing.org Morgan Davis root@io.cts.com MOROHOSHI Akihiko moro@race.u-tokyo.ac.jp Mostyn Lewis mostyn@mrl.com Motomichi Matsuzaki mzaki@e-mail.ne.jp Motoyuki Kasahara m-kasahr@sra.co.jp N.G.Smith ngs@sesame.hensa.ac.uk Nadav Eiron nadav@barcode.co.il NAGAO Tadaaki nagao@cs.titech.ac.jp NAKAJI Hiroyuki nakaji@tutrp.tut.ac.jp NAKAMURA Kazushi nkazushi@highway.or.jp NAKAMURA Motonori motonori@econ.kyoto-u.ac.jp Nanbor Wang nw1@cs.wustl.edu Naofumi Honda honda@Kururu.math.sci.hokudai.ac.jp Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Narvi narvi@haldjas.folklore.ee Nathan Ahlstrom nrahlstr@winternet.com Nathan Dorfman nathan@rtfm.net Neal Fachan kneel@ishiboo.com Niall Smart rotel@indigo.ie Nick Barnes Nick.Barnes@pobox.com Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com Nick Hilliard nick@foobar.org Nick Johnson freebsd@spatula.net &a.nsayer; Nick Williams njw@cs.city.ac.uk Nickolay N. Dudorov nnd@itfs.nsk.su NIIMI Satoshi sa2c@and.or.jp Niklas Hallqvist niklas@filippa.appli.se Nisha Talagala nisha@cs.berkeley.edu No Name adrian@virginia.edu No Name alex@elvisti.kiev.ua No Name anto@netscape.net No Name bobson@egg.ics.nitch.ac.jp No Name bovynf@awe.be No Name burg@is.ge.com No Name chris@gnome.co.uk No Name colsen@usa.net No Name coredump@nervosa.com No Name dannyman@arh0300.urh.uiuc.edu No Name davids@SECNET.COM No Name derek@free.org No Name devet@adv.IAEhv.nl No Name djv@bedford.net No Name dvv@sprint.net No Name enami@ba2.so-net.or.jp No Name flash@eru.tubank.msk.su No Name flash@hway.ru No Name fn@pain.csrv.uidaho.edu No Name frf@xocolatl.com No Name gclarkii@netport.neosoft.com No Name gordon@sheaky.lonestar.org No Name graaf@iae.nl No Name greg@greg.rim.or.jp No Name grossman@cygnus.com No Name gusw@fub46.zedat.fu-berlin.de No Name hfir@math.rochester.edu No Name hnokubi@yyy.or.jp No Name iaint@css.tuu.utas.edu.au No Name invis@visi.com No Name ishisone@sra.co.jp No Name iverson@lionheart.com No Name jpt@magic.net No Name junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr No Name k-sugyou@ccs.mt.nec.co.jp No Name kenji@reseau.toyonaka.osaka.jp No Name kfurge@worldnet.att.net No Name lh@aus.org No Name lhecking@nmrc.ucc.ie No Name mrgreen@mame.mu.oz.au No Name nakagawa@jp.FreeBSD.org No Name ohki@gssm.otsuka.tsukuba.ac.jp No Name owaki@st.rim.or.jp No Name pechter@shell.monmouth.com No Name pete@pelican.pelican.com No Name pritc003@maroon.tc.umn.edu No Name risner@stdio.com No Name roman@rpd.univ.kiev.ua No Name root@ns2.redline.ru No Name root@uglabgw.ug.cs.sunysb.edu No Name stephen.ma@jtec.com.au No Name sumii@is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp No Name takas-su@is.aist-nara.ac.jp No Name tamone@eig.unige.ch No Name tjevans@raleigh.ibm.com No Name tony-o@iij.ad.jp amurai@spec.co.jp No Name torii@tcd.hitachi.co.jp No Name uenami@imasy.or.jp No Name uhlar@netlab.sk No Name vode@hut.fi No Name wlloyd@mpd.ca No Name wlr@furball.wellsfargo.com No Name wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl No Name yamagata@nwgpc.kek.jp No Name ziggy@ryan.org No Name ZW6T-KND@j.asahi-net.or.jp Nobuhiro Yasutomi nobu@psrc.isac.co.jp Nobuyuki Koganemaru kogane@koganemaru.co.jp NOKUBI Hirotaka h-nokubi@yyy.or.jp Norio Suzuki nosuzuki@e-mail.ne.jp Noritaka Ishizumi graphite@jp.FreeBSD.org Noriyuki Soda soda@sra.co.jp Oh Junseon hollywar@mail.holywar.net Olaf Wagner wagner@luthien.in-berlin.de Oleg Semyonov os@altavista.net Oleg Sharoiko os@rsu.ru Oleg V. Volkov rover@lglobus.ru Oliver Breuninger ob@seicom.NET Oliver Friedrichs oliver@secnet.com Oliver Fromme oliver.fromme@heim3.tu-clausthal.de Oliver Laumann net@informatik.uni-bremen.de Oliver Oberdorf oly@world.std.com Olof Johansson offe@ludd.luth.se Osokin Sergey aka oZZ ozz@FreeBSD.org.ru Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paco Rosich rosich@modico.eleinf.uv.es Palle Girgensohn girgen@partitur.se Parag Patel parag@cgt.com Pascal Pederiva pascal@zuo.dec.com Pasvorn Boonmark boonmark@juniper.net Patrick Hausen unknown Patrick Seal patseal@hyperhost.net Paul Antonov apg@demos.su Paul F. Werkowski unknown Paul Fox pgf@foxharp.boston.ma.us Paul Koch koch@thehub.com.au Paul Kranenburg pk@NetBSD.org Paul M. Lambert plambert@plambert.net Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Paul S. LaFollette, Jr. unknown Paul Sandys myj@nyct.net Paul T. Root proot@horton.iaces.com Paul Vixie paul@vix.com Paulo Menezes paulo@isr.uc.pt Paulo Menezes pm@dee.uc.pt Pedro A M Vazquez vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR Pedro Giffuni giffunip@asme.org Pete Bentley pete@demon.net Peter Childs pjchilds@imforei.apana.org.au Peter Cornelius pc@inr.fzk.de Peter Haight peterh@prognet.com Peter Jeremy perer.jeremy@alcatel.com.au Peter M. Chen pmchen@eecs.umich.edu Peter Much peter@citylink.dinoex.sub.org Peter Olsson unknown Peter Philipp pjp@bsd-daemon.net Peter Stubbs PETERS@staidan.qld.edu.au Phil Maker pjm@cs.ntu.edu.au Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Phil Taylor phil@zipmail.co.uk Philip Musumeci philip@rmit.edu.au Pierre Y. Dampure pierre.dampure@k2c.co.uk Pius Fischer pius@ienet.com Pomegranate daver@flag.blackened.net Powerdog Industries kevin.ruddy@powerdog.com Priit Järv priit@cc.ttu.ee R Joseph Wright rjoseph@mammalia.org R. Kym Horsell Rajesh Vaidheeswarran rv@fore.com Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Randal S. Masutani randal@comtest.com Randall Hopper rhh@ct.picker.com Randall W. Dean rwd@osf.org Randy Bush rbush@bainbridge.verio.net Reinier Bezuidenhout rbezuide@mikom.csir.co.za Remy Card Remy.Card@masi.ibp.fr Ricardas Cepas rch@richard.eu.org Riccardo Veraldi veraldi@cs.unibo.it Rich Wood rich@FreeBSD.org.uk Richard Henderson richard@atheist.tamu.edu Richard Hwang rhwang@bigpanda.com Richard Kiss richard@homemail.com Richard J Kuhns rjk@watson.grauel.com Richard M. Neswold rneswold@drmemory.fnal.gov Richard Seaman, Jr. dick@tar.com Richard Stallman rms@gnu.ai.mit.edu Richard Straka straka@user1.inficad.com Richard Tobin richard@cogsci.ed.ac.uk Richard Wackerbarth rkw@Dataplex.NET Richard Winkel rich@math.missouri.edu Richard Wiwatowski rjwiwat@adelaide.on.net Rick Macklem rick@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Rick Macklin unknown Rob Austein sra@epilogue.com Rob Mallory rmallory@qualcomm.com Rob Snow rsnow@txdirect.net Robert Crowe bob@speakez.com Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Robert Eckardt roberte@MEP.Ruhr-Uni-Bochum.de Robert Sanders rsanders@mindspring.com Robert Sexton robert@kudra.com Robert Shady rls@id.net Robert Swindells swindellsr@genrad.co.uk Robert Withrow witr@rwwa.com Robert Yoder unknown Robin Carey robin@mailgate.dtc.rankxerox.co.uk Roger Hardiman roger@cs.strath.ac.uk Roland Jesse jesse@cs.uni-magdeburg.de Roman Shterenzon roman@xpert.com Ron Bickers rbickers@intercenter.net Ron Lenk rlenk@widget.xmission.com Ronald Kuehn kuehn@rz.tu-clausthal.de Rudolf Cejka cejkar@dcse.fee.vutbr.cz Ruslan Belkin rus@home2.UA.net Ruslan Shevchenko rssh@cam.grad.kiev.ua Russell L. Carter rcarter@pinyon.org Russell Vincent rv@groa.uct.ac.za Ryan Younce ryany@pobox.com Sakai Hiroaki sakai@miya.ee.kagu.sut.ac.jp Sakari Jalovaara sja@tekla.fi Sam Hartman hartmans@mit.edu Samuel Lam skl@ScalableNetwork.com Samuele Zannoli zannoli@cs.unibo.it Sander Janssen janssen@rendo.dekooi.nl Sander Vesik sander@haldjas.folklore.ee Sandro Sigala ssigala@globalnet.it SANETO Takanori sanewo@strg.sony.co.jp SASAKI Shunsuke ele@pop17.odn.ne.jp Sascha Blank blank@fox.uni-trier.de Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Satoh Junichi junichi@astec.co.jp SAWADA Mizuki miz@qb3.so-net.ne.jp Scot Elliott scot@poptart.org Scot W. Hetzel hetzels@westbend.net Scott A. Kenney saken@rmta.ml.org Scott Blachowicz scott.blachowicz@seaslug.org Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Hazen Mueller scott@zorch.sf-bay.org Scott Michel scottm@cs.ucla.edu Scott Mitchel scott@uk.FreeBSD.org Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sebastian Strollo seb@erix.ericsson.se Serge A. Babkin babkin@hq.icb.chel.su Serge V. Vakulenko vak@zebub.msk.su Sergei Chechetkin csl@whale.sunbay.crimea.ua Sergei S. Laskavy laskavy@pc759.cs.msu.su Sergey Gershtein sg@mplik.ru Sergey Kosyakov ks@itp.ac.ru Sergey Potapov sp@alkor.ru Sergey Shkonda serg@bcs.zp.ua Sergey V.Dorokhov svd@kbtelecom.nalnet.ru Sergio Lenzi lenzi@bsi.com.br Shaun Courtney shaun@emma.eng.uct.ac.za Shawn M. Carey smcarey@mailbox.syr.edu Shigio Yamaguchi shigio@tamacom.com Shinya Esu esu@yk.rim.or.jp Shuichi Tanaka stanaka@bb.mbn.or.jp Shunsuke Akiyama akiyama@jp.FreeBSD.org Simon simon@masi.ibp.fr Simon Burge simonb@telstra.com.au Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au Simon Marlow simonm@dcs.gla.ac.uk Simon Shapiro shimon@simon-shapiro.org Sin'ichiro MIYATANI siu@phaseone.co.jp Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de Soochon Radee slr@mitre.org Soren Dayton csdayton@midway.uchicago.edu Soren Dossing sauber@netcom.com Soren S. Jorvang soren@dt.dk Stefan Bethke stb@hanse.de Stefan Eggers seggers@semyam.dinoco.de Stefan Moeding s.moeding@ndh.net Stefan Petri unknown Stefan `Sec` Zehl sec@42.org Steinar Haug sthaug@nethelp.no Stephane E. Potvin sepotvin@videotron.ca Stephane Legrand stephane@lituus.fr Stephen Clawson sclawson@marker.cs.utah.edu Stephen F. Combs combssf@salem.ge.com Stephen Farrell stephen@farrell.org Stephen Hocking sysseh@devetir.qld.gov.au Stephen J. Roznowski sjr@home.net Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Stephen Melvin melvin@zytek.com Steve Bauer sbauer@rock.sdsmt.edu Steve Coltrin spcoltri@unm.edu Steve Deering unknown Steve Gerakines steve2@genesis.tiac.net Steve Gericke steveg@comtrol.com Steve Piette steve@simon.chi.il.US Steve Schwarz schwarz@alpharel.com Steven G. Kargl kargl@troutmask.apl.washington.edu Steven H. Samorodin samorodi@NUXI.com Steven McCanne mccanne@cs.berkeley.edu Steven Plite splite@purdue.edu Steven Wallace unknown Stuart Henderson stuart@internationalschool.co.uk Sue Blake sue@welearn.com.au Sugimoto Sadahiro ixtl@komaba.utmc.or.jp SUGIMURA Takashi sugimura@jp.FreeBSD.org Sugiura Shiro ssugiura@duo.co.jp Sujal Patel smpatel@wam.umd.edu Sune Stjerneby stjerneby@usa.net SURANYI Peter suranyip@jks.is.tsukuba.ac.jp Suzuki Yoshiaki zensyo@ann.tama.kawasaki.jp Tadashi Kumano kumano@strl.nhk.or.jp Taguchi Takeshi taguchi@tohoku.iij.ad.jp Takahiro Yugawa yugawa@orleans.rim.or.jp Takanori Watanabe takawata@shidahara1.planet.sci.kobe-u.ac.jp Takashi Mega mega@minz.org Takashi Uozu j1594016@ed.kagu.sut.ac.jp Takayuki Ariga a00821@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Takeru NAIKI naiki@bfd.es.hokudai.ac.jp Takeshi Amaike amaike@iri.co.jp Takeshi MUTOH mutoh@info.nara-k.ac.jp Takeshi Ohashi ohashi@mickey.ai.kyutech.ac.jp Takeshi WATANABE watanabe@crayon.earth.s.kobe-u.ac.jp Takuya SHIOZAKI tshiozak@makino.ise.chuo-u.ac.jp Tatoku Ogaito tacha@tera.fukui-med.ac.jp Ted Buswell tbuswell@mediaone.net Ted Faber faber@isi.edu Ted Lemon mellon@isc.org Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tetsuya Furukawa tetsuya@secom-sis.co.jp Theo de Raadt deraadt@OpenBSD.org Thomas thomas@mathematik.uni-Bremen.de Thomas D. Dean tomdean@ix.netcom.com Thomas David Rivers rivers@dignus.com Thomas G. McWilliams tgm@netcom.com Thomas Graichen graichen@omega.physik.fu-berlin.de Thomas König Thomas.Koenig@ciw.uni-karlsruhe.de Thomas Ptacek unknown Thomas A. Stephens tas@stephens.org Thomas Stromberg tstrombe@rtci.com Thomas Valentino Crimi tcrimi+@andrew.cmu.edu Thomas Wintergerst thomas@lemur.nord.de Þórður Ívarsson totii@est.is Timothy Jensen toast@blackened.com Tim Kientzle kientzle@netcom.com Tim Singletary tsingle@sunland.gsfc.nasa.gov Tim Wilkinson tim@sarc.city.ac.uk Timo J. Rinne tri@iki.fi Todd Miller millert@openbsd.org Tom root@majestix.cmr.no Tom tom@sdf.com Tom Gray - DCA dcasba@rain.org Tom Jobbins tom@tom.tj Tom Pusateri pusateri@juniper.net Tom Rush tarush@mindspring.com Tom Samplonius tom@misery.sdf.com Tomohiko Kurahashi kura@melchior.q.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Tony Kimball alk@Think.COM Tony Li tli@jnx.com Tony Lynn wing@cc.nsysu.edu.tw Tony Maher Tony.Maher@eBioinformatics.com Torbjorn Granlund tege@matematik.su.se Toshihiko ARAI toshi@tenchi.ne.jp Toshihiko SHIMOKAWA toshi@tea.forus.or.jp Toshihiro Kanda candy@kgc.co.jp Toshiomi Moriki Toshiomi.Moriki@ma1.seikyou.ne.jp Trefor S. trefor@flevel.co.uk Trevor Blackwell tlb@viaweb.com Trevor Johnson trevor@jpj.net Udo Schweigert ust@cert.siemens.de Ugo Paternostro paterno@dsi.unifi.it Ulf Kieber kieber@sax.de Ulli Linzen ulli@perceval.camelot.de URATA Shuichiro s-urata@nmit.tmg.nec.co.jp Ustimenko Semen semen@iclub.nsu.ru Uwe Arndt arndt@mailhost.uni-koblenz.de Vadim Chekan vadim@gc.lviv.ua Vadim Kolontsov vadim@tversu.ac.ru Vadim Mikhailov mvp@braz.ru Valentin Nechayev netch@lucky.net Van Jacobson van@ee.lbl.gov Vasily V. Grechishnikov bazilio@ns1.ied-vorstu.ac.ru Vasim Valejev vasim@uddias.diaspro.com Vernon J. Schryver vjs@mica.denver.sgi.com Vic Abell abe@cc.purdue.edu Ville Eerola ve@sci.fi Vince Valenti vince@blue-box.net Vincent Poy vince@venus.gaianet.net Vincenzo Capuano VCAPUANO@vmprofs.esoc.esa.de Virgil Champlin champlin@pa.dec.com Vladimir A. Jakovenko vovik@ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Vladimir Kushnir kushn@mail.kar.net Vsevolod Lobko seva@alex-ua.com W. Gerald Hicks wghicks@bellsouth.net W. Richard Stevens rstevens@noao.edu Walt Howard howard@ee.utah.edu Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wayne Scott wscott@ichips.intel.com Werner Griessl werner@btp1da.phy.uni-bayreuth.de Wes Santee wsantee@wsantee.oz.net Wietse Venema wietse@wzv.win.tue.nl Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de Willem Jan Withagen wjw@surf.IAE.nl William Jolitz withheld William Liao william@tale.net Wojtek Pilorz wpilorz@celebris.bdk.lublin.pl Wolfgang Helbig helbig@ba-stuttgart.de Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@FreeBSD.org Wu Ching-hong woju@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW Yarema yds@ingress.com Yaroslav Terletsky ts@polynet.lviv.ua Yasuhiro Fukama yasuf@big.or.jp Yasuhito FUTATSUKI futatuki@fureai.or.jp Yen-Ming Lee leeym@bsd.ce.ntu.edu.tw Yen-Shuo Su yssu@CCCA.NCTU.edu.tw Yin-Jieh Chen yinjieh@Crazyman.Dorm13.NCTU.edu.tw Ying-Chieh Liao ijliao@csie.NCTU.edu.tw Yixin Jin yjin@rain.cs.ucla.edu Yoichi Asai yatt@msc.biglobe.ne.jp Yoshiaki Uchikawa yoshiaki@kt.rim.or.jp Yoshihiko OHTA yohta@bres.tsukuba.ac.jp Yoshihisa NAKAGAWA y-nakaga@ccs.mt.nec.co.jp Yoshikazu Goto gotoh@ae.anritsu.co.jp Yoshimasa Ohnishi ohnishi@isc.kyutech.ac.jp Yoshishige Arai ryo2@on.rim.or.jp Yuichi MATSUTAKA matutaka@osa.att.ne.jp Yujiro MIYATA miyata@bioele.nuee.nagoya-u.ac.jp Yu-Shun Wang yushunwa@isi.edu Yusuke Nawano azuki@azkey.org Yuu Yashiki s974123@cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp Yuuichi Narahara aconitum@po.teleway.ne.jp Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il Yves Fonk yves@cpcoup5.tn.tudelft.nl Yves Fonk yves@dutncp8.tn.tudelft.nl Zach Heilig zach@gaffaneys.com Zach Zurflu zach@pabst.bendnet.com Zahemszhky Gabor zgabor@code.hu Zhong Ming-Xun zmx@mail.CDPA.nsysu.edu.tw 386BSD Patch Kit Patch Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adrian Hall adrian@ibmpcug.co.uk Andrey A. Chernov ache@astral.msk.su Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew Moore alm@netcom.com Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com jtk@netcom.com Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Branko Lankester Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Chris G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Rivers rivers@ponds.uucp David Dawes dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU David Greenman dg@Root.COM Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Felix Gaehtgens felix@escape.vsse.in-berlin.de Frank Maclachlan fpm@crash.cts.com Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Guido van Rooij guido@gvr.org Guy Harris guy@auspex.com Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@novatel.cuc.ab.ca Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Ishii Masahiro, R. Kym Horsell J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James W. Dolter James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu et al Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jörg Lohse lohse@tech7.informatik.uni-hamburg.de Jörg Wunsch joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de John Dyson John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Jordan K. Hubbard jkh@whisker.hubbard.ie Julian Elischer julian@dialix.oz.au Julian Stacey jhs@FreeBSD.org Karl Dietz Karl.Dietz@triplan.com Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com karl@one.neosoft.com Keith Bostic bostic@toe.CS.Berkeley.EDU Ken Hughes Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kevin Lahey kml%rokkaku.UUCP@mathcs.emory.edu kml@mosquito.cis.ufl.edu Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Nate Williams nate@bsd.coe.montana.edu Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com nick@madhouse.neosoft.com Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paul Kranenburg pk@cs.few.eur.nl Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Peter da Silva peter@NeoSoft.com Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Poul-Henning Kampphk@FreeBSD.org Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Rick Macklem root@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Rod Taylor rod@idiotswitch.org Rodney W. Grimes rgrimes@cdrom.com Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sean Eric Fagan sef@kithrup.com Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au sjg@zen.void.oz.au Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Terry Lambert terry@icarus.weber.edu Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tor Egge Tor.Egge@idi.ntnu.no Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de William Jolitz withheld Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@dentaro.GUN.de Yuuki SAWADA mami@whale.cc.muroran-it.ac.jp Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml index ecbdd35156..009aae8860 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3213 +1,3213 @@ The Cutting Edge Restructured, reorganized, and parts updated by &a.jim; March 2000. Original work by &a.jkh;, &a.phk;, &a.jdp;, and &a.nik; with feedback from various others. Synopsis FreeBSD is under constant development between releases. For people who want to be on the cutting edge, there are several easy mechanisms for keeping your system in sync with the latest developments. Be warned—the cutting edge is not for everyone! This chapter will help you decide if you want to track the development system, or stick with one of the released versions. -CURRENT vs. -STABLE There are two development branches to FreeBSD; -CURRENT and -STABLE. This section will explain a bit about each and describe how to keep your system up-to-date with each respective tree. -CURRENT will be discussed first, then -STABLE. Staying Current with FreeBSD As you are reading this, keep in mind that -CURRENT is the - “bleeding edge” of FreeBSD development and that if you + bleeding edge of FreeBSD development and that if you are new to FreeBSD, you are most likely going to want to think twice about running it. What is FreeBSD-CURRENT? FreeBSD-CURRENT is, quite literally, nothing more than a daily snapshot of the working sources for FreeBSD. These include work in progress, experimental changes and transitional mechanisms that may or may not be present in the next official release of the software. While many of us compile almost daily from FreeBSD-CURRENT sources, there are periods of time when the sources are literally un-compilable. These problems are generally resolved as expeditiously as possible, but whether or not FreeBSD-CURRENT sources bring disaster or greatly desired functionality can literally be a matter of which part of any given 24 hour period you grabbed them in! Who needs FreeBSD-CURRENT? FreeBSD-CURRENT is made generally available for 3 primary interest groups: Members of the FreeBSD group who are actively working on some part of the source tree and for whom keeping - “current” is an absolute requirement. + current is an absolute requirement. Members of the FreeBSD group who are active testers, willing to spend time working through problems in order to ensure that FreeBSD-CURRENT remains as sane as possible. These are also people who wish to make topical suggestions on changes and the general direction of FreeBSD. Peripheral members of the FreeBSD (or some other) group who merely wish to keep an eye on things and use the current sources for reference purposes (e.g. for reading, not running). These people also make the occasional comment or contribute code. What is FreeBSD-CURRENT <emphasis>not</emphasis>? A fast-track to getting pre-release bits because you heard there is some cool new feature in there and you want to be the first on your block to have it. A quick way of getting bug fixes. - In any way “officially supported” by us. + In any way officially supported by us. We do our best to help people genuinely in one of the 3 - “legitimate” FreeBSD-CURRENT categories, but we + legitimate FreeBSD-CURRENT categories, but we simply do not have the time to provide tech support for it. This is not because we are mean and nasty people who do not like helping people out (we would not even be doing FreeBSD if we were), it is literally because we cannot answer 400 messages a day and actually work on FreeBSD! I am sure that, if given the choice between having us answer lots of questions or continuing to improve FreeBSD, most of you would vote for us improving it. Using FreeBSD-CURRENT Join the &a.current; and the &a.cvsall; . This is not just a good idea, it is essential. If you are not on the FreeBSD-CURRENT mailing list, you will not see the comments that people are making about the current state of the system and thus will probably end up stumbling over a lot of problems that others have already found and solved. Even more importantly, you will miss out on important bulletins which may be critical to your system's continued health. The &a.cvsall; mailing list will allow you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects. To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify the following in the body of your message: subscribe freebsd-current subscribe cvs-all Optionally, you can also say help and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we support. Grab the sources from ftp.FreeBSD.org. You can do this in one of three ways: Use the CTM facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection at a flat rate, this is the way to do it. Use the cvsup program with this supfile. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron and keep their sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy interface to this, simply type:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -f \ ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupit.tgz
 Use ftp. The source tree for - FreeBSD-CURRENT is always “exported” on: + FreeBSD-CURRENT is always exported on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/. We also use wu-ftpd which allows compressed/tar'd grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do the following to get the whole directory as a tar file: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration, use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM. If you are grabbing the sources to run, and not just look at, then grab all of current, not just selected portions. The reason for this is that various parts of the source depend on updates elsewhere, and trying to compile just a subset is almost guaranteed to get you into trouble. Before compiling current, read the Makefilein /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a make world the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.current; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. Be active! If you are running FreeBSD-CURRENT, we want to know what you have to say about it, especially if you have suggestions for enhancements or bug fixes. Suggestions with accompanying code are received most enthusiastically! Staying Stable with FreeBSD If you are using FreeBSD in a production environment and want to make sure you have the latest fixes from the -CURRENT branch, you want to be running -STABLE. This is the tree that -RELEASEs are branched from when we are putting together a new release. For example, if you have a copy of 3.4-RELEASE, that is really just a - “snapshot” from the -STABLE branch that we put on + snapshot from the -STABLE branch that we put on CDROM. In order to get any changes merged into -STABLE after the - -RELEASE, you need to “track” the -STABLE + -RELEASE, you need to track the -STABLE branch. What is FreeBSD-STABLE? FreeBSD-STABLE is our development branch for a more low-key and conservative set of changes intended for our next mainstream release. Changes of an experimental or untested nature do not go into this branch (see FreeBSD-CURRENT). Who needs FreeBSD-STABLE? If you are a commercial user or someone who puts maximum stability of their FreeBSD system before all other concerns, you should consider tracking stable. This is especially true if you have installed the most recent release (&rel.current;-RELEASE at the time of this writing) since the stable branch is effectively a bug-fix stream relative to the previous release. The stable tree endeavors, above all, to be fully compilable and stable at all times, but we do occasionally make mistakes (these are still active sources with quickly-transmitted updates, after all). We also do our best to thoroughly test fixes in current before bringing them into stable, but sometimes our tests fail to catch every case. If something breaks for you in stable, please let us know immediately! (see next section). Using FreeBSD-STABLE Join the &a.stable;. This will keep you informed of build-dependencies that may appear in stable or any other issues requiring special attention. Developers will also make announcements in this mailing list when they are contemplating some controversial fix or update, giving the users a chance to respond if they have any issues to raise concerning the proposed change. The &a.cvsall; mailing list will allow you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects. To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify the following in the body of your message: subscribe freebsd-stable subscribe cvs-all Optionally, you can also say help and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we support. If you are installing a new system and want it to be as stable as possible, you can simply grab the latest dated branch snapshot from ftp://releng4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ and install it like any other release. If you are already running a previous release of FreeBSD and wish to upgrade via sources then you can easily do so from ftp.FreeBSD.org. This can be done in one of three ways: Use the CTM facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection at a flat rate, this is the way to do it. Use the cvsup program with this supfile. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron to keep their sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy interface to this, simply type:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -f \ ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupit.tgz
 Use ftp. The source tree for - FreeBSD-STABLE is always “exported” on: + FreeBSD-STABLE is always exported on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-stable/ We also use wu-ftpd which allows compressed/tar'd grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do the following to get the whole directory for you as a tar file: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration, use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM. Before compiling stable, read the Makefile in /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a make world the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.stable; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. Synchronizing Your Source There are various ways of using an Internet (or email) connection to stay up-to-date with any given area of the FreeBSD project sources, or all areas, depending on what interests you. The primary services we offer are Anonymous CVS, CVSup, and CTM. Anonymous CVS and CVSup use the pull model of updating sources. In the case of CVSup the user (or a cron script) invokes the cvsup program, and it interacts with a cvsupd server somewhere to bring your files up-to-date. The updates you receive are up-to-the-minute and you get them when, and only when, you want them. You can easily restrict your updates to the specific files or directories that are of interest to you. Updates are generated on the fly by the server, according to what you have and what you want to have. Anonymous CVS is quite a bit more simplistic than CVSup in that it's just an extension to CVS which allows it to pull changes directly from a remote CVS repository. CVSup can do this far more efficiently, but Anonymous CVS is easier to use. CTM, on the other hand, does not interactively compare the sources you have with those on the master archive or otherwise pull them across.. Instead, a script which identifies changes in files since its previous run is executed several times a day on the master CTM machine, any detected changes being compressed, stamped with a sequence-number and encoded for transmission over email (in printable ASCII only). Once received, - these “CTM deltas” can then be handed to the + these CTM deltas can then be handed to the &man.ctm.rmail.1; utility which will automatically decode, verify and apply the changes to the user's copy of the sources. This process is far more efficient than CVSup, and places less strain on our server resources since it is a push rather than a pull model. There are other trade-offs, of course. If you inadvertently wipe out portions of your archive, CVSup will detect and rebuild the damaged portions for you. CTM won't do this, and if you wipe some portion of your source tree out (and don't have it backed up) then you will have to start from scratch (from the most recent CVS - “base delta”) and rebuild it all with CTM or, with + base delta) and rebuild it all with CTM or, with anoncvs, simply delete the bad bits and resync. More information about Anonymous CVS, CTM, and CVSup is available further down in this section. Anonymous CVS <anchor id="anoncvs-intro">Introduction Anonymous CVS (or, as it is otherwise known, anoncvs) is a feature provided by the CVS utilities bundled with FreeBSD for synchronizing with a remote CVS repository. Among other things, it allows users of FreeBSD to perform, with no special privileges, read-only CVS operations against one of the FreeBSD project's official anoncvs servers. To use it, one simply sets the CVSROOT environment variable to point at the appropriate anoncvs server, provides the well-known password anoncvs with the cvs login command, and then uses the &man.cvs.1; command to access it like any local repository. While it can also be said that the CVSup and anoncvs services both perform essentially the same function, there are various trade-offs which can influence the user's choice of synchronization methods. In a nutshell, CVSup is much more efficient in its usage of network resources and is by far the most technically sophisticated of the two, but at a price. To use CVSup, a special client must first be installed and configured before any bits can be grabbed, and then only in the fairly large chunks which CVSup calls collections. Anoncvs, by contrast, can be used to examine anything from an individual file to a specific program (like ls or grep) by referencing the CVS module name. Of course, anoncvs is also only good for read-only operations on the CVS repository, so if it's your intention to support local development in one repository shared with the FreeBSD project bits then CVSup is really your only option. <anchor id="anoncvs-usage">Using Anonymous CVS Configuring &man.cvs.1; to use an Anonymous CVS repository is a simple matter of setting the CVSROOT environment variable to point to one of the FreeBSD project's anoncvs servers. At the time of this writing, the following servers are available: USA: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (Use cvs login and enter the password anoncvs when prompted.) - Since CVS allows one to “check out” virtually + Since CVS allows one to check out virtually any version of the FreeBSD sources that ever existed (or, in some cases, will exist :-), you need to be familiar with the revision () flag to &man.cvs.1; and what some of the permissible values for it in the FreeBSD Project repository are. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today. Here are the branch tags that users might be interested in (keep in mind that the only tags valid for the ports collection is HEAD). HEAD Symbolic name for the main line, or FreeBSD-CURRENT. Also the default when no revision is specified. RELENG_3 The line of development for FreeBSD-3.X, also known as FreeBSD-STABLE. RELENG_2_2 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.X, also known as 2.2-STABLE. This branch is mostly obsolete. Here are the revision tags that users might be interested in. Again, none of these are valid for the ports collection since the ports collection does not have multiple revisions. RELENG_3_4_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.4. RELENG_3_3_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.3. RELENG_3_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.2. RELENG_3_1_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.1. RELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.0. RELENG_2_2_8_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.8. RELENG_2_2_7_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.7. RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.6. RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.5. RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.2. RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.1. RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.0. When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the flag. See the &man.cvs.1; man page for more details. Examples While it really is recommended that you read the manual page for &man.cvs.1; thoroughly before doing anything, here are some quick examples which essentially show how to use Anonymous CVS: Checking out something from -CURRENT (&man.ls.1;) and deleting it again: &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs co ls &prompt.user; cvs release -d ls &prompt.user; cvs logout Checking out the version of &man.ls.1; in the 2.2-STABLE branch: &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs co -rRELENG_2_2 ls &prompt.user; cvs release -d ls &prompt.user; cvs logout Creating a list of changes (as unidiffs) to &man.ls.1; &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs rdiff -u -rRELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE -rRELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE ls &prompt.user; cvs logout Finding out what other module names can be used: &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs co modules &prompt.user; more modules/modules &prompt.user; cvs release -d modules &prompt.user; cvs logout Other Resources The following additional resources may be helpful in learning CVS: CVS Tutorial from Cal Poly. Cyclic Software, commercial maintainers of CVS. CVSWeb is the FreeBSD Project web interface for CVS. <application>CVSup</application> Introduction CVSup is a software package for distributing and updating source trees from a master CVS repository on a remote server host. The FreeBSD sources are maintained in a CVS repository on a central development machine in California. With CVSup, FreeBSD users can easily keep their own source trees up to date. CVSup uses the so-called pull model of updating. Under the pull model, each client asks the server for updates, if and when they are wanted. The server waits passively for update requests from its clients. Thus all updates are instigated by the client. The server never sends unsolicited updates. Users must either run the CVSup client manually to get an update, or they must set up a cron job to run it automatically on a regular basis. The term CVSup, capitalized just so, refers to the entire software package. Its main components are the client cvsup which runs on each user's machine, and the server cvsupd which runs at each of the FreeBSD mirror sites. As you read the FreeBSD documentation and mailing lists, you may see references to sup. Sup was the predecessor of CVSup, and it served a similar purpose.CVSup is in used in much the same way as sup and, in fact, uses configuration files which are backward-compatible with sup's. Sup is no longer used in the FreeBSD project, because CVSup is both faster and more flexible. Installation The easiest way to install CVSup is to use the net/cvsup-bin port from the FreeBSD ports collection. If you prefer to build CVSup from source, you can use the net/cvsup port instead. But be forewarned: the net/cvsup port depends on the Modula-3 system, which takes a substantial amount of time, memory, and disk space to build. If you do not know anything about cvsup at all and want a single package which will install it, set up the configuration file and start the transfer via a pointy-clicky type of interface, then get the cvsupit package. Just hand it to &man.pkg.add.1; and it will lead you through the configuration process in a menu-oriented fashion. CVSup Configuration CVSup's operation is controlled by a configuration file called the supfile. There are some sample supfiles in the directory /usr/share/examples/cvsup/. The information in a supfile answers the following questions for cvsup: Which files do you want to receive? Which versions of them do you want? Where do you want to get them from? Where do you want to put them on your own machine? Where do you want to put your status files? In the following sections, we will construct a typical supfile by answering each of these questions in turn. First, we describe the overall structure of a supfile. A supfile is a text file. Comments begin with # and extend to the end of the line. Lines that are blank and lines that contain only comments are ignored. Each remaining line describes a set of files that the user wishes to receive. The line begins with the name of a - “collection”, a logical grouping of files defined by + collection, a logical grouping of files defined by the server. The name of the collection tells the server which files you want. After the collection name come zero or more fields, separated by white space. These fields answer the questions listed above. There are two types of fields: flag fields and value fields. A flag field consists of a keyword standing alone, e.g., delete or compress. A value field also begins with a keyword, but the keyword is followed without intervening white space by = and a second word. For example, release=cvs is a value field. A supfile typically specifies more than one collection to receive. One way to structure a supfile is to specify all of the relevant fields explicitly for each collection. However, that tends to make the supfile lines quite long, and it is inconvenient because most fields are the same for all of the collections in a supfile. CVSup provides a defaulting mechanism to avoid these problems. Lines beginning with the special pseudo-collection name *default can be used to set flags and values which will be used as defaults for the subsequent collections in the supfile. A default value can be overridden for an individual collection, by specifying a different value with the collection itself. Defaults can also be changed or augmented in mid-supfile by additional *default lines. With this background, we will now proceed to construct a supfile for receiving and updating the main source tree of FreeBSD-CURRENT. Which files do you want to receive? The files available via CVSup are organized into named groups called - “collections”. The collections that are + collections. The collections that are available are described here. In this example, we wish to receive the entire main source tree for the FreeBSD system. There is a single large collection src-all which will give us all of that, except the export-controlled cryptography support. Let us assume for this example that we are in the USA or Canada. Then we can get the cryptography code with one additional collection, cvs-crypto. As a first step toward constructing our supfile, we simply list these collections, one per line: src-all cvs-crypto Which version(s) of them do you want? With CVSup, you can receive virtually any version of the sources that ever existed. That is possible because the cvsupd server works directly from the CVS repository, which contains all of the versions. You specify which one of them you want using the tag= and value fields. Be very careful to specify any tag= fields correctly. Some tags are valid only for certain collections of files. If you specify an incorrect or misspelled tag, CVSup will delete files which you probably do not want deleted. In particular, use only tag=. for the ports-* collections. The tag= field names a symbolic tag in the repository. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today. Here are the branch tags that users might be interested in. Keep in mind that only the tag=. is relevant for the ports collection. tag=. The main line of development, also known as FreeBSD-CURRENT. The . is not punctuation; it is the name of the tag. Valid for all collections. RELENG_3 The line of development for FreeBSD-3.X, also known as FreeBSD-STABLE. RELENG_2_2 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.X, also known as 2.2-STABLE. Here are the revision tags that users might be interested in. Again, these are not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_3_4_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.4. tag=RELENG_3_3_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.3. tag=RELENG_3_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.2. tag=RELENG_3_1_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.1. tag=RELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.0. tag=RELENG_2_2_8_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.8. tag=RELENG_2_2_7_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.7. tag=RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.6. tag=RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.5. tag=RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.2. tag=RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.1. tag=RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.0. Be very careful to type the tag name exactly as shown. CVSup cannot distinguish between valid and invalid tags. If you misspell the tag, CVSup will behave as though you had specified a valid tag which happens to refer to no files at all. It will delete your existing sources in that case. When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the value field. The &man.cvsup.1; manual page explains how to do that. For our example, we wish to receive FreeBSD-CURRENT. We add this line at the beginning of our supfile: *default tag=. There is an important special case that comes into play if you specify neither a tag= field nor a date= field. In that case, you receive the actual RCS files directly from the server's CVS repository, rather than receiving a particular version. Developers generally prefer this mode of operation. By maintaining a copy of the repository itself on their systems, they gain the ability to browse the revision histories and examine past versions of files. This gain is achieved at a large cost in terms of disk space, however. Where do you want to get them from? We use the host= field to tell cvsup where to obtain its updates. Any of the CVSup mirror sites will do, though you should try to select one that is close to you in cyberspace. In this example we will use a fictional FreeBSD distribution site, cvsup666.FreeBSD.org: *default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org You will need to change the host to one that actually exists before running CVSup. On any particular run of cvsup, you can override the host setting on the command line, with . Where do you want to put them on your own machine? The prefix= field tells cvsup where to put the files it receives. In this example, we will put the source files directly into our main source tree, /usr/src. The src directory is already implicit in the collections we have chosen to receive, so this is the correct specification: *default prefix=/usr Where should cvsup maintain its status files? The cvsup client maintains certain status files in what - is called the “base” directory. These files + is called the base directory. These files help CVSup to work more efficiently, by keeping track of which updates you have already received. We will use the standard base directory, /usr/local/etc/cvsup: *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup This setting is used by default if it is not specified in the supfile, so we actually do not need the above line. If your base directory does not already exist, now would be a good time to create it. The cvsup client will refuse to run if the base directory does not exist. Miscellaneous supfile settings: There is one more line of boiler plate that normally needs to be present in the supfile: *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress release=cvs indicates that the server should get its information out of the main FreeBSD CVS repository. This is virtually always the case, but there are other possibilities which are beyond the scope of this discussion. delete gives CVSup permission to delete files. You should always specify this, so that CVSup can keep your source tree fully up-to-date. CVSup is careful to delete only those files for which it is responsible. Any extra files you happen to have will be left strictly alone. use-rel-suffix is ... arcane. If you really want to know about it, see the &man.cvsup.1; manual page. Otherwise, just specify it and do not worry about it. compress enables the use of gzip-style compression on the communication channel. If your network link is T1 speed or faster, you probably should not use compression. Otherwise, it helps substantially. Putting it all together: Here is the entire supfile for our example: *default tag=. *default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org *default prefix=/usr *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress src-all cvs-crypto Running <application>CVSup</application> You are now ready to try an update. The command line for doing this is quite simple: &prompt.root; cvsup supfile where supfile is of course the name of the supfile you have just created. Assuming you are running under X11, cvsup will display a GUI window with some buttons to do the usual - things. Press the “go” button, and watch it + things. Press the go button, and watch it run. Since you are updating your actual /usr/src tree in this example, you will need to run the program as root so that cvsup has the permissions it needs to update your files. Having just created your configuration file, and having never used this program before, that might understandably make you nervous. There is an easy way to do a trial run without touching your precious files. Just create an empty directory somewhere convenient, and name it as an extra argument on the command line: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/dest &prompt.root; cvsup supfile /var/tmp/dest The directory you specify will be used as the destination directory for all file updates. CVSup will examine your usual files in /usr/src, but it will not modify or delete any of them. Any file updates will instead land in /var/tmp/dest/usr/src. CVSup will also leave its base directory status files untouched when run this way. The new versions of those files will be written into the specified directory. As long as you have read access to /usr/src, you do not even need to be root to perform this kind of trial run. If you are not running X11 or if you just do not like GUIs, you should add a couple of options to the command line when you run cvsup: &prompt.root; cvsup -g -L 2 supfile The tells cvsup not to use its GUI. This is automatic if you are not running X11, but otherwise you have to specify it. The tells cvsup to print out the details of all the file updates it is doing. There are three levels of verbosity, from to . The default is 0, which means total silence except for error messages. There are plenty of other options available. For a brief list of them, type cvsup -H. For more detailed descriptions, see the manual page. Once you are satisfied with the way updates are working, you can arrange for regular runs of cvsup using &man.cron.8;. Obviously, you should not let cvsup use its GUI when running it from cron. <application>CVSup</application> File Collections The file collections available via CVSup are organized hierarchically. There are a few large collections, and they are divided into smaller sub-collections. Receiving a large collection is equivalent to receiving each of its sub-collections. The hierarchical relationships among collections are reflected by the use of indentation in the list below. The most commonly used collections are src-all, cvs-crypto, and ports-all. The other collections are used only by small groups of people for specialized purposes, and some mirror sites may not carry all of them. cvs-all release=cvs The main FreeBSD CVS repository, excluding the export-restricted cryptography code. distrib release=cvs Files related to the distribution and mirroring of FreeBSD. doc-all release=cvs Sources for the FreeBSD handbook and other documentation. ports-all release=cvs The FreeBSD ports collection. ports-archivers release=cvs Archiving tools. ports-astro release=cvs Astronomical ports. ports-audio release=cvs Sound support. ports-base release=cvs Miscellaneous files at the top of /usr/ports. ports-benchmarks release=cvs Benchmarks. ports-biology release=cvs Biology. ports-cad release=cvs Computer aided design tools. ports-chinese release=cvs Chinese language support. ports-comms release=cvs Communication software. ports-converters release=cvs character code converters. ports-databases release=cvs Databases. ports-deskutils release=cvs Things that used to be on the desktop before computers were invented. ports-devel release=cvs Development utilities. ports-editors release=cvs Editors. ports-emulators release=cvs Emulators for other operating systems. ports-ftp release=cvs FTP client and server utilities. ports-games release=cvs Games. ports-german release=cvs German language support. ports-graphics release=cvs Graphics utilities. ports-irc release=cvs Internet Relay Chat utilities. ports-japanese release=cvs Japanese language support. ports-java release=cvs Java utilities. ports-korean release=cvs Korean language support. ports-lang release=cvs Programming languages. ports-mail release=cvs Mail software. ports-math release=cvs Numerical computation software. ports-mbone release=cvs MBone applications. ports-misc release=cvs Miscellaneous utilities. ports-net release=cvs Networking software. ports-news release=cvs USENET news software. ports-palm release=cvs Software support for 3Com Palm(tm) series. ports-print release=cvs Printing software. ports-russian release=cvs Russian language support. ports-security release=cvs Security utilities. ports-shells release=cvs Command line shells. ports-sysutils release=cvs System utilities. ports-textproc release=cvs text processing utilities (does not include desktop publishing). ports-vietnamese release=cvs Vietnamese language support. ports-www release=cvs Software related to the World Wide Web. ports-x11 release=cvs Ports to support the X window system. ports-x11-clocks release=cvs X11 clocks. ports-x11-fm release=cvs X11 file managers. ports-x11-fonts release=cvs X11 fonts and font utilities. ports-x11-toolkits release=cvs X11 toolkits. ports-x11-servers X11 servers. ports-x11-wm X11 window managers. src-all release=cvs The main FreeBSD sources, excluding the export-restricted cryptography code. src-base release=cvs Miscellaneous files at the top of /usr/src. src-bin release=cvs User utilities that may be needed in single-user mode (/usr/src/bin). src-contrib release=cvs Utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/contrib). src-etc release=cvs System configuration files (/usr/src/etc). src-games release=cvs Games (/usr/src/games). src-gnu release=cvs Utilities covered by the GNU Public License (/usr/src/gnu). src-include release=cvs Header files (/usr/src/include). src-kerberos5 release=cvs Kerberos5 security package (/usr/src/kerberos5). src-kerberosIV release=cvs KerberosIV security package (/usr/src/kerberosIV). src-lib release=cvs Libraries (/usr/src/lib). src-libexec release=cvs System programs normally executed by other programs (/usr/src/libexec). src-release release=cvs Files required to produce a FreeBSD release (/usr/src/release). src-sbin release=cvs System utilities for single-user mode (/usr/src/sbin). src-share release=cvs Files that can be shared across multiple systems (/usr/src/share). src-sys release=cvs The kernel (/usr/src/sys). src-tools release=cvs Various tools for the maintenance of FreeBSD (/usr/src/tools). src-usrbin release=cvs User utilities (/usr/src/usr.bin). src-usrsbin release=cvs System utilities (/usr/src/usr.sbin). www release=cvs The sources for the World Wide Web data. cvs-crypto release=cvs The export-restricted cryptography code. src-crypto release=cvs Export-restricted utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/crypto). src-eBones release=cvs Kerberos and DES (/usr/src/eBones). Not used in current releases of FreeBSD. src-secure release=cvs DES (/usr/src/secure). src-sys-crypto release=cvs Kernel cryptography code (/usr/src/sys/crypto). distrib release=self The CVSup server's own configuration files. Used by CVSup mirror sites. gnats release=current The GNATS bug-tracking database. mail-archive release=current FreeBSD mailing list archive. www release=current The installed World Wide Web data. Used by WWW mirror sites. For more information For the CVSup FAQ and other information about CVSup, see The CVSup Home Page. Most FreeBSD-related discussion of CVSup takes place on the &a.hackers;. New versions of the software are announced there, as well as on the &a.announce;. Questions and bug reports should be addressed to the author of the program at cvsup-bugs@polstra.com. Using <command>make world</command> Once you have synchronised your local source tree against a particular version of FreeBSD (stable, current and so on) you must then use the source tree to rebuild the system. Take a backup I cannot stress highly enough how important it is to take a backup of your system before you do this. While remaking the world is (as long as you follow these instructions) an easy task to do, there will inevitably be times when you make mistakes, or when mistakes made by others in the source tree render your system unbootable. Make sure you have taken a backup. And have a fixit floppy to hand. I have never needed to use them, and, touch wood, I never will, but it is always better to be safe than sorry. Subscribe to the right mailing list The -STABLE and -CURRENT FreeBSD code branches are, by their nature, in development. People that contribute to FreeBSD are human, and mistakes occasionally happen. Sometimes these mistakes can be quite harmless, just causing your system to print a new diagnostic warning. Or the change may be catastrophic, and render your system unbootable or destroy your filesystems (or worse). If problems like these occur, a heads up is posted to the appropriate mailing list, explaining the nature of the problem and which systems it affects. And an all clear announcement is posted when the problem has been solved. If you try and track -STABLE or -CURRENT and do not read the stable@FreeBSD.org or current@FreeBSD.org mailing lists then you are asking for trouble. Read <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> Before you do anything else, read /usr/src/UPDATING (or the equivalent file wherever you have a copy of the source code). This file should contain important information about problems you might encounter, or specify the order in which you might have to run certain commands. If UPDATING contradicts something you read here, UPDATING takes precedence. Reading UPDATING is not an acceptable substitute for subscribing to the correct mailing list, as described previously. The two requirements are complementary, not exclusive. Check <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> Examine the file /etc/make.conf. This contains some default defines for Everything is, by default, commented out. Uncomment those entries that look useful. For a typical user (not a developer), you will probably want to uncomment the CFLAGS and NOPROFILE definitions. If your machine has a floating point unit (386DX, 486DX, Pentium and up class machines) then you can also uncomment the HAVE_FPU line.</para> <para>This definition was removed for version 2.2.2 and up of FreeBSD.</para> </note> <para>Examine the other definitions (COPTFLAGS, NOPORTDOCS and so on) and decide if they are relevant to you.</para> </sect2> <sect2> <title>Update <filename>/etc/group</filename> The /etc directory contains a large part of your system's configuration information, as well as scripts that are run at system startup. Some of these scripts change from version to version of FreeBSD. Some of the configuration files are also used in the day to day running of the system. In particular, /etc/group. There have been occasions when the installation part of make world has expected certain usernames or groups to exist. When performing an upgrade it is likely that these groups did not exist. This caused problems when upgrading. The most recent example of this is when the ppp subsystem were installed using a non-existent (for them) group name. The solution is to examine /usr/src/etc/group and compare its list of groups with your own. If they are any groups in the new file that are not in your file then copy them over. Similarly, you should rename any groups in /etc/group which have the same GID but a different name to those in /usr/src/etc/group. If you are feeling particularly paranoid, you can check your system to see which files are owned by the group you are renaming or deleting. &prompt.root; find / -group GID -print will show all files owned by group GID (which can be either a group name or a numeric group ID). You may want to compile the system in single user mode. Apart from the obvious benefit of making things go slightly faster, reinstalling the system will touch a lot of important system files, all the standard system binaries, libraries, include files and so on. Changing these on a running system (particularly if you have active users on their at the time) is asking for trouble.</para> <para>That said, if you are confident, you can omit this step.</para> <note> <title>Version 2.2.5 and above As described in more detail below, versions 2.2.5 and above of FreeBSD have separated the building process from the installing process. You can therefore build the new system in multi-user mode, and then drop to single user mode to do the installation. As the superuser, you can execute &prompt.root; from a running system, which will drop it to single user mode. Alternatively, reboot the system, and at the boot prompt, enter the flag. The system will then boot single user. At the shell prompt you should then run: &prompt.root; fsck -p &prompt.root; mount -u / &prompt.root; mount -a -t ufs &prompt.root; swapon -a This checks the filesystems, remounts / read/write, mounts all the other UFS filesystems referenced in /etc/fstab and then turns swapping on. Remove <filename>/usr/obj</filename> As parts of the system are rebuilt they are placed in directories which (by default) go under /usr/obj. The directories shadow those under /usr/src. You can speed up the make world process, and possibly save yourself some dependency headaches by removing this directory as well. Some files below /usr/obj will have the immutable flag set (see &man.chflags.1; for more information) which must be removed first. &prompt.root; cd /usr/obj &prompt.root; chflags -R noschg * &prompt.root; rm -rf * <title>All versions You must be in the /usr/src directory... &prompt.root; cd /usr/src (unless, of course, your source code is elsewhere, in which case change to that directory instead). To rebuild the world you use the &man.make.1; command. This command reads instructions from the Makefile which describes how the programs that comprise FreeBSD should be rebuilt, the order they should be built in, and so on. The general format of the command line you will type is as follows: &prompt.root; make In this example, is an option that you would pass to &man.make.1;. See the &man.make.1; manual page for an example of the options you can pass. passes a variable to the Makefile. The behavior of the Makefile is controlled by these variables. These are the same variables as are set in /etc/make.conf, and this provides another way of setting them. &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true target is another way of specifying that profiled libaries should not be built, and corresponds with the NOPROFILE= true # Avoid compiling profiled libraries lines in /etc/make.conf. target tells &man.make.1; what you want to do. Each Makefile defines a number of different targets, and your choice of target determines what happens. Some targets are listed in the Makefile, but are not meant for you to run. Instead, they are used by the build process to break out the steps necessary to rebuild the system into a number of sub-steps. Most of the time you won't need to pass any parameters to &man.make.1;, and so your command like will look like this: &prompt.root; make target Saving the output It's a good idea to save the output you get from running &man.make.1; to another file. If something goes wrong you will have a copy of the error message, and a complete list of where the process had got to. While this might not help you in diagnosing what has gone wrong, it can help others if you post your problem to one of the FreeBSD mailing lists. The easiest way to do this is to use the &man.script.1; command, with a parameter that specifies the name of the file to save all output to. You would do this immediately before remaking the world, and then type exit when the process has finished. &prompt.root; script /var/tmp/mw.out Script started, output file is /var/tmp/mw.out &prompt.root; make world … compile, compile, compile … &prompt.root; exit Script done, … If you do this, do not save the output in /tmp. This directory may be cleared next time you reboot. A better place to store it is in /var/tmp (as in the previous example) or in root's home directory. Version 2.2.2 and below /usr/src/Makefile contains the world target, which will rebuild the entire system and then install it. Use it like this: &prompt.root; make world Version 2.2.5 and above Beginning with version 2.2.5 of FreeBSD (actually, it was first created on the -CURRENT branch, and then retrofitted to -STABLE midway between 2.2.2 and 2.2.5) the world target has been split in two. buildworld and installworld. As the names imply, buildworld builds a complete new tree under /usr/obj, and installworld installs this tree on the current machine. This is very useful for 2 reasons. First, it allows you to do the build safe in the knowledge that no components of your running system will be affected. The build is self hosted. Because of this, you can safely run buildworld on a machine running in multi-user mode with no fear of ill-effects. I still recommend you run the installworld part in single user mode though. Secondly, it allows you to use NFS mounts to upgrade multiple machines on your network. If you have three machines, A, B and C that you want to upgrade, run make buildworld and make installworld on A. B and C should then NFS mount /usr/src and /usr/obj from A, and you can then run make installworld to install the results of the build on B and C. The world target still exists, and you can use it exactly as shown for version 2.2.2. make world runs make buildworld followed by make installworld. If you do the make buildworld and make installworld commands separately, you must pass the same parameters to &man.make.1; each time. If you run: &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true buildworld you must install the results with: &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true installworld otherwise it would try and install profiled libraries that had not been built during the make buildworld phase. -CURRENT and above If you are tracking -CURRENT you can also pass the option to make. This lets make spawn several simultaneous processes. This is most useful on true multi-CPU machines. However, since much of the compiling process is IO bound rather than CPU bound it is also useful on single CPU machines. On a typical single-CPU machine you would run: &prompt.root; make -j4 target &man.make.1; will then have up to 4 processes running at any one time. Empirical evidence posted to the mailing lists shows this generally gives the best performance benefit. If you have a multi-CPU machine and you are using an SMP configured kernel try values between 6 and 10 and see how they speed things up. Be aware that (at the time of writing) this is still experimental, and commits to the source tree may occasionally break this feature. If the world fails to compile using this parameter try again without it before you report any problems. Timings Assuming everything goes well you have anywhere between an hour and a half and a day or so to wait. As a general rule of thumb, a 200MHz P6 with more than 32MB of RAM and reasonable SCSI disks will complete make world in about an hour and a half. A 32MB P133 will take 5 or 6 hours. Revise these figures down if your machines are slower… Update <filename>/etc</filename> Remaking the world will not update certain directories (in particular, /etc, /var and /usr) with new or changed configuration files. This is something you have to do by hand, eyeball, and judicious use of &man.diff.1;. You cannot just copy over the files from /usr/src/etc to /etc and have it work. Some of these files must be installed first. This is because the /usr/src/etc directory is not a copy of what your /etc directory should look like. In addition, there are files that should be in /etc that are not in /usr/src/etc. The simplest way to do this is to install the files into a new directory, and then work through them looking for differences. Backup your existing <filename>/etc</filename> Although, in theory, nothing is going to touch this directory automatically, it is always better to be sure. So copy your existing /etc directory somewhere safe. Something like: &prompt.root; cp -Rp /etc /etc.old does a recursive copy, preserves times, ownerships on files and suchlike. You need to build a dummy set of directories to install the new /etc and other files into. I generally choose to put this dummy directory in /var/tmp/root, and there are a number of subdirectories required under this as well. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/etc &prompt.root; make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root distrib-dirs distribution This will build the necessary directory structure and install the files. A lot of the subdirectories that have been created under /var/tmp/root are empty and should be deleted. The simplest way to do this is to: &prompt.root; cd /var/tmp/root &prompt.root; find -d . -type d | /usr/bin/perl -lne \ 'opendir(D,$_);@f=readdir(D);rmdir if $#f == 1;closedir(D);' This does a depth first search, examines each directory, and if the number of files in that directory is 2 ( /var/tmp/root now contains all the files that should be placed in appropriate locations below /. You now have to go through each of these files, determining how they differ with your existing files. Note that some of the files that will have been installed in /var/tmp/root have a leading /var/tmp/root/ and /var/tmp/root/root/, although there may be others (depending on when you are reading this. Make sure you use The simplest way to do this is to use &man.diff.1; to compare the two files. &prompt.root; diff /etc/shells /var/tmp/root/etc/shells This will show you the differences between your /etc/shells file and the new /etc/shells file. Use these to decide whether to merge in changes that you have made or whether to copy over your old file. Name the new root directory (<filename>/var/tmp/root</filename>)with a timestamp, so you can easily compare differences between versions Frequently remaking the world means that you have to update /etc frequently as well, which can be a bit of a chore. You can speed this process up by keeping a copy of the last set of changed files that you merged into /etc. The following procedure gives one idea of how to do this. Make the world as normal. When you want to update /etc and the other directories, give the target directory a name based on the current date. If you were doing this on the 14th of February 1998 you could do the following. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root-19980214 &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/etc &prompt.root; make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root-19980214 \ distrib-dirs distribution Merge in the changes from this directory as outlined above. Do not remove the /var/tmp/root-19980214 directory when you have finished. When you have downloaded the latest version of the source and remade it, follow step 1. This will give you a new directory, which might be called /var/tmp/root-19980221 (if you wait a week between doing updates). You can now see the differences that have been made in the intervening week using &man.diff.1; to create a recursive diff between the two directories. &prompt.root; cd /var/tmp &prompt.root; diff -r root-19980214 root-19980221 Typically, this will be a much smaller set of differences than those between /var/tmp/root-19980221/etc and /etc. Because the set of differences is smaller, it is easier to migrate those changes across into your /etc directory. You can now remove the older of the two /var/tmp/root-* directories. &prompt.root; rm -rf /var/tmp/root-19980214 Repeat this process every time you need to merge in changes to /etc. You can use &man.date.1; to automate the generation of the directory names. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root-`date "+%Y%m%d"` Update <filename>/dev</filename> DEVFS If you are using DEVFS then this is probably unnecessary. For safety's sake, this is a multistep process. Copy /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV to /dev. &prompt.root; cp /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV /dev Now, take a snapshot of your current /dev. This snapshot needs to contain the permissions, ownerships, major and minor numbers of each filename, but it should not contain the timestamps. The easiest way to do this is to use &man.awk.1; to strip out some of the information. &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ls -l | awk '{print $1, $2, $3, $4, $5, $6, $NF}' > /var/tmp/dev.out Remake all the devices. &prompt.root; Write another snapshot of the directory, this time to /var/tmp/dev2.out. Now look through these two files for any devices that you missed creating. There should not be any, but it is better to be safe than sorry. &prompt.root; diff /var/tmp/dev.out /var/tmp/dev2.out You are most likely to notice disk slice discrepancies which will involve commands such as &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV sd0s1 to recreate the slice entries. Your precise circumstances may vary. Update <filename>/stand</filename> This step is included only for completeness, it can safely be omitted. For completenesses sake you may want to update the files in /stand as well. These files consist of hard links to the /stand/sysinstall binary. This binary should be statically linked, so that it can work when no other filesystems (and in particular /usr) have been mounted. &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/release/sysinstall &prompt.root; make all install Source older than 2 April 1998 If your source code is older than 2nd April 1998, or the Makefile version is not 1.68 or higher (for FreeBSD current and 3.X systems) or 1.48.2.21 or higher (for 2.2.X systems) you will need to add the NOSHARED=yes option, like so; &prompt.root; make NOSHARED=yes all install Compile and install a new kernel To take full advantage of your new system you should recompile the kernel. This is practically a necessity, as certain memory structures may have changed, and programs like &man.ps.1; and &man.top.1; will fail to work until the kernel and source code versions are the same. Follow the handbook instructions for compiling a new kernel. If you have previously built a custom kernel then carefully examine the LINT config file to see if there are any new options which you should take advantage of. A previous version of this document suggested rebooting before rebuilding the kernel. This is wrong because: Commands like &man.ps.1;, &man.ifconfig.8;, and &man.sysctl.8; may fail. This could leave your machine unable to connect to the network. Basic utilities like &man.mount.8; could fail, making it impossible to mount /, /usr and so on. This is unlikely if you are tracking a -STABLE candidate, but more likely if you are tracking -CURRENT during a large merge. Loadable kernel modules (LKMs on pre-3.X systems, KLDs on 3.X systems and above) built as part of the world may crash an older kernel. For these reasons, it is always best to rebuild and install a new kernel before rebooting. You should build your new kernel after you have completed make world (or make installworld). If you do not want to do this (perhaps you want to confirm that the kernel builds before updating your system) you may have problems. These may be because your &man.config.8; command is out of date with respect to your kernel sources. In this case you could build your kernel with the new version of &man.config.8; &prompt.root; /usr/obj/usr/src/usr.sbin/config/config KERNELNAME This may not work in all cases. It is recommended that you complete make world (or make installworld) before compiling a new kernel. You are now done. After you have verified that everything appears to be in the right place you can reboot the system. A simple &man.fastboot.8; should do it.</para> <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>fastboot</userinput></screen> </sect2> <sect2> <title>Finished You should now have successfully upgraded your FreeBSD system. Congratulations. You may notice small problems due to things that you have missed. For example, I once deleted /etc/magic as part of the upgrade and merge to /etc, and the file command stopped working. A moment's thought meant that &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.bin/file &prompt.root; was sufficient to fix that one. <qandaentry> <question> <para>Do I need to re-make the world for every change?</para> </question> <answer> <para>There is no easy answer to this one, as it depends on the nature of the change. For example, I have just run CVSup, and it has shown the following files as being updated since I last ran it;</para> <screen><filename>src/games/cribbage/instr.c</filename> <filename>src/games/sail/pl_main.c</filename> <filename>src/release/sysinstall/config.c</filename> <filename>src/release/sysinstall/media.c</filename> <filename>src/share/mk/bsd.port.mk</filename></screen> <para>There is nothing in there that I would re-make the world for. I would go to the appropriate sub-directories and <command>make all install</command>, and that's about it. But if something major changed, for example <filename>src/lib/libc/stdlib</filename> then I would either re-make the world, or at least those parts of it that are statically linked (as well as anything else I might have added that is statically linked).</para> <para>At the end of the day, it is your call. You might be happy re-making the world every fortnight say, and let changes accumulate over that fortnight. Or you might want to re-make just those things that have changed, and are confident you can spot all the dependencies.</para> <para>And, of course, this all depends on how often you want to upgrade, and whether you are tracking -STABLE or -CURRENT.</para> </answer> </qandaentry> <qandaentry> <question> <para>My compile failed with lots of signal 12 (or other signal number) errors. What has happened?</para> </question> <answer> <para>This is normally indicative of hardware problems. (Re)making the world is an effective way to stress test your hardware, and will frequently throw up memory problems. These normally manifest themselves as the compiler mysteriously dying on receipt of strange signals.</para> <para>A sure indicator of this is if you can restart the make and it dies at a different point in the process.</para> <para>In this instance there is little you can do except start swapping around the components in your machine to determine which one is failing.</para> </answer> </qandaentry> <qandaentry> <question> <para>Can I remove <filename>/usr/obj</filename> when I have finished?</para> </question> <answer> <para>That depends on how you want to make the world on future occasions.</para> <para><filename>/usr/obj</filename> contains all the object files that were produced during the compilation phase. Normally, one of the first steps in the <quote/make world/ process is to remove this directory and start afresh. In this case, keeping <filename>/usr/obj</filename> around after you have finished makes little sense, and will free up a large chunk of disk space (currently about 150MB).</para> <para>However, if you know what you are doing you can have <quote/make world/ skip this step. This will make subsequent builds run much faster, since most of sources will not need to be recompiled. The flip side of this is that subtle dependency problems can creep in, causing your build to fail in odd ways. This frequently generates noise on the FreeBSD mailing lists, when one person complains that their build has failed, not realising that it is because they have tried to cut corners.</para> <para>If you want to live dangerously then make the world, passing the <makevar>NOCLEAN</makevar> definition to make, like this:</para> <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>make -DNOCLEAN world</userinput></screen> </answer> </qandaentry> <qandaentry> <question> <para>Can interrupted builds be resumed?</para> </question> <answer> <para>This depends on how far through the process you got before you found a problem.</para> <para><emphasis>In general</emphasis> (and this is not a hard and fast rule) the <quote>make world</quote> process builds new copies of essential tools (such as &man.gcc.1;, and &man.make.1;>) and the system libraries. These tools and libraries are then installed. The new tools and libraries are then used to rebuild themselves, and are installed again. The entire system (now including regular user programs, such as &man.ls.1; or &man.grep.1;) is then rebuilt with the new system files.</para> <para>If you are at the last state, and you know it (because you have looked through the output that you were storing) then you can (fairly safely) do</para> <screen><emphasis>… fix the problem …</emphasis> &prompt.root; <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput> &prompt.root; <userinput>make -DNOCLEAN all</userinput></screen> <para>This will not undo the work of the previous <quote>make world</quote>.</para> <para>If you see the message <screen>-------------------------------------------------------------- Building everything.. --------------------------------------------------------------</screen> in the <quote>make world</quote> output then it is probably fairly safe to do so.</para> <para>If you do not see that message, or you are not sure, then it is always better to be safe than sorry, and restart the build from scratch.</para> </answer> </qandaentry> <qandaentry> <question> <para>Can I use one machine as a <emphasis/master/ to upgrade lots of machines (NFS)?</para> </question> <answer> <para>People often ask on the FreeBSD mailing lists whether they can do all the compiling on one machine, and then use the results of that compile to <command>make install</command> on to other machines around the network.</para> <para>This is not something I have done, so the suggestions below are either from other people, or deduced from the Makefiles.</para> <para>The precise approach to take depends on your version of FreeBSD</para> <para>You must still upgrade <filename>/etc</filename> and <filename>/dev</filename> on the target machines after doing this.</para> <para>For 2.1.7 and below, Antonio Bemfica suggested the following approach:</para> <screen>Date: Thu, 20 Feb 1997 14:05:01 -0400 (AST) From: Antonio Bemfica <bemfica@militzer.me.tuns.ca> To: freebsd-questions@FreeBSD.org Message-ID: <Pine.BSI.3.94.970220135725.245C-100000@militzer.me.tuns.ca> Josef Karthauser asked: > Has anybody got a good method for upgrading machines on a network First make world, etc. on your main machine Second, mount / and /usr from the remote machine: main_machine% mount remote_machine:/ /mnt main_machine% mount remote_machine:/usr /mnt/usr Third, do a 'make install' with /mnt as the destination: main_machine% make install DESTDIR=/mnt Repeat for every other remote machine on your network. It works fine for me. Antonio</screen> <para>This mechanism will only work (to the best of my knowledge) if you can write to <filename>/usr/src</filename> on the NFS server, as the <maketarget>install</maketarget> target in 2.1.7 and below needed to do this.</para> <para>Midway between 2.1.7 and 2.2.0 the <quote>reinstall</quote> target was committed. You can use the approach exactly as outlined above for 2.1.7, but use <quote>reinstall</quote> instead of <quote>install</quote>.</para> <para>This approach <emphasis>does not</emphasis> require write access to the <filename>/usr/src</filename> directory on the NFS server.</para> <para>There was a bug introduced in this target between versions 1.68 and 1.107 of the Makefile, which meant that write access to the NFS server <emphasis>was</emphasis> required. This bug was fixed before version 2.2.0 of FreeBSD was released, but may be an issue of you have an old server still running -STABLE from this era.</para> <para>For version 2.2.5 and above, you can use the <quote>buildworld</quote> and <quote>installworld</quote> targets. Use them to build a source tree on one machine, and then NFS mount <filename>/usr/src</filename> and <filename>/usr/obj</filename> on the remote machine and install it there.</para> </answer> </qandaentry> <qandaentry> <question> <para>How can I speed up making the world?</para> <itemizedlist> <listitem> <para>Run in single user mode.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Put the <filename>/usr/src</filename> and <filename>/usr/obj</filename> directories on separate filesystems held on separate disks. If possible, put these disks on separate disk controllers.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Better still, put these filesystems across separate disks using the <quote>ccd</quote> (concatenated disk driver) device.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Turn off profiling (set <quote>NOPROFILE=true</quote> in <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>). You almost certainly do not need it.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Also in <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>, set <quote>CFLAGS</quote> to something like <quote>-O -pipe</quote>. The optimisation <quote>-O2</quote> is much slower, and the optimisation difference between <quote>-O</quote> and <quote>-O2</quote> is normally negligible. <quote>-pipe</quote> lets the compiler use pipes rather than temporary files for communication, which saves disk access (at the expense of memory).</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Pass the <option>-j<n></option> option to make (if you are running a sufficiently recent version of FreeBSD) to run multiple processes in parallel. This helps regardless of whether you have a single or a multi processor machine.</para> </listitem> <listitem><para>The filesystem holding <filename>/usr/src</filename> can be mounted (or remounted) with the <quote>noatime</quote> option. This stops the time files in the filesystem were last accessed from being written to the disk. You probably do not need this information anyway. <note> <para><quote>noatime</quote> is in version 2.2.0 and above.</para> </note> <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -u -o noatime /usr/src</userinput></screen> <warning> <para>The example assumes <filename>/usr/src</filename> is on its own filesystem. If it is not (if it is a part of <filename>/usr</filename> for example) then you will need to use that filesystem mount point, and not <filename>/usr/src</filename>.</para> </warning> </para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>The filesystem holding <filename>/usr/obj</filename> can be mounted (or remounted) with the <quote>async</quote> option. This causes disk writes to happen asynchronously. In other words, the write completes immediately, and the data is written to the disk a few seconds later. This allows writes to be clustered together, and can be a dramatic performance boost.</para> <warning> <para>Keep in mind that this option makes your filesystem more fragile. With this option there is an increased chance that, should power fail, the filesystem will be in an unrecoverable state when the machine restarts.</para> <para>If <filename>/usr/obj</filename> is the only thing on this filesystem then it is not a problem. If you have other, valuable data on the same filesystem then ensure your backups are fresh before you enable this option.</para> </warning> <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -u -o async /usr/obj</userinput></screen> <warning> <para>As above, if <filename>/usr/obj</filename> is not on its own filesystem, replace it in the example with the name of the appropriate mount point.</para> </warning> </listitem> </itemizedlist> </question> </qandaentry> </qandaset> </sect2> </sect1> </chapter> <!-- Local Variables: mode: sgml sgml-declaration: "../chapter.decl" sgml-indent-data: t sgml-omittag: nil sgml-always-quote-attributes: t sgml-parent-document: ("../book.sgml" "part" "chapter") End: --> diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml index 4bcdeb6a17..24c97212b4 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml @@ -1,882 +1,882 @@ <!-- The FreeBSD Documentation Project - $FreeBSD: doc/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml,v 1.17 2000/04/03 02:15:38 chris Exp $ + $FreeBSD: doc/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml,v 1.18 2000/04/30 22:10:06 nik Exp $ --> <chapter id="disks"> <title>Disks Synopsis This chapter covers how to use disks, whether physical, memory, or networked, on FreeBSD. BIOS Drive Numbering Before you install and configure FreeBSD on your system, there is an important subject that you should be aware of if, especially if you have multiple hard drives. In a PC running DOS or any of the BIOS-dependent operating systems (WINxxx), the BIOS is able to abstract the normal disk drive order, and the operating system goes along with the change. This allows the user to boot from a disk drive other than the so-called primary master. This is especially convenient for some users who have found that the simplest and cheapest way to keep a system backup is to buy an identical second hard drive, and perform routine copies of the first drive to the second drive using Ghost or XCOPY. Then, if the first drive fails, or is attacked by a virus, or is scribbled upon by an operating system defect, he can easily recover by instructing the BIOS to logically swap the drives. It's like switching the cables on the drives, but without having to open the case. More expensive systems with SCSI controllers often include BIOS extensions which allow the SCSI drives to be re-ordered in a similar fashion for up to seven drives. A user who is accustomed to taking advantage of these features may become surprised when the results with FreeBSD are not as expected. FreeBSD does not use the BIOS, and does not know the logical BIOS drive mapping. This can lead to very perplexing situations, especially when drives are physically identical in geometry, and have also been made as data clones of one another. When using FreeBSD, always restore the BIOS to natural drive numbering before installing FreeBSD, and then leave it that way. If you need to switch drives around, then do so, but do it the hard way, and open the case and move the jumpers and cables. An illustration from the files of Bill and Fred's Exceptional Adventures: Bill breaks-down an older WIntel box to make another FreeBSD box for Fred. Bill installs a single SCSI drive as SCSI unit zero, and installs FreeBSD on it. Fred begins using the system, but after several days notices that the older SCSI drive is reporting numerous soft errors, and reports this fact to Bill. After several more days, Bill decides it's time to address the situation, so he grabs an identical SCSI drive from the disk drive "archive" in the back room. An initial surface scan indicates that this drive is functioning well, so Bill installs this drive as SCSI unit four, and makes an image copy from drive zero to drive four. Now that the new drive is installed and functioning nicely, Bill decides that it's a good idea to start using it, so he uses features in the SCSI BIOS to re-order the disk drives so that the system boots from SCSI unit four. FreeBSD boots and runs just fine. Fred continues his work for several days, and soon Bill and Fred decide that it's time for a new adventure -- time to upgrade to a newer version of FreeBSD. Bill removes SCSI unit zero because it was a bit flakey, and replaces it with another identical disk drive from the "archive." Bill then installs the new version of FreeBSD onto the new SCSI unit zero using Fred's magic internet FTP floppies. The installation goes well. Fred uses the new version of FreeBSD for a few days, and certifies that it is good enough for use in the engineering department...it's time to copy all of his work from the old version. So Fred mounts SCSI unit four (the latest copy of the older FreeBSD version). Fred is dismayed to find that none of his precious work is present on SCSI unit four. Where did the data go? When Bill made an image copy of the original SCSI unit zero onto SCSI unit four, unit four became the "new clone," When Bill re-ordered the SCSI BIOS so that he could boot from SCSI unit four, he was only fooling himself. FreeBSD was still running on SCSI unit zero. Making this kind of BIOS change will cause some or all of the Boot and Loader code to be fetched from the selected BIOS drive, but when the FreeBSD kernel drivers take-over, the BIOS drive numbering will be ignored, and FreeBSD will transition back to normal drive numbering. In the illustration at hand, the system continued to operate on the original SCSI unit zero, and all of Fred's data was there, not on SCSI unit four. The fact that the system appeared to be running on SCSI unit four was simply an artifact of human expectations. We are delighted to mention that no data bytes were killed or harmed in any way by our discovery of this phenomenon. The older SCSI unit zero was retrieved from the bonepile, and all of Fred's work was returned to him, (and now Bill knows that he can count as high as zero). Although SCSI drives were used in this illustration, the concepts apply equally to IDE drives. Disk Naming Physical drives come in two main flavours, IDE, or SCSI; but there are also drives backed by RAID controllers, flash memory, and so forth. Since these behave quite differently, they have their own drivers and devices. Physical Disk Naming Conventions Drive type Drive device name IDE hard drives ad in 4.0-RELEASE, wd before 4.0-RELEASE. IDE CDROM drives acd in 3.1-RELEASE, wcd before 4.0-RELEASE. SCSI hard drives da from 3.0-RELEASE, sd before 3.0-RELEASE. SCSI CDROM drives cd Assorted non-standard CDROM drives mcd for Mitsumi CD-ROM, scd for Sony CD-ROM, matcd for Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM Floppy drives fd SCSI tape drives sa from 3.0-RELEASE, st before 3.0-RELEASE. IDE tape drives ast from 4.0-RELEASE, wst before 4.0-RELEASE. Flash drives fla for DiskOnChip Flash device from 3.3-RELEASE. RAID drives myxd for Mylex, and amrd for AMI MegaRAID, idad for Compaq Smart RAID. from 4.0-RELEASE. id between 3.2-RELEASE and 4.0-RELEASE.
Slices and Partitions Physical disks usually contain slices, unless they are dangerously dedicated. Slice numbers follow the device name, prefixed with an s: da0s1. Slices, dangerously dedicated physical drives, and other drives contain partitions, which represented as letters from a to h. b is reserved for swap partitions, and c is an unused partition the size of the entire slice or drive. This is explained in . Mounting and Unmounting Filesystems The filesystem is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it were, at /. /dev, /usr, and the other directories in the root directory are branches, which may have their own branches, such as /usr/local, and so on. There are various reasons to house certain of these directories on separate filesystems. /var contains log, spool, and various types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. Filling up the root filesystem isn't a good idea, so splitting /var from / is often a good idea. Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on other filesystems is if they are to be housed on separate physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, or CDROM drives. The fstab File During the boot process, filesystems listed in /etc/fstab are automatically mounted (unless they are listed with ). The /etc/fstab file contains a list of lines of the following format: device /mount-point fstype options dumpfreq passno device is a device name (which should exist), as explained in the Disk naming conventions above. mount-point is a directory (which should exist), on which to mount the filesystem. fstype is the filesystem type to pass to &man.mount.8;. The default FreeBSD filesystem is ufs. options is either for read-write filesystems, or for read-only filesystems, followed by any other options that may be needed. A common option is for filesystems not normally mounted during the boot sequence. Other options in the &man.mount.8; manual page. dumpfreq is the number of days the filesystem should be dumped, and passno is the pass number during which the filesystem is mounted during the boot sequence. The mount Command The &man.mount.8; command is what is ultimately used to mount filesystems. In its most basic form, you use: &prompt.root; mount device mountpoint There are plenty of options, as mentioned in the &man.mount.8; manual page, but the most common are: mount options Mount all filesystems in /etc/fstab, as modified by , if given. Do everything but actually mount the filesystem. Force the mounting the filesystem. Mount the filesystem read-only. fstype Mount the given filesystem as the given filesystem type, or mount only filesystems of the given type, if given the option. ufs is the default filesystem type. Update mount options on the filesystem. Be verbose. Mount the filesystem read-write. The takes a comma-separated list of the options, including the following: nodev Do not interpret special devices on the filesystem. Useful security option. noexec Do not allow execution of binaries on this filesystem. Useful security option. nosuid Do not interpret setuid or setgid flags on the filesystem. Useful security option. The umount Command The umount command takes, as a parameter, one of a mountpoint, a device name, or the or option. All forms take to force unmounting, and for verbosity. and are used to unmount all mounted filesystems, possibly modified by the filesystem types listed after . , however, doesn't attempt to unmount the root filesystem. Adding Disks Originally contributed by &a.obrien; 26 April 1998 Lets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that currently only has a single drive. First turn off the computer and install the drive in the computer following the instructions of the computer, controller, and drive manufacturer. Due the wide variations of procedures to do this, the details are beyond the scope of this document. Login as user root. After you've installed the drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will be da1 and we want to mount it on /1. (if you are adding an IDE drive substitute wd for da) Because FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must take into account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different from the traditional BSD partitions. A PC disk has up to four BIOS partition entries. If the disk is going to be truly dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the dedicated mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will have to live with in one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD calls the PC BIOS partitions, slices so as not to confuse them with traditional BSD partitions. You may also use slices on a disk that is dedicated to FreeBSD, but used in a computer that also has another operating system installed. This is to not confuse the fdisk utility of the other operating system. In the slice case the drive will be added as /dev/da1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk, unit number 1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1), and e BSD partition. In the dedicated case, the drive will be added simply as /dev/da1e. Using sysinstall You may use /stand/sysinstall to partition and label a new disk using its easy to use menus. Either login as user root or use the su command. Run /stand/sysinstall and enter the Configure menu. With in the FreeBSD Configuration Menu, scroll down and select the Partition item. Next you should be presented with a list of hard drives installed in your system. If you do not see da1 listed, you need to recheck your physical installation and dmesg output in the file /var/run/dmesg.boot. Select da1 to enter the FDISK Partition Editor. Choose A to use the entire disk for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems, answer YES. Write the changes to the disk using W. Now exit the FDISK editor using q. Next you will be asked about the Master Boot Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system, choose None. Next enter the Disk Label Editor. This is where you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A disk can have up to eight partitions, labeled a-h. A few of the partition labels have special uses. The a partition is used for the root partition (/). Thus only your system disk (e.g, the disk you boot from) should have an a partition. The b partition is used for swap partitions, and you may have many disks with swap partitions. The c partition addresses the entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire FreeBSD slice in slice mode. The other partitions are for general use. Sysinstall's Label editor favors the e partition for non-root, non-swap partitions. With in the Label editor, create a single file system using C. When prompted if this will be a FS (file system) or swap, choose FS and give a mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a disk in post-install mode, Sysinstall will not create entries in /etc/fstab for you, so the mount point you specify isn't important. You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and create a file system on it. Do this by hitting W. Ignore any errors from Sysinstall that it could not mount the new partition. Exit the Label Editor and Sysinstall completely. The last step is to edit /etc/fstab to add an entry for your new disk. Using Command Line Utilities * Using Slices Dedicated If you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage will be done by them. IBM's OS/2 however, will - “appropriate” any partition it finds which it doesn't + appropriate any partition it finds which it doesn't understand. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 bs=1k count=1 &prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da1 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # create the `e' partition &prompt.root; newfs -d0 /dev/rda1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 An alternate method is: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 count=2 &prompt.root; disklabel /dev/rda1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin &prompt.root; newfs /dev/rda1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 Virtual Disks: Network, Memory, and File-Based Filesystems Besides the disks you physically insert into your computer; floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth, other forms of disks are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual disks. These include network filesystems such as the Network Filesystem and Coda, memory-based filesystems such as md and file-backed filesystems created by vnconfig. vnconfig: file-backed filesystem &man.vnconfig.8; configures and enables vnode pseudo disk devices. A vnode is a representation of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that &man.vnconfig.8; uses files to create and operate a filesystem. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD images kept in files. To mount an existing filesystem image: Using vnconfig to mount an existing filesystem image &prompt.root; vnconfig vn0 diskimage &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt To create a new filesystem image with vnconfig: Creating a New File-Backed Disk with vnconfig &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; vnconfig -s labels -c vn0 newimage &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0 auto &prompt.root; newfs vn0c Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated /dev/rvn0c: 10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors 5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g) super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at: 32 &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/vn0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt md: Memory Filesystem md is a simple, efficient means to do memory filesystems. Simply take a filesystem you've prepared with, for example, &man.vnconfig.8;, and: md memory disk &prompt.root; dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt Disk Quotas Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user, or members of a group, may allocate on a per-file system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user from consuming all of the available disk space. Configuring Your System to Enable Disk Quotas Before attempting to use disk quotas it is necessary to make sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by adding the following line to your kernel configuration file: options QUOTA The stock GENERIC kernel does not have this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer to the Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel section for more information on kernel configuration. Next you will need to enable disk quotas in /etc/rc.conf. This is done by adding the line: -enable_quotas=“YES” +enable_quotas=YES For finer control over your quota startup, there is an additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup, the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the quotacheck program. The quotacheck facility insures that the data in the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system. This is a very time consuming process that will significantly affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to skip this step, a variable is made available for the purpose: -check_quotas=“NO” +check_quotas=NO If you are running FreeBSD prior to 3.2-RELEASE, the configuration is simpler, and consists of only one variable. Set the following in your /etc/rc.conf: -check_quotas=“YES” +check_quotas=YES Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your file systems. To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the userquota option to the options field in the /etc/fstab entry for the file system you want to to enable quotas on. For example: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2 Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the groupquota option instead of the userquota keyword. To enable both user and group quotas, change the entry as follows: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2 By default the quota files are stored in the root directory of the file system with the names quota.user and quota.group for user and group quotas respectively. See man fstab for more information. Even though that man page says that you can specify an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this properly. At this point you should reboot your system with your new kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so there is no need to manually create any zero length quota files. In the normal course of operations you should not be required to run the quotacheck, quotaon, or quotaoff commands manually. However, you may want to read their man pages just to be familiar with their operation. Setting Quota Limits Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to run: &prompt.root; quota -v You should see a one line summary of disk usage and current quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled on. You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the edquota command. You have several options on how to enforce limits on the amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down into two categories; hard and soft limits. A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches their hard limit they may not make any further allocations on the file system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of 500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail. Soft limits on the other hand can be exceeded for a limited amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period, which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her soft limit longer than their grace period, the soft limit will turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed. When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period will be reset. The following is an example of what you might see when you run the edquota command. When the edquota command is invoked, you are placed into the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, or in the vi editor if the EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit the quota limits. &prompt.root; edquota -u test Quotas for user test: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) /usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) You will normally see two lines for each file system that has quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify the quota limit. For example, to raise this users block limit from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of 500 and a hard limit of 600, change: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600) The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the editor. Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of uids. This can be done by use of the option on the edquota command. First, assign the desired quota limit to a user, and then run edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For example, if user test has the desired quota limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota limits for uids 10,000 through 19,999: &prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999 See man edquota for more detailed information. Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usage You can use either the quota or the repquota commands to check quota limits and disk usage. The quota command can be used to check individual user and group quotas and disk usage. Only the super-user may examine quotas and usage for other users, or for groups that they are not a member of. The repquota command can be used to get a summary of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas enabled. The following is some sample output from the quota -v command for a user that has quota limits on two file systems. Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002): Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace /usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60 /usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60 On the /usr file system in the above example this user is currently 15 blocks over their soft limit of 50 blocks and has 5 days of their grace period left. Note the asterisk * which indicates that the user is currently over their quota limit. Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk space on will not show up in the output from the quota command, even if they have a quota limit assigned for that file system. The option will display those file systems, such as the /usr/var file system in the above example. Quotas over NFS Quotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server. The &man.rpc.rquotad.8; daemon makes quota information available to the &man.quota.1; command on NFS clients, allowing users on those machines to see their quota statistics. Enable rpc.rquotad in /etc/inetd.conf like so: rquotad/1 dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotad Now restart inetd: &prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid` diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml index 50ee7da00a..4a90d4b5d9 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1454 +1,1454 @@ Resources on the Internet Contributed by &a.jkh;. The rapid pace of FreeBSD progress makes print media impractical as a means of following the latest developments. Electronic resources are the best, if not often the only, way stay informed of the latest advances. Since FreeBSD is a volunteer effort, the user community itself also - generally serves as a “technical support department” of sorts, + generally serves as a technical support department of sorts, with electronic mail and USENET news being the most effective way of reaching that community. The most important points of contact with the FreeBSD user community are outlined below. If you are aware of other resources not mentioned here, please send them to the &a.doc;so that they may also be included. Mailing Lists Though many of the FreeBSD development members read USENET, we cannot always guarantee that we will get to your questions in a timely fashion (or at all) if you post them only to one of the comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.* groups. By addressing your questions to the appropriate mailing list you will reach both us and a concentrated FreeBSD audience, invariably assuring a better (or at least faster) response. The charters for the various lists are given at the bottom of this document. Please read the charter before joining or sending mail to any list. Most of our list subscribers now receive many hundreds of FreeBSD related messages every day, and by setting down charters and rules for proper use we are striving to keep the signal-to-noise ratio of the lists high. To do less would see the mailing lists ultimately fail as an effective communications medium for the project. Archives are kept for all of the mailing lists and can be searched using the FreeBSD World Wide Web server. The keyword searchable archive offers an excellent way of finding answers to frequently asked questions and should be consulted before posting a question. List Summary General lists: The following are general lists which anyone is free (and encouraged) to join: List Purpose freebsd-advocacy FreeBSD Evangelism freebsd-announce Important events and project milestones freebsd-arch Architecture and design discussions freebsd-bugs Bug reports freebsd-chat Non-technical items related to the FreeBSD community freebsd-current Discussion concerning the use of FreeBSD-current freebsd-isp Issues for Internet Service Providers using FreeBSD freebsd-jobs FreeBSD employment and consulting opportunities freebsd-newbies New FreeBSD users activities and discussions freebsd-policy FreeBSD Core team policy decisions. Low volume, and read-only freebsd-questions User questions and technical support freebsd-stable Discussion concerning the use of FreeBSD-stable Technical lists: The following lists are for technical discussion. You should read the charter for each list carefully before joining or sending mail to one as there are firm guidelines for their use and content. List Purpose freebsd-afs Porting AFS to FreeBSD freebsd-alpha Porting FreeBSD to the Alpha freebsd-database Discussing database use and development under FreeBSD freebsd-doc Creating FreeBSD related documents freebsd-emulation Emulation of other systems such as Linux/DOS/Windows freebsd-fs Filesystems freebsd-hackers General technical discussion freebsd-hardware General discussion of hardware for running FreeBSD freebsd-i18n FreeBSD Internationalization freebsd-ipfw Technical discussion concerning the redesign of the IP firewall code freebsd-isdn ISDN developers freebsd-java Java developers and people porting JDKs to FreeBSD freebsd-mobile Discussions about mobile computing freebsd-mozilla Porting mozilla to FreeBSD freebsd-net Networking discussion and TCP/IP/source code freebsd-platforms Concerning ports to non-Intel architecture platforms freebsd-ports Discussion of the ports collection freebsd-ppc Porting FreeBSD to the PowerPC freebsd-scsi The SCSI subsystem freebsd-security Security issues freebsd-security-notifications Security notifications freebsd-small Using FreeBSD in embedded applications freebsd-smp Design discussions for [A]Symmetric MultiProcessing freebsd-sparc Porting FreeBSD to Sparc systems freebsd-tokenring Support Token Ring in FreeBSD Limited lists: The following lists are for more specialized (and demanding) audiences and are probably not of interest to the general public. It is also a good idea to establish a presence in the technical lists before joining one of these limited lists so that you'll understand the communications etiquette involved. List Purpose freebsd-core FreeBSD core team freebsd-hubs People running mirror sites (infrastructural support) freebsd-install Installation development freebsd-user-groups User group coordination freebsd-www Maintainers of www.freebsd.org CVS lists: The following lists are for people interested in seeing the log messages for changes to various areas of the source tree. They are Read-Only lists and should not have mail sent to them. List Source area Area Description (source for) cvs-all /usr/src All changes to the tree (superset) How to Subscribe All mailing lists live on FreeBSD.org, so to post to a given list you simply mail to <listname@FreeBSD.org>. It will then be redistributed to mailing list members world-wide. To subscribe to a list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and include subscribe <listname> [<optional address>] in the body of your message. For example, to subscribe yourself to freebsd-announce, you'd do: &prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.org subscribe freebsd-announce ^D If you want to subscribe yourself under a different name, or submit a subscription request for a local mailing list (this is more efficient if you have several interested parties at one site, and highly appreciated by us!), you would do something like: &prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.org subscribe freebsd-announce local-announce@somesite.com ^D Finally, it is also possible to unsubscribe yourself from a list, get a list of other list members or see the list of mailing lists again by sending other types of control messages to majordomo. For a complete list of available commands, do this: &prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.org help ^D Again, we would like to request that you keep discussion in the technical mailing lists on a technical track. If you are only interested in important announcements then it is suggested that you join freebsd-announce, which is intended only for infrequent traffic. List Charters All FreeBSD mailing lists have certain basic rules which must be adhered to by anyone using them. Failure to comply with these guidelines will result in two (2) written warnings from the FreeBSD Postmaster postmaster@FreeBSD.org, after which, on a third offense, the poster will removed from all FreeBSD mailing lists and filtered from further posting to them. We regret that such rules and measures are necessary at all, but today's Internet is a pretty harsh environment, it would seem, and many fail to appreciate just how fragile some of its mechanisms are. Rules of the road: The topic of any posting should adhere to the basic charter of the list it is posted to, e.g. if the list is about technical issues then your posting should contain technical discussion. Ongoing irrelevant chatter or flaming only detracts from the value of the mailing list for everyone on it and will not be tolerated. For free-form discussion on no particular topic, the freebsd-chat freebsd-chat@FreeBSD.org mailing list is freely available and should be used instead. No posting should be made to more than 2 mailing lists, and only to 2 when a clear and obvious need to post to both lists exists. For most lists, there is already a great deal of subscriber overlap and except for the most esoteric mixes (say "-stable & -scsi"), there really is no reason to post to more than one list at a time. If a message is sent to you in such a way that multiple mailing lists appear on the Cc line then the cc line should also be trimmed before sending it out again. You are still responsible for your own cross-postings, no matter who the originator might have been. Personal attacks and profanity (in the context of an argument) are not allowed, and that includes users and developers alike. Gross breaches of netiquette, like excerpting or reposting private mail when permission to do so was not and would not be forthcoming, are frowned upon but not specifically enforced. However, there are also very few cases where such content would fit within the charter of a list and it would therefore probably rate a warning (or ban) on that basis alone. Advertising of non-FreeBSD related products or services is strictly prohibited and will result in an immediate ban if it is clear that the offender is advertising by spam. Individual list charters: FREEBSD-AFS Andrew File System This list is for discussion on porting and using AFS from CMU/Transarc FREEBSD-ANNOUNCE Important events / milestones This is the mailing list for people interested only in occasional announcements of significant FreeBSD events. This includes announcements about snapshots and other releases. It contains announcements of new FreeBSD capabilities. It may contain calls for volunteers etc. This is a low volume, strictly moderated mailing list. FREEBSD-ARCH Architecture and design discussions This is a moderated list for discussion of FreeBSD architecture. Messages will mostly be kept technical in nature, with (rare) exceptions for other messages the moderator deems need to reach all the subscribers of the list. Examples of suitable topics; How to re-vamp the build system to have several customized builds running at the same time. What needs to be fixed with VFS to make Heidemann layers work. How do we change the device driver interface to be able to use the ame drivers cleanly on many buses and architectures? How do I write a network driver? The moderator reserves the right to do minor editing (spell-checking, grammar correction, trimming) of messages that are posted to the list. The volume of the list will be kept low, which may involve having to delay topics until an active discussion has been resolved. FREEBSD-BUGS Bug reports This is the mailing list for reporting bugs in FreeBSD Whenever possible, bugs should be submitted using the &man.send-pr.1; command or the WEB interface to it. FREEBSD-CHAT Non technical items related to the FreeBSD community This list contains the overflow from the other lists about non-technical, social information. It includes discussion about whether Jordan looks like a toon ferret or not, whether or not to type in capitals, who is drinking too much coffee, where the best beer is brewed, who is brewing beer in their basement, and so on. Occasional announcements of important events (such as upcoming parties, weddings, births, new jobs, etc) can be made to the technical lists, but the follow ups should be directed to this -chat list. FREEBSD-CORE FreeBSD core team This is an internal mailing list for use by the core members. Messages can be sent to it when a serious FreeBSD-related matter requires arbitration or high-level scrutiny. FREEBSD-CURRENT Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-current This is the mailing list for users of freebsd-current. It includes warnings about new features coming out in -current that will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must be - taken to remain -current. Anyone running “current” + taken to remain -current. Anyone running current must subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-CURRENT-DIGEST Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-current This is the digest version of the freebsd-current mailing list. The digest consists of all messages sent to freebsd-current bundled together and mailed out as a single message. The average digest size is about 40kB. This list is Read-Only and should not be posted to. FREEBSD-DOC Documentation project This mailing list is for the discussion of issues and projects related to the creation of documentation for FreeBSD. The members of this mailing list are collectively referred to as - “The FreeBSD Documentation Project”. It is an open + The FreeBSD Documentation Project. It is an open list; feel free to join and contribute! FREEBSD-FS Filesystems Discussions concerning FreeBSD filesystems. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-IPFW IP Firewall This is the forum for technical discussions concerning the redesign of the IP firewall code in FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-ISDN ISDN Communications This is the mailing list for people discussing the development of ISDN support for FreeBSD. FREEBSD-JAVA Java Development This is the mailing list for people discussing the development of significant Java applications for FreeBSD and the porting and maintenance of JDKs. FREEBSD-HACKERS Technical discussions This is a forum for technical discussions related to FreeBSD. This is the primary technical mailing list. It is for individuals actively working on FreeBSD, to bring up problems or discuss alternative solutions. Individuals interested in following the technical discussion are also welcome. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-HACKERS-DIGEST Technical discussions This is the digest version of the freebsd-hackers mailing list. The digest consists of all messages sent to freebsd-hackers bundled together and mailed out as a single message. The average digest size is about 40kB. This list is Read-Only and should not be posted to. FREEBSD-HARDWARE General discussion of FreeBSD hardware General discussion about the types of hardware that FreeBSD runs on, various problems and suggestions concerning what to buy or avoid. FREEBSD-HUBS Mirror sites Announcements and discussion for people who run FreeBSD mirror sites. FREEBSD-INSTALL Installation discussion This mailing list is for discussing FreeBSD installation development for the future releases. FREEBSD-ISP Issues for Internet Service Providers This mailing list is for discussing topics relevant to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) using FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-NEWBIES Newbies activities discussion We cover any of the activities of newbies that are not already dealt with elsewhere, including: independent learning and problem solving techniques, finding and using resources and asking for help elsewhere, how to use mailing lists and which lists to use, general chat, making mistakes, boasting, sharing ideas, stories, moral (but not technical) support, and taking an active part in the FreeBSD community. We take our problems and support questions to freebsd-questions, and use freebsd-newbies to meet others who are doing the same things that we do as newbies. FREEBSD-PLATFORMS Porting to Non-Intel platforms Cross-platform FreeBSD issues, general discussion and proposals for non-Intel FreeBSD ports. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-POLICY Core team policy decisions This is a low volume, read-only mailing list for FreeBSD Core Team Policy decisions. FREEBSD-PORTS Discussion of - “ports” + ports - Discussions concerning FreeBSD's “ports - collection” (/usr/ports), proposed + Discussions concerning FreeBSD's ports + collection (/usr/ports), proposed ports, modifications to ports collection infrastructure and general coordination efforts. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-QUESTIONS User questions This is the mailing list for questions about FreeBSD. You - should not send “how to” questions to the technical + should not send how to questions to the technical lists unless you consider the question to be pretty technical. FREEBSD-QUESTIONS-DIGEST User questions This is the digest version of the freebsd-questions mailing list. The digest consists of all messages sent to freebsd-questions bundled together and mailed out as a single message. The average digest size is about 40kB. FREEBSD-SCSI SCSI subsystem This is the mailing list for people working on the scsi subsystem for FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-SECURITY Security issues FreeBSD computer security issues (DES, Kerberos, known security holes and fixes, etc). This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-SECURITY-NOTIFICATIONS Security Notifications Notifications of FreeBSD security problems and fixes. This is not a discussion list. The discussion list is FreeBSD-security. FREEBSD-SMALL This list discusses topics related to unusually small and embedded FreeBSD installations. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-STABLE Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-stable This is the mailing list for users of freebsd-stable. It includes warnings about new features coming out in -stable that will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must be - taken to remain -stable. Anyone running “stable” + taken to remain -stable. Anyone running stable should subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-USER-GROUPS User Group Coordination List This is the mailing list for the coordinators from each of the local area Users Groups to discuss matters with each other and a designated individual from the Core Team. This mail list should be limited to meeting synopsis and coordination of projects that span User Groups. Usenet Newsgroups In addition to two FreeBSD specific newsgroups, there are many others in which FreeBSD is discussed or are otherwise relevant to FreeBSD users. Keyword searchable archives are available for some of these newsgroups from courtesy of Warren Toomey wkt@cs.adfa.edu.au. BSD Specific Newsgroups comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.announce comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc Other Unix Newsgroups of Interest comp.unix comp.unix.questions comp.unix.admin comp.unix.programmer comp.unix.shell comp.unix.user-friendly comp.security.unix comp.sources.unix comp.unix.advocacy comp.unix.misc comp.bugs.4bsd comp.bugs.4bsd.ucb-fixes comp.unix.bsd X Window System comp.windows.x.i386unix comp.windows.x comp.windows.x.apps comp.windows.x.announce comp.windows.x.intrinsics comp.windows.x.motif comp.windows.x.pex comp.emulators.ms-windows.wine World Wide Web Servers http://www.FreeBSD.org/ — Central Server. http://www.au.FreeBSD.org/ — Australia/1. http://www2.au.FreeBSD.org/ — Australia/2. http://www3.au.FreeBSD.org/ — Australia/3. http://freebsd.itworks.com.au/ — Australia/4. http://www.br.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/ — Brazil/1. http://www2.br.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/ — Brazil/2. http://www3.br.FreeBSD.org/ — Brazil/3. http://www.bg.FreeBSD.org/ — Bulgaria. http://www.ca.FreeBSD.org/ — Canada/1. http://www2.ca.FreeBSD.org/ — Canada/2. http://www3.ca.FreeBSD.org/ — Canada/3. http://www.cn.FreeBSD.org/ — China. http://www.cz.FreeBSD.org/ — Czech Republic/1. http://www2.cz.FreeBSD.org/ — Czech Republic/2. http://www.dk.FreeBSD.org/ — Denmark. http://www.ee.FreeBSD.org/ — Estonia. http://www.fi.FreeBSD.org/ — Finland. http://www.fr.FreeBSD.org/ — France. http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/ — Germany/1. http://www1.de.FreeBSD.org/ — Germany/2. http://www2.de.FreeBSD.org/ — Germany/3. http://www.gr.FreeBSD.org/ — Greece. http://www.hu.FreeBSD.org/ — Hungary. http://www.is.FreeBSD.org/ — Iceland. http://www.ie.FreeBSD.org/ — Ireland. http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/www.FreeBSD.org/ — Japan. http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/ — Korea/1. http://www2.kr.FreeBSD.org/ — Korea/2. http://www.lv.FreeBSD.org/ — Latvia. http://rama.asiapac.net/freebsd/ — Malaysia. http://www.nl.FreeBSD.org/ — Netherlands/1. http://www2.nl.FreeBSD.org/ — Netherlands/2. http://www.no.FreeBSD.org/ — Norway. http://www.nz.FreeBSD.org/ — New Zeland. http://www.pl.FreeBSD.org/ — Poland/1. http://www2.pl.FreeBSD.org/ — Poland/2. http://www.pt.FreeBSD.org/ — Portugal/1. http://www2.pt.FreeBSD.org/ — Portugal/2. http://www3.pt.FreeBSD.org/ — Portugal/3. http://www.ro.FreeBSD.org/ — Romania. http://www.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/1. http://www2.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/2. http://www3.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/3. http://www4.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/4. http://freebsd.s1web.com/ — Singapore. http://www.sk.FreeBSD.org/ — Slovak Republic. http://www.si.FreeBSD.org/ — Slovenia. http://www.es.FreeBSD.org/ — Spain. http://www.za.FreeBSD.org/ — South Africa/1. http://www2.za.FreeBSD.org/ — South Africa/2. http://www.se.FreeBSD.org/ — Sweden. http://www.ch.FreeBSD.org/ — Switzerland. http://www.tw.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/data/ — Taiwan. http://www.tr.FreeBSD.org/ — Turkey. http://www.ua.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/ — Ukraine/1. http://www2.ua.FreeBSD.org/ — Ukraine/2. http://www4.ua.FreeBSD.org/ — Ukraine/Crimea. http://www.uk.FreeBSD.org/ — United Kingdom. http://www6.FreeBSD.org/ — USA/Oregon. http://www2.FreeBSD.org/ — USA/Texas. Email Addresses The following user groups provide FreeBSD related email addresses for their members. The listed administrator reserves the right to revoke the address if it is abused in any way. Domain Facilities User Group Administrator ukug.uk.FreeBSD.org Forwarding only freebsd-users@uk.FreeBSD.org Lee Johnston lee@uk.FreeBSD.org Shell Accounts The following user groups provide shell accounts for people who are actively supporting the FreeBSD project. The listed administrator reserves the right to cancel the account if it is abused in any way. Host Access Facilities Administrator storm.uk.FreeBSD.org ssh only Read-only cvs, personal webspace, email &a.brian dogma.freebsd-uk.eu.org Telnet/FTP/SSH E-Mail, Webspace, Anonymous FTP Lee Johnston lee@uk.FreeBSD.org diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/hw/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/hw/chapter.sgml index 834fd1ec8a..b2f9347a91 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/hw/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/hw/chapter.sgml @@ -1,5874 +1,5874 @@ PC Hardware compatibility Issues of hardware compatibility are among the most troublesome in the computer industry today and FreeBSD is by no means immune to trouble. In this respect, FreeBSD's advantage of being able to run on inexpensive commodity PC hardware is also its liability when it comes to support for the amazing variety of components on the market. While it would be impossible to provide a exhaustive listing of hardware that FreeBSD supports, this section serves as a catalog of the device drivers included with FreeBSD and the hardware each drivers supports. Where possible and appropriate, notes about specific products are included. You may also want to refer to the kernel configuration file section in this handbook for a list of supported devices. As FreeBSD is a volunteer project without a funded testing department, we depend on you, the user, for much of the information contained in this catalog. If you have direct experience of hardware that does or does not work with FreeBSD, please let us know by sending e-mail to the &a.doc;. Questions about supported hardware should be directed to the &a.questions; (see Mailing Lists for more information). When submitting information or asking a question, please remember to specify exactly what version of FreeBSD you are using and include as many details of your hardware as possible. Resources on the Internet The following links have proven useful in selecting hardware. Though some of what you see won't necessarily be specific (or even applicable) to FreeBSD, most of the hardware information out there is OS independent. Please check with the FreeBSD hardware guide to make sure that your chosen configuration is supported before making any purchases. The Pentium Systems Hardware Performance Guide Sample Configurations The following list of sample hardware configurations by no means constitutes an endorsement of a given hardware vendor or product by The FreeBSD Project. This information is provided only as a public service and merely catalogs some of the experiences that various individuals have had with different hardware combinations. Your mileage may vary. Slippery when wet. Beware of dog. Jordan's Picks I have had fairly good luck building workstation and server configurations with the following components. I can't guarantee that you will too, nor that any of the companies here will remain - “best buys” forever. I will try, when I can, to keep this + best buys forever. I will try, when I can, to keep this list up-to-date but cannot obviously guarantee that it will be at any given time. Motherboards For Pentium Pro (P6) systems, I'm quite fond of the Tyan S1668 dual-processor motherboard as well as the Intel PR440FX motherboard with on-board SCSI WIDE and 100/10MB Intel Etherexpress NIC. You can build a dandy little single or dual processor system (which is supported in FreeBSD 3.0) for very little cost now that the Pentium Pro 180/256K chips have fallen so greatly in price, but no telling how much longer this will last. For the Pentium II, I'm rather partial to the ASUS P2l97-S motherboard with the on-board Adaptec SCSI WIDE controller. For Pentium machines, the ASUS P55T2P4 motherboard appears to be a good choice for mid-to-high range Pentium server and workstation systems. Those wishing to build more fault-tolerant systems should also be sure to use Parity memory or, for truly 24/7 applications, ECC memory. ECC memory does involve a slight performance trade-off (which may or may not be noticeable depending on your application) but buys you significantly increased fault-tolerance to memory errors. Disk Controllers This one is a bit trickier, and while I used to recommend the Buslogic controllers unilaterally for everything from ISA to PCI, now I tend to lean towards the Adaptec 1542CF for ISA, Buslogic Bt747c for EISA and Adaptec 2940UW for PCI. The NCR/Symbios cards for PCI have also worked well for me, though you need to make sure that your motherboard supports the BIOS-less model if you're using one of those (if your card has nothing which looks even vaguely like a ROM chip on it, you've probably got one which expects its BIOS to be on your motherboard). If you should find that you need more than one SCSI controller in a PCI machine, you may wish to consider conserving your scarce PCI bus resources by buying the Adaptec 3940 card, which puts two SCSI controllers (and internal busses) in a single slot. There are two types of 3940 on the market—the older model with AIC 7880 chips on it, and the newer one with AIC 7895 chips. The newer model requires CAM support which is not yet part of FreeBSD—you have to add it, or install from one of the CAM binary snapshot release. Disk drives In this particular game of Russian roulette, I'll make few - specific recommendations except to say “SCSI over IDE whenever - you can afford it.” Even in small desktop configurations, SCSI + specific recommendations except to say SCSI over IDE whenever + you can afford it. Even in small desktop configurations, SCSI often makes more sense since it allows you to easily migrate drives from server to desktop as falling drive prices make it economical to do so. If you have more than one machine to administer then think of it not simply as storage, think of it as a food chain! For a serious server configuration, there's not even any argument—use SCSI equipment and good cables. CDROM drives My SCSI preferences extend to SCSI CDROM drives as well, and while the Toshiba drives have always been favourites of mine (in whatever speed is hot that week), I'm still fond of my good old Plextor PX-12CS drive. It's only a 12 speed, but it's offered excellent performance and reliability. Generally speaking, most SCSI CDROM drives I've seen have been of pretty solid construction and you probably won't go wrong with an HP or NEC SCSI CDROM drive either. SCSI CDROM prices also appear to have dropped considerably in the last few months and are now quite competitive with IDE CDROMs while remaining a technically superior solution. I now see no reason whatsoever to settle for an IDE CDROM drive if given a choice between the two. CD Recordable (WORM) drives At the time of this writing, FreeBSD supports 3 types of CDR drives (though I believe they all ultimately come from Phillips anyway): The Phillips CDD 522 (Acts like a Plasmon), the PLASMON RF4100 and the HP 6020i. I myself use the HP 6020i for burning CDROMs (in 2.2 and alter releases—it does not work with earlier releases of the SCSI code) and it works very well. See /usr/share/examples/worm on your 2.2 system for example scripts used to created ISO9660 filesystem images (with RockRidge extensions) and burn them onto an HP6020i CDR. Tape drives I've had pretty good luck with both 8mm drives from Exabyte and 4mm (DAT) drives from HP. For backup purposes, I'd have to give the higher recommendation to the Exabyte due to the more robust nature (and higher storage capacity) of 8mm tape. Video Cards If you can also afford to buy a commercial X server for US$99 from Xi Graphics, Inc. (formerly X Inside, Inc) then I can heartily recommend the Matrox Millenium II card. Note that support for this card is also excellent with the XFree86 server, which is now at version 3.3.2. You also certainly can't go wrong with one of Number 9's cards — their S3 Vision 868 and 968 based cards (the 9FX series) also being quite fast and very well supported by XFree86's S3 server. You can also pick up their Revolution 3D cards very cheaply these days, especially if you require a lot of video memory. Monitors I have had very good luck with the Sony Multiscan 17seII monitors, as have I with the Viewsonic offering in the same (Trinitron) tube. For larger than 17", all I can recommend at the time of this writing is to not spend any less than U.S. $2,000 for a 21" monitor or $1,700 for a 20" monitor if that's what you really need. There are good monitors available in the >=20" range and there are also cheap monitors in the >=20" range. Unfortunately, very few are both cheap and good! Networking I can recommend the Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B card first and foremost, followed by the SMC Ultra 16 controller for any ISA application and the SMC EtherPower or Compex ENET32 cards for slightly cheaper PCI based networking. In general, any PCI NIC based around DEC's DC21041 Ethernet controller chip, such as the Znyx ZX342 or DEC DE435/450, will generally work quite well and can frequently be found in 2-port and 4-port version (useful for firewalls and routers), though the Pro/100MB card has the edge when it comes to providing the best performance with lower overhead. If what you're looking for is the cheapest possible solution then almost any NE2000 clone will do a fine job for very little cost. Serial If you're looking for high-speed serial networking solutions, then Digi International makes the SYNC/570 series, with drivers now in FreeBSD-current. Emerging Technologies also manufactures a board with T1/E1 capabilities, using software they provide. I have no direct experience using either product, however. Multiport card options are somewhat more numerous, though it has to be said that FreeBSD's support for Cyclades's products is probably the tightest, primarily as a result of that company's commitment to making sure that we are adequately supplied with evaluation boards and technical specs. I've heard that the Cyclom-16Ye offers the best price/performance, though I've not checked the prices lately. Other multiport cards I've heard good things about are the BOCA and AST cards, and Stallion Technologies apparently offers an unofficial driver for their cards at this location. Audio I currently use a Creative Labs AWE32 though just about anything from Creative Labs will generally work these days. This is not to say that other types of sound cards don't also work, simply that I have little experience with them (I was a former GUS fan, but Gravis's soundcard situation has been dire for some time). Video For video capture, there are two good choices — any card based on the Brooktree BT848 chip, such as the Hauppage or WinTV boards, will work very nicely with FreeBSD. Another board which works for me is the Matrox Meteor card. FreeBSD also supports the older video spigot card from Creative Labs, but those are getting somewhat difficult to find. Note that the Meteor frame grabber card will not work with motherboards based on the 440FX chipset! See the motherboard reference section for details. In such cases, it's better to go with a BT848 based board. Core/Processing Motherboards, busses, and chipsets * ISA * EISA * VLB PCI Contributed by &a.obrien; from postings by &a.rgrimes;. 25 April 1995. Continuing updates by &a.jkh;. Last update on 26 August 1996. Of the Intel PCI chip sets, the following list describes various types of known-brokenness and the degree of breakage, listed from worst to best. Mercury: Cache coherency problems, especially if there are ISA bus masters behind the ISA to PCI bridge chip. Hardware flaw, only known work around is to turn the cache off. Saturn-I (ie, 82424ZX at rev 0, 1 or 2): Write back cache coherency problems. Hardware flaw, only known work around is to set the external cache to write-through mode. Upgrade to Saturn-II. Saturn-II (ie, 82424ZX at rev 3 or 4): Works fine, but many MB manufactures leave out the external dirty bit SRAM needed for write back operation. Work arounds are either run it in write through mode, or get the dirty bit SRAM installed. (I have these for the ASUS PCI/I-486SP3G rev 1.6 and later boards). Neptune: Can not run more than 2 bus master devices. Admitted Intel design flaw. Workarounds include do not run more than 2 bus masters, special hardware design to replace the PCI bus arbiter (appears on Intel Altair board and several other Intel server group MB's). And of course Intel's official answer, - move to the Triton chip set, we “fixed it - there”. + move to the Triton chip set, we fixed it + there. Triton (ie, 430FX): No known cache coherency or bus master problems, chip set does not implement parity checking. Workaround for parity issue. Use Triton-II based motherboards if you have the choice. Triton-II (ie, 430HX): All reports on motherboards using this chipset have been favorable so far. No known problems. Orion: Early versions of this chipset suffered from a PCI write-posting bug which can cause noticeable performance degradation in applications where large amounts of PCI bus traffic is involved. B0 stepping or later revisions of the chipset fixed this problem. 440FX: This Pentium Pro support chipset seems to work well, and does not suffer from any of the early Orion chipset problems. It also supports a wider variety of memory, including ECC and parity. The only known problem with it is that the Matrox Meteor frame grabber card doesn't like it. CPUs/FPUs Contributed by &a.asami;. 26 December 1997. P6 class (Pentium Pro/Pentium II) Both the Pentium Pro and Pentium II work fine with FreeBSD. In fact, our main ftp site ftp.FreeBSD.org (also known as "ftp.cdrom.com", world's largest ftp site) runs FreeBSD on a Pentium Pro. Configurations details are available for interested parties. Pentium class The Intel Pentium (P54C), Pentium MMX (P55C), AMD K6 and Cyrix/IBM 6x86MX processors are all reported to work with FreeBSD. I will not go into details of which processor is faster than what, there are zillions of web sites on the Internet that tells you one way or another. :) Various CPUs have different voltage/cooling requirements. Make sure your motherboard can supply the exact voltage needed by the CPU. For instance, many recent MMX chips require split voltage (e.g., 2.9V core, 3.3V I/O). Also, some AMD and Cyrix/IBM chips run hotter than Intel chips. In that case, make sure you have good heatsink/fans (you can get the list of certified parts from their web pages). Clock speeds Contributed by &a.rgrimes;. 1 October 1996. Updated by &a.asami;. 27 December 1997. Pentium class machines use different clock speeds for the various parts of the system. These being the speed of the CPU, external memory bus, and the PCI bus. It is not always true that - a “faster” processor will make a system faster than a - “slower” one, due to the various clock speeds used. + a faster processor will make a system faster than a + slower one, due to the various clock speeds used. Below is a table showing the differences: Rated CPU MHz External Clock and Memory Bus MHz External to Internal Clock Multiplier PCI Bus Clock MHz 60 60 1.0 30 66 66 1.0 33 75 50 1.5 25 90 60 1.5 30 100 50 2 25 100 66 1.5 33 120 60 2 30 133 66 2 33 150 60 2.5 30 (Intel, AMD) 150 75 2 37.5 (Cyrix/IBM 6x86MX) 166 66 2.5 33 180 60 3 30 200 66 3 33 233 66 3.5 33 66MHz may actually be 66.667MHz, but don't assume so. The Pentium 100 can be run at either 50MHz external clock with a multiplier of 2 or at 66MHz and a multiplier of 1.5. As can be seen the best parts to be using are the 100, 133, 166, 200 and 233, with the exception that at a multiplier of 3 or more the CPU starves for memory. The AMD K6 Bug In 1997, there have been reports of the AMD K6 seg faulting during heavy compilation. That problem has been fixed in 3Q '97. - According to reports, K6 chips with date mark “9733” + According to reports, K6 chips with date mark 9733 or larger (i.e., manufactured in the 33rd week of '97 or later) do not have this bug. * 486 class * 386 class 286 class Sorry, FreeBSD does not run on 80286 machines. It is nearly impossible to run today's large full-featured UNIXes on such hardware. * Memory The minimum amount of memory you must have to install FreeBSD is 5 MB. Once your system is up and running you can build a custom kernel that will use less memory. If you use the boot4.flp you can get away with having only 4 MB. * BIOS Input/Output Devices * Video cards * Sound cards Serial ports and multiport cards The UART: What it is and how it works Copyright © 1996 &a.uhclem;, All Rights Reserved. 13 January 1996. The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) controller is the key component of the serial communications subsystem of a computer. The UART takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete bytes. Serial transmission is commonly used with modems and for non-networked communication between computers, terminals and other devices. There are two primary forms of serial transmission: Synchronous and Asynchronous. Depending on the modes that are supported by the hardware, the name of the communication sub-system will usually include a A if it supports Asynchronous communications, and a S if it supports Synchronous communications. Both forms are described below. Some common acronyms are:
UART Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
USART Universal Synchronous-Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
Synchronous Serial Transmission Synchronous serial transmission requires that the sender and receiver share a clock with one another, or that the sender provide a strobe or other timing signal so that the receiver knows - when to “read” the next bit of the data. In most + when to read the next bit of the data. In most forms of serial Synchronous communication, if there is no data available at a given instant to transmit, a fill character must be sent instead so that data is always being transmitted. Synchronous communication is usually more efficient because only data bits are transmitted between sender and receiver, and synchronous communication can be more more costly if extra wiring and circuits are required to share a clock signal between the sender and receiver. A form of Synchronous transmission is used with printers and fixed disk devices in that the data is sent on one set of wires while a clock or strobe is sent on a different wire. Printers and fixed disk devices are not normally serial devices because most fixed disk interface standards send an entire word of data for each clock or strobe signal by using a separate wire for each bit of the word. In the PC industry, these are known as Parallel devices. The standard serial communications hardware in the PC does not support Synchronous operations. This mode is described here for comparison purposes only. Asynchronous Serial Transmission Asynchronous transmission allows data to be transmitted without the sender having to send a clock signal to the receiver. Instead, the sender and receiver must agree on timing parameters in advance and special bits are added to each word which are used to synchronize the sending and receiving units. When a word is given to the UART for Asynchronous transmissions, a bit called the "Start Bit" is added to the beginning of each word that is to be transmitted. The Start Bit is used to alert the receiver that a word of data is about to be sent, and to force the clock in the receiver into synchronization with the clock in the transmitter. These two clocks must be accurate enough to not have the frequency drift by more than 10% during the transmission of the remaining bits in the word. (This requirement was set in the days of mechanical teleprinters and is easily met by modern electronic equipment.) After the Start Bit, the individual bits of the word of data are sent, with the Least Significant Bit (LSB) being sent first. Each bit in the transmission is transmitted for exactly the same amount of time as all of the other bits, and the receiver - “looks” at the wire at approximately halfway through + looks at the wire at approximately halfway through the period assigned to each bit to determine if the bit is a 1 or a 0. For example, if it takes two seconds to send each bit, the receiver will examine the signal to determine if it is a 1 or a 0 after one second has passed, then it will wait two seconds and then examine the value of the next bit, and so on. The sender does not know when the receiver has - “looked” at the value of the bit. The sender only + looked at the value of the bit. The sender only knows when the clock says to begin transmitting the next bit of the word. When the entire data word has been sent, the transmitter may add a Parity Bit that the transmitter generates. The Parity Bit may be used by the receiver to perform simple error checking. Then at least one Stop Bit is sent by the transmitter. When the receiver has received all of the bits in the data word, it may check for the Parity Bits (both sender and receiver must agree on whether a Parity Bit is to be used), and then the receiver looks for a Stop Bit. If the Stop Bit does not appear when it is supposed to, the UART considers the entire word to be garbled and will report a Framing Error to the host processor when the data word is read. The usual cause of a Framing Error is that the sender and receiver clocks were not running at the same speed, or that the signal was interrupted. Regardless of whether the data was received correctly or not, the UART automatically discards the Start, Parity and Stop bits. If the sender and receiver are configured identically, these bits are not passed to the host. If another word is ready for transmission, the Start Bit for the new word can be sent as soon as the Stop Bit for the previous word has been sent. - Because asynchronous data is “self synchronizing”, + Because asynchronous data is self synchronizing, if there is no data to transmit, the transmission line can be idle. Other UART Functions In addition to the basic job of converting data from parallel to serial for transmission and from serial to parallel on reception, a UART will usually provide additional circuits for signals that can be used to indicate the state of the transmission media, and to regulate the flow of data in the event that the remote device is not prepared to accept more data. For example, when the device connected to the UART is a modem, the modem may report the presence of a carrier on the phone line while the computer may be able to instruct the modem to reset itself or to not take calls by asserting or deasserting one more more of these extra signals. The function of each of these additional signals is defined in the EIA RS232-C standard. The RS232-C and V.24 Standards In most computer systems, the UART is connected to circuitry that generates signals that comply with the EIA RS232-C specification. There is also a CCITT standard named V.24 that mirrors the specifications included in RS232-C. RS232-C Bit Assignments (Marks and Spaces) In RS232-C, a value of 1 is called a Mark and a value of 0 is called a Space. When a communication line is - idle, the line is said to be “Marking”, or + idle, the line is said to be Marking, or transmitting continuous 1 values. The Start bit always has a value of 0 (a Space). The Stop Bit always has a value of 1 (a Mark). This means that there will always be a Mark (1) to Space (0) transition on the line at the start of every word, even when multiple word are transmitted back to back. This guarantees that sender and receiver can resynchronize their clocks regardless of the content of the data bits that are being transmitted. The idle time between Stop and Start bits does not have to be an exact multiple (including zero) of the bit rate of the communication link, but most UARTs are designed this way for simplicity. In RS232-C, the "Marking" signal (a 1) is represented by a voltage between -2 VDC and -12 VDC, and a "Spacing" signal (a 0) is represented by a voltage between 0 and +12 VDC. The transmitter is supposed to send +12 VDC or -12 VDC, and the receiver is supposed to allow for some voltage loss in long cables. Some transmitters in low power devices (like portable computers) sometimes use only +5 VDC and -5 VDC, but these values are still acceptable to a RS232-C receiver, provided that the cable lengths are short. RS232-C Break Signal RS232-C also specifies a signal called a Break, which is caused by sending continuous Spacing values (no Start or Stop bits). When there is no electricity present on the data circuit, the line is considered to be sending Break. The Break signal must be of a duration longer than the time it takes to send a complete byte plus Start, Stop and Parity bits. Most UARTs can distinguish between a Framing Error and a Break, but if the UART cannot do this, the Framing Error detection can be used to identify Breaks. In the days of teleprinters, when numerous printers around the country were wired in series (such as news services), any unit could cause a Break by temporarily opening the entire circuit so that no current flowed. This was used to allow a location with urgent news to interrupt some other location that was currently sending information. In modern systems there are two types of Break signals. If the Break is longer than 1.6 seconds, it is considered a "Modem Break", and some modems can be programmed to terminate the conversation and go on-hook or enter the modems' command mode when the modem detects this signal. If the Break is smaller than 1.6 seconds, it signifies a Data Break and it is up to the remote computer to respond to this signal. Sometimes this form of Break is used as an Attention or Interrupt signal and sometimes is accepted as a substitute for the ASCII CONTROL-C character. - Marks and Spaces are also equivalent to “Holes” - and “No Holes” in paper tape systems. + Marks and Spaces are also equivalent to Holes + and No Holes in paper tape systems. Breaks cannot be generated from paper tape or from any other byte value, since bytes are always sent with Start and Stop bit. The UART is usually capable of generating the continuous Spacing signal in response to a special command from the host processor. RS232-C DTE and DCE Devices The RS232-C specification defines two types of equipment: the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and the Data Carrier Equipment (DCE). Usually, the DTE device is the terminal (or computer), and the DCE is a modem. Across the phone line at the other end of a conversation, the receiving modem is also a DCE device and the computer that is connected to that modem is a DTE device. The DCE device receives signals on the pins that the DTE device transmits on, and vice versa. When two devices that are both DTE or both DCE must be connected together without a modem or a similar media translater between them, a NULL modem must be used. The NULL modem electrically re-arranges the cabling so that the transmitter output is connected to the receiver input on the other device, and vice versa. Similar translations are performed on all of the control signals so that each device will see what it thinks are DCE (or DTE) signals from the other device. The number of signals generated by the DTE and DCE devices are not symmetrical. The DTE device generates fewer signals for the DCE device than the DTE device receives from the DCE. RS232-C Pin Assignments The EIA RS232-C specification (and the ITU equivalent, V.24) calls for a twenty-five pin connector (usually a DB25) and defines the purpose of most of the pins in that connector. In the IBM Personal Computer and similar systems, a subset of RS232-C signals are provided via nine pin connectors (DB9). The signals that are not included on the PC connector deal mainly with synchronous operation, and this transmission mode is not supported by the UART that IBM selected for use in the IBM PC. Depending on the computer manufacturer, a DB25, a DB9, or both types of connector may be used for RS232-C communications. (The IBM PC also uses a DB25 connector for the parallel printer interface which causes some confusion.) Below is a table of the RS232-C signal assignments in the DB25 and DB9 connectors. DB25 RS232-C Pin DB9 IBM PC Pin EIA Circuit Symbol CCITT Circuit Symbol Common Name Signal Source Description 1 - AA 101 PG/FG - Frame/Protective Ground 2 3 BA 103 TD DTE Transmit Data 3 2 BB 104 RD DCE Receive Data 4 7 CA 105 RTS DTE Request to Send 5 8 CB 106 CTS DCE Clear to Send 6 6 CC 107 DSR DCE Data Set Ready 7 5 AV 102 SG/GND - Signal Ground 8 1 CF 109 DCD/CD DCE Data Carrier Detect 9 - - - - - Reserved for Test 10 - - - - - Reserved for Test 11 - - - - - Reserved for Test 12 - CI 122 SRLSD DCE Sec. Recv. Line Signal Detector 13 - SCB 121 SCTS DCE Secondary Clear to Send 14 - SBA 118 STD DTE Secondary Transmit Data 15 - DB 114 TSET DCE Trans. Sig. Element Timing 16 - SBB 119 SRD DCE Secondary Received Data 17 - DD 115 RSET DCE Receiver Signal Element Timing 18 - - 141 LOOP DTE Local Loopback 19 - SCA 120 SRS DTE Secondary Request to Send 20 4 CD 108.2 DTR DTE Data Terminal Ready 21 - - - RDL DTE Remote Digital Loopback 22 9 CE 125 RI DCE Ring Indicator 23 - CH 111 DSRS DTE Data Signal Rate Selector 24 - DA 113 TSET DTE Trans. Sig. Element Timing 25 - - 142 - DCE Test Mode Bits, Baud and Symbols Baud is a measurement of transmission speed in asynchronous communication. Because of advances in modem communication technology, this term is frequently misused when describing the data rates in newer devices. Traditionally, a Baud Rate represents the number of bits that are actually being sent over the media, not the amount of data that is actually moved from one DTE device to the other. The Baud count includes the overhead bits Start, Stop and Parity that are generated by the sending UART and removed by the receiving UART. This means that seven-bit words of data actually take 10 bits to be completely transmitted. Therefore, a modem capable of moving 300 bits per second from one place to another can normally only move 30 7-bit words if Parity is used and one Start and Stop bit are present. If 8-bit data words are used and Parity bits are also used, the data rate falls to 27.27 words per second, because it now takes 11 bits to send the eight-bit words, and the modem still only sends 300 bits per second. The formula for converting bytes per second into a baud rate and vice versa was simple until error-correcting modems came along. These modems receive the serial stream of bits from the UART in the host computer (even when internal modems are used the data is still frequently serialized) and converts the bits back into bytes. These bytes are then combined into packets and sent over the phone line using a Synchronous transmission method. This means that the Stop, Start, and Parity bits added by the UART in the DTE (the computer) were removed by the modem before transmission by the sending modem. When these bytes are received by the remote modem, the remote modem adds Start, Stop and Parity bits to the words, converts them to a serial format and then sends them to the receiving UART in the remote computer, who then strips the Start, Stop and Parity bits. The reason all these extra conversions are done is so that the two modems can perform error correction, which means that the receiving modem is able to ask the sending modem to resend a block of data that was not received with the correct checksum. This checking is handled by the modems, and the DTE devices are usually unaware that the process is occurring. By striping the Start, Stop and Parity bits, the additional bits of data that the two modems must share between themselves to perform error-correction are mostly concealed from the effective transmission rate seen by the sending and receiving DTE equipment. For example, if a modem sends ten 7-bit words to another modem without including the Start, Stop and Parity bits, the sending modem will be able to add 30 bits of its own information that the receiving modem can use to do error-correction without impacting the transmission speed of the real data. The use of the term Baud is further confused by modems that perform compression. A single 8-bit word passed over the telephone line might represent a dozen words that were transmitted to the sending modem. The receiving modem will expand the data back to its original content and pass that data to the receiving DTE. Modern modems also include buffers that allow the rate that bits move across the phone line (DCE to DCE) to be a different speed than the speed that the bits move between the DTE and DCE on both ends of the conversation. Normally the speed between the DTE and DCE is higher than the DCE to DCE speed because of the use of compression by the modems. Because the number of bits needed to describe a byte varied during the trip between the two machines plus the differing bits-per-seconds speeds that are used present on the DTE-DCE and DCE-DCE links, the usage of the term Baud to describe the overall communication speed causes problems and can misrepresent the true transmission speed. So Bits Per Second (bps) is the correct term to use to describe the transmission rate seen at the DCE to DCE interface and Baud or Bits Per Second are acceptable terms to use when a connection is made between two systems with a wired connection, or if a modem is in use that is not performing error-correction or compression. Modern high speed modems (2400, 9600, 14,400, and 19,200bps) in reality still operate at or below 2400 baud, or more accurately, 2400 Symbols per second. High speed modem are able to encode more bits of data into each Symbol using a technique called Constellation Stuffing, which is why the effective bits per second rate of the modem is higher, but the modem continues to operate within the limited audio bandwidth that the telephone system provides. Modems operating at 28,800 and higher speeds have variable Symbol rates, but the technique is the same. The IBM Personal Computer UART Starting with the original IBM Personal Computer, IBM selected the National Semiconductor INS8250 UART for use in the IBM PC Parallel/Serial Adapter. Subsequent generations of compatible computers from IBM and other vendors continued to use the INS8250 or improved versions of the National Semiconductor UART family. National Semiconductor UART Family Tree There have been several versions and subsequent generations of the INS8250 UART. Each major version is described below. INS8250 -> INS8250B \ \ \-> INS8250A -> INS82C50A \ \ \-> NS16450 -> NS16C450 \ \ \-> NS16550 -> NS16550A -> PC16550D INS8250 This part was used in the original IBM PC and IBM PC/XT. The original name for this part was the INS8250 ACE (Asynchronous Communications Element) and it is made from NMOS technology. The 8250 uses eight I/O ports and has a one-byte send and a one-byte receive buffer. This original UART has several race conditions and other flaws. The original IBM BIOS includes code to work around these flaws, but this made the BIOS dependent on the flaws being present, so subsequent parts like the 8250A, 16450 or 16550 could not be used in the original IBM PC or IBM PC/XT. INS8250-B This is the slower speed of the INS8250 made from NMOS technology. It contains the same problems as the original INS8250. INS8250A An improved version of the INS8250 using XMOS technology with various functional flaws corrected. The INS8250A was used initially in PC clone computers by - vendors who used “clean” BIOS designs. Because + vendors who used clean BIOS designs. Because of the corrections in the chip, this part could not be used with a BIOS compatible with the INS8250 or INS8250B. INS82C50A This is a CMOS version (low power consumption) of the INS8250A and has similar functional characteristics. NS16450 Same as NS8250A with improvements so it can be used with faster CPU bus designs. IBM used this part in the IBM AT and updated the IBM BIOS to no longer rely on the bugs in the INS8250. NS16C450 This is a CMOS version (low power consumption) of the NS16450. NS16550 Same as NS16450 with a 16-byte send and receive buffer but the buffer design was flawed and could not be reliably be used. NS16550A Same as NS16550 with the buffer flaws corrected. The 16550A and its successors have become the most popular UART design in the PC industry, mainly due it its ability to reliably handle higher data rates on operating systems with sluggish interrupt response times. NS16C552 This component consists of two NS16C550A CMOS UARTs in a single package. PC16550D Same as NS16550A with subtle flaws corrected. This is revision D of the 16550 family and is the latest design available from National Semiconductor. The NS16550AF and the PC16550D are the same thing National reorganized their part numbering system a few years ago, and the NS16550AFN no longer exists by that name. (If you have a NS16550AFN, look at the date code on the part, which is a four digit number that usually starts with a nine. The first two digits of the number are the year, and the last two digits are the week in that year when the part was packaged. If you have a NS16550AFN, it is probably a few years old.) The new numbers are like PC16550DV, with minor differences in the suffix letters depending on the package material and its shape. (A description of the numbering system can be found below.) It is important to understand that in some stores, you may pay $15(US) for a NS16550AFN made in 1990 and in the next bin are the new PC16550DN parts with minor fixes that National has made since the AFN part was in production, the PC16550DN was probably made in the past six months and it costs half (as low as $5(US) in volume) as much as the NS16550AFN because they are readily available. As the supply of NS16550AFN chips continues to shrink, the price will probably continue to increase until more people discover and accept that the PC16550DN really has the same function as the old part number. National Semiconductor Part Numbering System The older NSnnnnnrqp part numbers are now of the format PCnnnnnrgp. The r is the revision field. The current revision of the 16550 from National Semiconductor is D. The p is the package-type field. The types are: "F" QFP (quad flat pack) L lead type "N" DIP (dual inline package) through hole straight lead type "V" LPCC (lead plastic chip carrier) J lead type The g is the product grade field. If an I precedes the package-type letter, it - indicates an “industrial” grade part, which has + indicates an industrial grade part, which has higher specs than a standard part but not as high as Military Specification (Milspec) component. This is an optional field. So what we used to call a NS16550AFN (DIP Package) is now called a PC16550DN or PC16550DIN. Other Vendors and Similar UARTs Over the years, the 8250, 8250A, 16450 and 16550 have been licensed or copied by other chip vendors. In the case of the 8250, 8250A and 16450, the exact circuit (the - “megacell”) was licensed to many vendors, including + megacell) was licensed to many vendors, including Western Digital and Intel. Other vendors reverse-engineered the part or produced emulations that had similar behavior. In internal modems, the modem designer will frequently emulate the 8250A/16450 with the modem microprocessor, and the emulated UART will frequently have a hidden buffer consisting of several hundred bytes. Because of the size of the buffer, these emulations can be as reliable as a 16550A in their ability to handle high speed data. However, most operating systems will still report that the UART is only a 8250A or 16450, and may not make effective use of the extra buffering present in the emulated UART unless special drivers are used. Some modem makers are driven by market forces to abandon a design that has hundreds of bytes of buffer and instead use a 16550A UART so that the product will compare favorably in market comparisons even though the effective performance may be lowered by this action. A common misconception is that all parts with - “16550A” written on them are identical in performance. + 16550A written on them are identical in performance. There are differences, and in some cases, outright flaws in most of these 16550A clones. When the NS16550 was developed, the National Semiconductor obtained several patents on the design and they also limited licensing, making it harder for other vendors to provide a chip with similar features. Because of the patents, reverse-engineered designs and emulations had to avoid infringing the claims covered by the patents. Subsequently, these copies almost never perform exactly the same as the NS16550A or PC16550D, which are the parts most computer and modem makers want to buy but are sometimes unwilling to pay the price required to get the genuine part. Some of the differences in the clone 16550A parts are unimportant, while others can prevent the device from being used at all with a given operating system or driver. These differences may show up when using other drivers, or when particular combinations of events occur that were not well tested or considered in the Windows driver. This is because most modem vendors and 16550-clone makers use the Microsoft drivers from Windows for Workgroups 3.11 and the Microsoft MSD utility as the primary tests for compatibility with the NS16550A. This over-simplistic criteria means that if a different operating system is used, problems could appear due to subtle differences between the clones and genuine components. National Semiconductor has made available a program named COMTEST that performs compatibility tests independent of any OS drivers. It should be remembered that the purpose of this type of program is to demonstrate the flaws in the products of the competition, so the program will report major as well as extremely subtle differences in behavior in the part being tested. In a series of tests performed by the author of this document in 1994, components made by National Semiconductor, TI, StarTech, and CMD as well as megacells and emulations embedded in internal modems were tested with COMTEST. A difference count for some of these components is listed below. Because these tests were performed in 1994, they may not reflect the current performance of the given product from a vendor. It should be noted that COMTEST normally aborts when an excessive number or certain types of problems have been detected. As part of this testing, COMTEST was modified so that it would not abort no matter how many differences were encountered. Vendor Part Number Errors (aka "differences" reported) National (PC16550DV) 0 National (NS16550AFN) 0 National (NS16C552V) 0 TI (TL16550AFN) 3 CMD (16C550PE) 19 StarTech (ST16C550J) 23 Rockwell Reference modem with internal 16550 or an emulation (RC144DPi/C3000-25) 117 Sierra Modem with an internal 16550 (SC11951/SC11351) 91 To date, the author of this document has not found any non-National parts that report zero differences using the COMTEST program. It should also be noted that National has had five versions of the 16550 over the years and the newest parts behave a bit differently than the classic NS16550AFN that is considered the benchmark for functionality. COMTEST appears to turn a blind eye to the differences within the National product line and reports no errors on the National parts (except for the original 16550) even when there are official erratas that describe bugs in the A, B and C revisions of the parts, so this bias in COMTEST must be taken into account. It is important to understand that a simple count of differences from COMTEST does not reveal a lot about what differences are important and which are not. For example, about half of the differences reported in the two modems listed above that have internal UARTs were caused by the clone UARTs not supporting five- and six-bit character modes. The real 16550, 16450, and 8250 UARTs all support these modes and COMTEST checks the functionality of these modes so over fifty differences are reported. However, almost no modern modem supports five- or six-bit characters, particularly those with error-correction and compression capabilities. This means that the differences related to five- and six-bit character modes can be discounted. Many of the differences COMTEST reports have to do with timing. In many of the clone designs, when the host reads from one port, the status bits in some other port may not update in the same amount of time (some faster, some slower) as a real NS16550AFN and COMTEST looks for these differences. This means that the number of differences can be misleading in that one device may only have one or two differences but they are extremely serious, and some other device that updates the status registers faster or slower than the reference part (that would probably never affect the operation of a properly written driver) could have dozens of differences reported. COMTEST can be used as a screening tool to alert the administrator to the presence of potentially incompatible components that might cause problems or have to be handled as a special case. If you run COMTEST on a 16550 that is in a modem or a modem is attached to the serial port, you need to first issue a ATE0&W command to the modem so that the modem will not echo any of the test characters. If you forget to do this, COMTEST will report at least this one difference: Error (6)...Timeout interrupt failed: IIR = c1 LSR = 61 8250/16450/16550 Registers The 8250/16450/16550 UART occupies eight contiguous I/O port addresses. In the IBM PC, there are two defined locations for these eight ports and they are known collectively as COM1 and COM2. The makers of PC-clones and add-on cards have created two additional areas known as COM3 and COM4, but these extra COM ports conflict with other hardware on some systems. The most common conflict is with video adapters that provide IBM 8514 emulation. COM1 is located from 0x3f8 to 0x3ff and normally uses IRQ 4 COM2 is located from 0x2f8 to 0x2ff and normally uses IRQ 3 COM3 is located from 0x3e8 to 0x3ef and has no standardized IRQ COM4 is located from 0x2e8 to 0x2ef and has no standardized IRQ. A description of the I/O ports of the 8250/16450/16550 UART is provided below. I/O Port Access Allowed Description +0x00 write (DLAB==0) Transmit Holding Register (THR).Information written to this port are treated as data words and will be transmitted by the UART. +0x00 read (DLAB==0) Receive Buffer Register (RBR).Any data words received by the UART form the serial link are accessed by the host by reading this port. +0x00 write/read (DLAB==1) Divisor Latch LSB (DLL)This value will be divided from the master input clock (in the IBM PC, the master clock is 1.8432MHz) and the resulting clock will determine the baud rate of the UART. This register holds bits 0 thru 7 of the divisor. +0x01 write/read (DLAB==1) Divisor Latch MSB (DLH)This value will be divided from the master input clock (in the IBM PC, the master clock is 1.8432MHz) and the resulting clock will determine the baud rate of the UART. This register holds bits 8 thru 15 of the divisor. +0x01 write/read (DLAB==0) Interrupt Enable Register (IER)The 8250/16450/16550 UART classifies events into one of four categories. Each category can be configured to generate an interrupt when any of the events occurs. The 8250/16450/16550 UART generates a single external interrupt signal regardless of how many events in the enabled categories have occurred. It is up to the host processor to respond to the interrupt and then poll the enabled interrupt categories (usually all categories have interrupts enabled) to determine the true cause(s) of the interrupt. Bit 7 Reserved, always 0. Bit 6 Reserved, always 0. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 Enable Modem Status Interrupt (EDSSI). Setting this bit to "1" allows the UART to generate an interrupt when a change occurs on one or more of the status lines. Bit 2 Enable Receiver Line Status Interrupt (ELSI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the an error (or a BREAK signal) has been detected in the incoming data. Bit 1 Enable Transmitter Holding Register Empty Interrupt (ETBEI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the UART has room for one or more additional characters that are to be transmitted. Bit 0 Enable Received Data Available Interrupt (ERBFI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the UART has received enough characters to exceed the trigger level of the FIFO, or the FIFO timer has expired (stale data), or a single character has been received when the FIFO is disabled. +0x02 write FIFO Control Register (FCR) (This port does not exist on the 8250 and 16450 UART.) Bit 7 Receiver Trigger Bit #1 Bit 6 Receiver Trigger Bit #0These two bits control at what point the receiver is to generate an interrupt when the FIFO is active. 7 6 How many words are received before an interrupt is generated 0 0 1 0 1 4 1 0 8 1 1 14 Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 DMA Mode Select. If Bit 0 is set to "1" (FIFOs enabled), setting this bit changes the operation of the -RXRDY and -TXRDY signals from Mode 0 to Mode 1. Bit 2 Transmit FIFO Reset. When a "1" is written to this bit, the contents of the FIFO are discarded. Any word currently being transmitted will be sent intact. This function is useful in aborting transfers. Bit 1 Receiver FIFO Reset. When a "1" is written to this bit, the contents of the FIFO are discarded. Any word currently being assembled in the shift register will be received intact. Bit 0 16550 FIFO Enable. When set, both the transmit and receive FIFOs are enabled. Any contents in the holding register, shift registers or FIFOs are lost when FIFOs are enabled or disabled. +0x02 read Interrupt Identification Register Bit 7 FIFOs enabled. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 6 FIFOs enabled. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 Interrupt ID Bit #2. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 2 Interrupt ID Bit #1 Bit 1 Interrupt ID Bit #0.These three bits combine to report the category of event that caused the interrupt that is in progress. These categories have priorities, so if multiple categories of events occur at the same time, the UART will report the more important events first and the host must resolve the events in the order they are reported. All events that caused the current interrupt must be resolved before any new interrupts will be generated. (This is a limitation of the PC architecture.) 2 1 0 Priority Description 0 1 1 First Received Error (OE, PE, BI, or FE) 0 1 0 Second Received Data Available 1 1 0 Second Trigger level identification (Stale data in receive buffer) 0 0 1 Third Transmitter has room for more words (THRE) 0 0 0 Fourth Modem Status Change (-CTS, -DSR, -RI, or -DCD) Bit 0 Interrupt Pending Bit. If this bit is set to "0", then at least one interrupt is pending. +0x03 write/read Line Control Register (LCR) Bit 7 Divisor Latch Access Bit (DLAB). When set, access to the data transmit/receive register (THR/RBR) and the Interrupt Enable Register (IER) is disabled. Any access to these ports is now redirected to the Divisor Latch Registers. Setting this bit, loading the Divisor Registers, and clearing DLAB should be done with interrupts disabled. Bit 6 Set Break. When set to "1", the transmitter begins to transmit continuous Spacing until this bit is set to "0". This overrides any bits of characters that are being transmitted. Bit 5 Stick Parity. When parity is enabled, setting this bit causes parity to always be "1" or "0", based on the value of Bit 4. Bit 4 Even Parity Select (EPS). When parity is enabled and Bit 5 is "0", setting this bit causes even parity to be transmitted and expected. Otherwise, odd parity is used. Bit 3 Parity Enable (PEN). When set to "1", a parity bit is inserted between the last bit of the data and the Stop Bit. The UART will also expect parity to be present in the received data. Bit 2 Number of Stop Bits (STB). If set to "1" and using 5-bit data words, 1.5 Stop Bits are transmitted and expected in each data word. For 6, 7 and 8-bit data words, 2 Stop Bits are transmitted and expected. When this bit is set to "0", one Stop Bit is used on each data word. Bit 1 Word Length Select Bit #1 (WLSB1) Bit 0 Word Length Select Bit #0 (WLSB0) Together these bits specify the number of bits in each data word. 1 0 Word Length 0 0 5 Data Bits 0 1 6 Data Bits 1 0 7 Data Bits 1 1 8 Data Bits +0x04 write/read Modem Control Register (MCR) Bit 7 Reserved, always 0. Bit 6 Reserved, always 0. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Loop-Back Enable. When set to "1", the UART transmitter and receiver are internally connected together to allow diagnostic operations. In addition, the UART modem control outputs are connected to the UART modem control inputs. CTS is connected to RTS, DTR is connected to DSR, OUT1 is connected to RI, and OUT 2 is connected to DCD. Bit 3 OUT 2. An auxiliary output that the host processor may set high or low. In the IBM PC serial adapter (and most clones), OUT 2 is used to tri-state (disable) the interrupt signal from the 8250/16450/16550 UART. Bit 2 OUT 1. An auxiliary output that the host processor may set high or low. This output is not used on the IBM PC serial adapter. Bit 1 Request to Send (RTS). When set to "1", the output of the UART -RTS line is Low (Active). Bit 0 Data Terminal Ready (DTR). When set to "1", the output of the UART -DTR line is Low (Active). +0x05 write/read Line Status Register (LSR) Bit 7 Error in Receiver FIFO. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. This bit is set to "1" when any of the bytes in the FIFO have one or more of the following error conditions: PE, FE, or BI. Bit 6 Transmitter Empty (TEMT). When set to "1", there are no words remaining in the transmit FIFO or the transmit shift register. The transmitter is completely idle. Bit 5 Transmitter Holding Register Empty (THRE). When set to "1", the FIFO (or holding register) now has room for at least one additional word to transmit. The transmitter may still be transmitting when this bit is set to "1". Bit 4 Break Interrupt (BI). The receiver has detected a Break signal. Bit 3 Framing Error (FE). A Start Bit was detected but the Stop Bit did not appear at the expected time. The received word is probably garbled. Bit 2 Parity Error (PE). The parity bit was incorrect for the word received. Bit 1 Overrun Error (OE). A new word was received and there was no room in the receive buffer. The newly-arrived word in the shift register is discarded. On 8250/16450 UARTs, the word in the holding register is discarded and the newly- arrived word is put in the holding register. Bit 0 Data Ready (DR) One or more words are in the receive FIFO that the host may read. A word must be completely received and moved from the shift register into the FIFO (or holding register for 8250/16450 designs) before this bit is set. +0x06 write/read Modem Status Register (MSR) Bit 7 Data Carrier Detect (DCD). Reflects the state of the DCD line on the UART. Bit 6 Ring Indicator (RI). Reflects the state of the RI line on the UART. Bit 5 Data Set Ready (DSR). Reflects the state of the DSR line on the UART. Bit 4 Clear To Send (CTS). Reflects the state of the CTS line on the UART. Bit 3 Delta Data Carrier Detect (DDCD). Set to "1" if the -DCD line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 2 Trailing Edge Ring Indicator (TERI). Set to "1" if the -RI line has had a low to high transition since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 1 Delta Data Set Ready (DDSR). Set to "1" if the -DSR line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 0 Delta Clear To Send (DCTS). Set to "1" if the -CTS line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. +0x07 write/read Scratch Register (SCR). This register performs no function in the UART. Any value can be written by the host to this location and read by the host later on. Beyond the 16550A UART Although National Semiconductor has not offered any components compatible with the 16550 that provide additional features, various other vendors have. Some of these components are described below. It should be understood that to effectively utilize these improvements, drivers may have to be provided by the chip vendor since most of the popular operating systems do not support features beyond those provided by the 16550. ST16650 By default this part is similar to the NS16550A, but an extended 32-byte send and receive buffer can be optionally enabled. Made by Startech. TIL16660 By default this part behaves similar to the NS16550A, but an extended 64-byte send and receive buffer can be optionally enabled. Made by Texas Instruments. Hayes ESP This proprietary plug-in card contains a 2048-byte send and receive buffer, and supports data rates to 230.4Kbit/sec. Made by Hayes. - In addition to these “dumb” UARTs, many vendors + In addition to these dumb UARTs, many vendors produce intelligent serial communication boards. This type of design usually provides a microprocessor that interfaces with several UARTs, processes and buffers the data, and then alerts the main PC processor when necessary. Because the UARTs are not directly accessed by the PC processor in this type of communication system, it is not necessary for the vendor to use UARTs that are compatible with the 8250, 16450, or the 16550 UART. This leaves the designer free to components that may have better performance characteristics. Configuring the <devicename>sio</devicename> driver The sio driver provides support for NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550 and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. Several multiport cards are supported as well. See the &man.sio.4; manual page for detailed technical documentation. Digi International (DigiBoard) PC/8 Contributed by &a.awebster;. 26 August 1995. Here is a config snippet from a machine with a Digi International PC/8 with 16550. It has 8 modems connected to these 8 lines, and they work just great. Do not forget to add options COM_MULTIPORT or it will not work very well! device sio4 at isa? port 0x100 tty flags 0xb05 device sio5 at isa? port 0x108 tty flags 0xb05 device sio6 at isa? port 0x110 tty flags 0xb05 device sio7 at isa? port 0x118 tty flags 0xb05 device sio8 at isa? port 0x120 tty flags 0xb05 device sio9 at isa? port 0x128 tty flags 0xb05 device sio10 at isa? port 0x130 tty flags 0xb05 device sio11 at isa? port 0x138 tty flags 0xb05 irq 9 vector siointr The trick in setting this up is that the MSB of the flags represent the last SIO port, in this case 11 so flags are 0xb05. Boca 16 Contributed by &a.whiteside;. 26 August 1995. The procedures to make a Boca 16 port board with FreeBSD are pretty straightforward, but you will need a couple things to make it work: You either need the kernel sources installed so you can recompile the necessary options or you will need someone else to compile it for you. The 2.0.5 default kernel does not come with multiport support enabled and you will need to add a device entry for each port anyways. Two, you will need to know the interrupt and IO setting for your Boca Board so you can set these options properly in the kernel. One important note — the actual UART chips for the Boca 16 are in the connector box, not on the internal board itself. So if you have it unplugged, probes of those ports will fail. I have never tested booting with the box unplugged and plugging it back in, and I suggest you do not either. If you do not already have a custom kernel configuration file set up, refer to Kernel Configuration for general procedures. The following are the specifics for the Boca 16 board and assume you are using the kernel name MYKERNEL and editing with vi. Add the line options COM_MULTIPORT to the config file. Where the current device sion lines are, you will need to add 16 more devices. Only the last device includes the interrupt vector for the board. (See the &man.sio.4; manual page for detail as to why.) The following example is for a Boca Board with an interrupt of 3, and a base IO address 100h. The IO address for Each port is +8 hexadecimal from the previous port, thus the 100h, 108h, 110h... addresses. device sio1 at isa? port 0x100 tty flags 0x1005 device sio2 at isa? port 0x108 tty flags 0x1005 device sio3 at isa? port 0x110 tty flags 0x1005 device sio4 at isa? port 0x118 tty flags 0x1005 … device sio15 at isa? port 0x170 tty flags 0x1005 device sio16 at isa? port 0x178 tty flags 0x1005 irq 3 vector siointr The flags entry must be changed from this example unless you are using the exact same sio assignments. Flags are set according to 0xMYY where M indicates the minor number of the master port (the last port on a Boca 16) and YY indicates if FIFO is enabled or disabled(enabled), IRQ sharing is used(yes) and if there is an AST/4 compatible IRQ control register(no). In this example, flags 0x1005 indicates that the master port is sio16. If I added another board and assigned sio17 through sio28, the flags for all 16 ports on that board would be 0x1C05, where 1C indicates the minor number of the master port. Do not change the 05 setting. Save and complete the kernel configuration, recompile, install and reboot. Presuming you have successfully installed the recompiled kernel and have it set to the correct address and IRQ, your boot message should indicate the successful probe of the Boca ports as follows: (obviously the sio numbers, IO and IRQ could be different) sio1 at 0x100-0x107 flags 0x1005 on isa sio1: type 16550A (multiport) sio2 at 0x108-0x10f flags 0x1005 on isa sio2: type 16550A (multiport) sio3 at 0x110-0x117 flags 0x1005 on isa sio3: type 16550A (multiport) sio4 at 0x118-0x11f flags 0x1005 on isa sio4: type 16550A (multiport) sio5 at 0x120-0x127 flags 0x1005 on isa sio5: type 16550A (multiport) sio6 at 0x128-0x12f flags 0x1005 on isa sio6: type 16550A (multiport) sio7 at 0x130-0x137 flags 0x1005 on isa sio7: type 16550A (multiport) sio8 at 0x138-0x13f flags 0x1005 on isa sio8: type 16550A (multiport) sio9 at 0x140-0x147 flags 0x1005 on isa sio9: type 16550A (multiport) sio10 at 0x148-0x14f flags 0x1005 on isa sio10: type 16550A (multiport) sio11 at 0x150-0x157 flags 0x1005 on isa sio11: type 16550A (multiport) sio12 at 0x158-0x15f flags 0x1005 on isa sio12: type 16550A (multiport) sio13 at 0x160-0x167 flags 0x1005 on isa sio13: type 16550A (multiport) sio14 at 0x168-0x16f flags 0x1005 on isa sio14: type 16550A (multiport) sio15 at 0x170-0x177 flags 0x1005 on isa sio15: type 16550A (multiport) sio16 at 0x178-0x17f irq 3 flags 0x1005 on isa sio16: type 16550A (multiport master) If the messages go by too fast to see, &prompt.root; dmesg | more will show you the boot messages. Next, appropriate entries in /dev for the devices must be made using the /dev/MAKEDEV script. After becoming root: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tty1 &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV cua1 (everything in between) &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV ttyg &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV cuag If you do not want or need callout devices for some reason, you can dispense with making the cua* devices. If you want a quick and sloppy way to make sure the devices are working, you can simply plug a modem into each port and (as root) &prompt.root; echo at > ttyd* for each device you have made. You should see the RX lights flash for each working port. Support for Cheap Multi-UART Cards Contributed by Helge Oldach hmo@sep.hamburg.com, September 1999 Ever wondered about FreeBSD support for your 20$ multi-I/O card with two (or more) COM ports, sharing IRQs? Here's how: Usually the only option to support these kind of boards is to use a distinct IRQ for each port. For example, if your CPU board has an on-board COM1 port (aka sio0–I/O address 0x3F8 and IRQ 4) and you have an extension board with two UARTs, you will commonly need to configure them as COM2 (aka sio1–I/O address 0x2F8 and IRQ 3), and the third port (aka sio2) as I/O 0x3E8 and IRQ 5. Obviously this is a waste of IRQ ressources, as it should be basically possible to run both extension board ports using a single IRQ with the COM_MULTIPORT configuration described in the previous sections. Such cheap I/O boards commonly have a 4 by 3 jumper matrix for the COM ports, similar to the following: o o o * Port A | o * o * Port B | o * o o IRQ 2 3 4 5 Shown here is port A wired for IRQ 5 and port B wired for IRQ 3. The IRQ columns on your specific board may vary—other boards may supply jumpers for IRQs 3, 4, 5, and 7 instead. One could conclude that wiring both ports for IRQ 3 using a handcrafted wire-made jumper covering all three connection points in the IRQ 3 column would solve the issue, but no. You cannot duplicate IRQ 3 because the output drivers of each UART are wired - in a “totem pole” fashion, so if one of the UARTs + in a totem pole fashion, so if one of the UARTs drives IRQ 3, the output signal will not be what you would expect. Depending on the implementation of the extension board or your motherboard, the IRQ 3 line will continuously stay up, or always stay low. You need to decouple the IRQ drivers for the two UARTs, so that the IRQ line of the board only goes up if (and only if) one of the UARTs asserts a IRQ, and stays low otherwise. The solution was proposed by Jrg Wunsch j@ida.interface-business.de: To solder up a wired-or consisting of two diodes (Germanium or Schottky-types strongly preferred) and a 1 kOhm resistor. Here is the schematic, starting from the 4 by 3 jumper field above: Diode +---------->|-------+ / | o * o o | 1 kOhm Port A +----|######|-------+ o * o o | | Port B `-------------------+ ==+== o * o o | Ground \ | +--------->|-------+ IRQ 2 3 4 5 Diode The cathodes of the diodes are connected to a common point, together with a 1 kOhm pull-down resistor. It is essential to connect the resistor to ground to avoid floating of the IRQ line on the bus. Now we are ready to configure a kernel. Staying with this example, we would configure: # standard on-board COM1 port device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 # patched-up multi-I/O extension board options COM_MULTIPORT device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x205 device sio2 at isa? port "IO_COM3" tty flags 0x205 irq 3 Note that the flags setting for sio1 and sio2 is truely essential; refer to &man.sio.4; for details. (Generally, the 2 in the "flags" attribute refers to sio2 which holds the IRQ, and you surely want a 5 low nibble.) With kernel verbose mode turned on this should yield something similar to this: sio0: irq maps: 0x1 0x11 0x1 0x1 sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1: irq maps: 0x1 0x9 0x1 0x1 sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff flags 0x205 on isa sio1: type 16550A (multiport) sio2: irq maps: 0x1 0x9 0x1 0x1 sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 3 flags 0x205 on isa sio2: type 16550A (multiport master) Though /sys/i386/isa/sio.c is somewhat - cryptic with its use of the “irq maps” array above, + cryptic with its use of the irq maps array above, the basic idea is that you observe 0x1 in the first, third, and fourth place. This means that the corresponding IRQ was set upon output and cleared after, which is just what we would expect. If your kernel does not display this behaviour, most likely there is something wrong with your wiring. Configuring the <devicename>cy</devicename> driver Contributed by &a.alex;. 6 June 1996. The Cyclades multiport cards are based on the cy driver instead of the usual sio driver used by other multiport cards. Configuration is a simple matter of: Add the cy device to your kernel configuration (note that your irq and iomem settings may differ). device cy0 at isa? tty irq 10 iomem 0xd4000 iosiz 0x2000 vector cyintr Rebuild and install the new kernel. Make the device nodes by typing (the following example assumes an 8-port board): &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; for i in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7;do ./MAKEDEV cuac$i ttyc$i;done If appropriate, add dialup entries to /etc/ttys by duplicating serial device (ttyd) entries and using ttyc in place of ttyd. For example: ttyc0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure ttyc1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure ttyc2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure … ttyc7 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure Reboot with the new kernel. Configuring the <devicename>si</devicename> driver Contributed by &a.nsayer;. 25 March 1998. The Specialix SI/XIO and SX multiport cards use the si driver. A single machine can have up to 4 host cards. The following host cards are supported: ISA SI/XIO host card (2 versions) EISA SI/XIO host card PCI SI/XIO host card ISA SX host card PCI SX host card Although the SX and SI/XIO host cards look markedly different, their functionality are basically the same. The host cards do not use I/O locations, but instead require a 32K chunk of memory. The factory configuration for ISA cards places this at 0xd0000-0xd7fff. They also require an IRQ. PCI cards will, of course, autoconfigure themselves. You can attach up to 4 external modules to each host card. The external modules contain either 4 or 8 serial ports. They come in the following varieties: SI 4 or 8 port modules. Up to 57600 bps on each port supported. XIO 8 port modules. Up to 115200 bps on each port supported. One type of XIO module has 7 serial and 1 parallel port. SXDC 8 port modules. Up to 921600 bps on each port supported. Like XIO, a module is available with one parallel port as well. To configure an ISA host card, add the following line to your kernel configuration file, changing the numbers as appropriate: device si0 at isa? tty iomem 0xd0000 irq 11 Valid IRQ numbers are 9, 10, 11, 12 and 15 for SX ISA host cards and 11, 12 and 15 for SI/XIO ISA host cards. To configure an EISA or PCI host card, use this line: device si0 After adding the configuration entry, rebuild and install your new kernel. After rebooting with the new kernel, you need to make the device nodes in /dev. The MAKEDEV script will take care of this for you. Count how many total ports you have and type: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV ttyAnn cuaAnn (where nn is the number of ports) If you want login prompts to appear on these ports, you will need to add lines like this to /etc/ttys: ttyA01 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" vt100 on insecure Change the terminal type as appropriate. For modems, dialup or unknown is fine. * Parallel ports * Modems * Network cards * Keyboards Mice Contributed by Joel Sutton jsutton@bbcon.com.au January 2000 FreeBSD supports a variety of different mice via the PS/2, serial and USB ports. Most users choose to use the mouse daemon to handle their mouse because it allows interaction in both X and on the system console. For more information on the mouse daemon refer to &man.moused.8;. The examples throughout this section assume that the mouse daemon is being used. This section contains the names of specific products that the author has confirmed will work with FreeBSD. Other similar devices not listed may also be supported. PS/2 System Configuration To ensure that your PS/2 mouse functions correctly with the mouse daemon you will need to include the following text in /etc/rc.conf moused_enable="YES" moused_type="ps/2" moused_port="/dev/psm0" Known Compatible Devices Logitech First Mouse - Three Button Microsoft Serial - PS/2 Compatible Mouse Serial System Configuration To ensure that your serial mouse functions correctly with the mouse daemon you will need to include the following text in /etc/rc.conf. This example assumes that the mouse is connected to COM1: and can be automatically recognised by the mouse daemon. moused_enable="YES" moused_type="auto" moused_port="/dev/cuaa0" See the &man.moused.8; manual page for a detailed description of how to configure the mouse daemon to work with specific types of serial mice. Known Compatible Devices Generic Microsoft Compatible Mice Logitech First Mouse - Three Button Microsoft Serial - PS/2 Compatible Mouse USB System Configuration The USB device drivers are a relatively new addition to FreeBSD and have not yet been included in the GENERIC kernel. The following prodecure is an example of how to setup the relevant drivers on a typical system. Add the ums device to the usb section of your kernel configuration. For example: controller usb0 controller uhci0 device ums0 Rebuild and install the new kernel. Make the device node by typing: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV ums0 Include the following text in /etc/rc.conf to ensure correct operation of the mouse daemon: moused_enable="YES" moused_type="auto" moused_port="/dev/ums0" Reboot the system. &prompt.root; shutdown -r now Known Compatible Devices Logitech TrackMan - Marble Wheel * Other ]]> Storage Devices Using ESDI hard disks Copyright © 1995, &a.wilko;. 24 September 1995. ESDI is an acronym that means Enhanced Small Device Interface. It is loosely based on the good old ST506/412 interface originally devised by Seagate Technology, the makers of the first affordable 5.25" winchester disk. The acronym says Enhanced, and rightly so. In the first place the speed of the interface is higher, 10 or 15 Mbits/second instead of the 5 Mbits/second of ST412 interfaced drives. Secondly some higher level commands are added, making the ESDI interface somewhat 'smarter' to the operating system driver writers. It is by no means as smart as SCSI by the way. ESDI is standardized by ANSI. Capacities of the drives are boosted by putting more sectors on each track. Typical is 35 sectors per track, high capacity drives I have seen were up to 54 sectors/track. Although ESDI has been largely obsoleted by IDE and SCSI interfaces, the availability of free or cheap surplus drives makes them ideal for low (or now) budget systems. Concepts of ESDI Physical connections The ESDI interface uses two cables connected to each drive. One cable is a 34 pin flat cable edge connector that carries the command and status signals from the controller to the drive and vice-versa. The command cable is daisy chained between all the drives. So, it forms a bus onto which all drives are connected. The second cable is a 20 pin flat cable edge connector that carries the data to and from the drive. This cable is radially connected, so each drive has its own direct connection to the controller. To the best of my knowledge PC ESDI controllers are limited to using a maximum of 2 drives per controller. This is compatibility feature(?) left over from the WD1003 standard that reserves only a single bit for device addressing. Device addressing On each command cable a maximum of 7 devices and 1 controller can be present. To enable the controller to uniquely identify which drive it addresses, each ESDI device is equipped with jumpers or switches to select the devices address. On PC type controllers the first drive is set to address 0, the second disk to address 1. Always make sure you set each disk to an unique address! So, on a PC with its two drives/controller maximum the first drive is drive 0, the second is drive 1. Termination The daisy chained command cable (the 34 pin cable remember?) needs to be terminated at the last drive on the chain. For this purpose ESDI drives come with a termination resistor network that can be removed or disabled by a jumper when it is not used. So, one and only one drive, the one at the farthest end of the command cable has its terminator installed/enabled. The controller automatically terminates the other end of the cable. Please note that this implies that the controller must be at one end of the cable and not in the middle. Using ESDI disks with FreeBSD Why is ESDI such a pain to get working in the first place? People who tried ESDI disks with FreeBSD are known to have developed a profound sense of frustration. A combination of factors works against you to produce effects that are hard to understand when you have never seen them before. This has also led to the popular legend ESDI and FreeBSD is a plain NO-GO. The following sections try to list all the pitfalls and solutions. ESDI speed variants As briefly mentioned before, ESDI comes in two speed flavors. The older drives and controllers use a 10 Mbits/second data transfer rate. Newer stuff uses 15 Mbits/second. It is not hard to imagine that 15 Mbits/second drive cause problems on controllers laid out for 10 Mbits/second. As always, consult your controller and drive documentation to see if things match. Stay on track Mainstream ESDI drives use 34 to 36 sectors per track. Most (older) controllers cannot handle more than this number of sectors. Newer, higher capacity, drives use higher numbers of sectors per track. For instance, I own a 670 Mb drive that has 54 sectors per track. In my case, the controller could not handle this number of sectors. It proved to work well except that it only used 35 sectors on each track. This meant losing a lot of disk space. Once again, check the documentation of your hardware for more info. Going out-of-spec like in the example might or might not work. Give it a try or get another more capable controller. Hard or soft sectoring Most ESDI drives allow hard or soft sectoring to be selected using a jumper. Hard sectoring means that the drive will produce a sector pulse on the start of each new sector. The controller uses this pulse to tell when it should start to write or read. Hard sectoring allows a selection of sector size (normally 256, 512 or 1024 bytes per formatted sector). FreeBSD uses 512 byte sectors. The number of sectors per track also varies while still using the same number of bytes per formatted sector. The number of unformatted bytes per sector varies, dependent on your controller it needs more or less overhead bytes to work correctly. Pushing more sectors on a track of course gives you more usable space, but might give problems if your controller needs more bytes than the drive offers. In case of soft sectoring, the controller itself determines where to start/stop reading or writing. For ESDI hard sectoring is the default (at least on everything I came across). I never felt the urge to try soft sectoring. In general, experiment with sector settings before you install FreeBSD because you need to re-run the low-level format after each change. Low level formatting ESDI drives need to be low level formatted before they are usable. A reformat is needed whenever you figgle with the number of sectors/track jumpers or the physical orientation of the drive (horizontal, vertical). So, first think, then format. The format time must not be underestimated, for big disks it can take hours. After a low level format, a surface scan is done to find and flag bad sectors. Most disks have a manufacturer bad block list listed on a piece of paper or adhesive sticker. In addition, on most disks the list is also written onto the disk. Please use the manufacturer's list. It is much easier to remap a defect now than after FreeBSD is installed. Stay away from low-level formatters that mark all sectors of a track as bad as soon as they find one bad sector. Not only does this waste space, it also and more importantly causes you grief with bad144 (see the section on bad144). Translations Translations, although not exclusively a ESDI-only problem, might give you real trouble. Translations come in multiple flavors. Most of them have in common that they attempt to work around the limitations posed upon disk geometries by the original IBM PC/AT design (thanks IBM!). First of all there is the (in)famous 1024 cylinder limit. For a system to be able to boot, the stuff (whatever operating system) must be in the first 1024 cylinders of a disk. Only 10 bits are available to encode the cylinder number. For the number of sectors the limit is 64 (0-63). When you combine the 1024 cylinder limit with the 16 head limit (also a design feature) you max out at fairly limited disk sizes. To work around this problem, the manufacturers of ESDI PC controllers added a BIOS prom extension on their boards. This BIOS extension handles disk I/O for booting (and for some operating systems all disk I/O) by using translation. For instance, a big drive might be presented to the system as having 32 heads and 64 sectors/track. The result is that the number of cylinders is reduced to something below 1024 and is therefore usable by the system without problems. It is noteworthy to know that FreeBSD does not use the BIOS after its kernel has started. More on this later. A second reason for translations is the fact that most older system BIOSes could only handle drives with 17 sectors per track (the old ST412 standard). Newer system BIOSes usually have a user-defined drive type (in most cases this is drive type 47). Whatever you do to translations after reading this document, keep in mind that if you have multiple operating systems on the same disk, all must use the same translation While on the subject of translations, I have seen one controller type (but there are probably more like this) offer the option to logically split a drive in multiple partitions as a BIOS option. I had select 1 drive == 1 partition because this controller wrote this info onto the disk. On power-up it read the info and presented itself to the system based on the info from the disk. Spare sectoring Most ESDI controllers offer the possibility to remap bad sectors. During/after the low-level format of the disk bad sectors are marked as such, and a replacement sector is put in place (logically of course) of the bad one. In most cases the remapping is done by using N-1 sectors on each track for actual data storage, and sector N itself is the spare sector. N is the total number of sectors physically available on the track. The idea behind this is that the operating system sees a 'perfect' disk without bad sectors. In the case of FreeBSD this concept is not usable. The problem is that the translation from bad to good is performed by the BIOS of the ESDI controller. FreeBSD, being a true 32 bit operating system, does not use the BIOS after it has been booted. Instead, it has device drivers that talk directly to the hardware. So: don't use spare sectoring, bad block remapping or whatever it may be called by the controller manufacturer when you want to use the disk for FreeBSD. Bad block handling The preceding section leaves us with a problem. The controller's bad block handling is not usable and still FreeBSD's filesystems assume perfect media without any flaws. To solve this problem, FreeBSD use the bad144 tool. Bad144 (named after a Digital Equipment standard for bad block handling) scans a FreeBSD slice for bad blocks. Having found these bad blocks, it writes a table with the offending block numbers to the end of the FreeBSD slice. When the disk is in operation, the disk accesses are checked against the table read from the disk. Whenever a block number is requested that is in the bad144 list, a replacement block (also from the end of the FreeBSD slice) is used. In this way, the bad144 replacement scheme presents 'perfect' media to the FreeBSD filesystems. There are a number of potential pitfalls associated with the use of bad144. First of all, the slice cannot have more than 126 bad sectors. If your drive has a high number of bad sectors, you might need to divide it into multiple FreeBSD slices each containing less than 126 bad sectors. Stay away from low-level format programs that mark every sector of a track as bad when they find a flaw on the track. As you can imagine, the 126 limit is quickly reached when the low-level format is done this way. Second, if the slice contains the root filesystem, the slice should be within the 1024 cylinder BIOS limit. During the boot process the bad144 list is read using the BIOS and this only succeeds when the list is within the 1024 cylinder limit. The restriction is not that only the root filesystem must be within the 1024 cylinder limit, but rather the entire slice that contains the root filesystem. Kernel configuration ESDI disks are handled by the same wddriver as IDE and ST412 MFM disks. The wd driver should work for all WD1003 compatible interfaces. Most hardware is jumperable for one of two different I/O address ranges and IRQ lines. This allows you to have two wd type controllers in one system. When your hardware allows non-standard strappings, you can use these with FreeBSD as long as you enter the correct info into the kernel config file. An example from the kernel config file (they live in /sys/i386/conf BTW). # First WD compatible controller controller wdc0 at isa? port "IO_WD1" bio irq 14 vector wdintr disk wd0 at wdc0 drive 0 disk wd1 at wdc0 drive 1 # Second WD compatible controller controller wdc1 at isa? port "IO_WD2" bio irq 15 vector wdintr disk wd2 at wdc1 drive 0 disk wd3 at wdc1 drive 1 Particulars on ESDI hardware Adaptec 2320 controllers I successfully installed FreeBSD onto a ESDI disk controlled by a ACB-2320. No other operating system was present on the disk. To do so I low level formatted the disk using NEFMT.EXE (ftpable from www.adaptec.com) and answered NO to the question whether the disk should be formatted with a spare sector on each track. The BIOS on the ACD-2320 was disabled. I used the free configurable option in the system BIOS to allow the BIOS to boot it. Before using NEFMT.EXE I tried to format the disk using the ACB-2320 BIOS builtin formatter. This proved to be a show stopper, because it did not give me an option to disable spare sectoring. With spare sectoring enabled the FreeBSD installation process broke down on the bad144 run. Please check carefully which ACB-232xy variant you have. The x is either 0 or 2, indicating a controller without or with a floppy controller on board. The y is more interesting. It can either be a blank, a A-8 or a D. A blank indicates a plain 10 Mbits/second controller. An A-8 indicates a 15 Mbits/second controller capable of handling 52 sectors/track. A D means a 15 Mbits/second controller that can also handle drives with > 36 sectors/track (also 52 ?). All variations should be capable of using 1:1 interleaving. Use 1:1, FreeBSD is fast enough to handle it. Western Digital WD1007 controllers I successfully installed FreeBSD onto a ESDI disk controlled by a WD1007 controller. To be precise, it was a WD1007-WA2. Other variations of the WD1007 do exist. To get it to work, I had to disable the sector translation and the WD1007's onboard BIOS. This implied I could not use the low-level formatter built into this BIOS. Instead, I grabbed WDFMT.EXE from www.wdc.com Running this formatted my drive just fine. Ultrastor U14F controllers According to multiple reports from the net, Ultrastor ESDI boards work OK with FreeBSD. I lack any further info on particular settings. Further reading If you intend to do some serious ESDI hacking, you might want to have the official standard at hand: The latest ANSI X3T10 committee document is: Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) [X3.170-1990/X3.170a-1991] [X3T10/792D Rev 11] On Usenet the newsgroup comp.periphs is a noteworthy place to look for more info. The World Wide Web (WWW) also proves to be a very handy info source: For info on Adaptec ESDI controllers see http://www.adaptec.com/. For info on Western Digital controllers see http://www.wdc.com/. Thanks to... Andrew Gordon for sending me an Adaptec 2320 controller and ESDI disk for testing. What is SCSI? Copyright © 1995, &a.wilko;. July 6, 1996. SCSI is an acronym for Small Computer Systems Interface. It is an ANSI standard that has become one of the leading I/O buses in the computer industry. The foundation of the SCSI standard was laid by Shugart Associates (the same guys that gave the world the first mini floppy disks) when they introduced the SASI bus (Shugart Associates Standard Interface). After some time an industry effort was started to come to a more strict standard allowing devices from different vendors to work together. This effort was recognized in the ANSI SCSI-1 standard. The SCSI-1 standard (approx 1985) is rapidly becoming obsolete. The current standard is SCSI-2 (see Further reading), with SCSI-3 on the drawing boards. In addition to a physical interconnection standard, SCSI defines a logical (command set) standard to which disk devices must adhere. This standard is called the Common Command Set (CCS) and was developed more or less in parallel with ANSI SCSI-1. SCSI-2 includes the (revised) CCS as part of the standard itself. The commands are dependent on the type of device at hand. It does not make much sense of course to define a Write command for a scanner. The SCSI bus is a parallel bus, which comes in a number of variants. The oldest and most used is an 8 bit wide bus, with single-ended signals, carried on 50 wires. (If you do not know what single-ended means, do not worry, that is what this document is all about.) Modern designs also use 16 bit wide buses, with differential signals. This allows transfer speeds of 20Mbytes/second, on cables lengths of up to 25 meters. SCSI-2 allows a maximum bus width of 32 bits, using an additional cable. Quickly emerging are Ultra SCSI (also called Fast-20) and Ultra2 (also called Fast-40). Fast-20 is 20 million transfers per second (20 Mbytes/sec on a 8 bit bus), Fast-40 is 40 million transfers per second (40 Mbytes/sec on a 8 bit bus). Most hard drives sold today are single-ended Ultra SCSI (8 or 16 bits). Of course the SCSI bus not only has data lines, but also a number of control signals. A very elaborate protocol is part of the standard to allow multiple devices to share the bus in an efficient manner. In SCSI-2, the data is always checked using a separate parity line. In pre-SCSI-2 designs parity was optional. In SCSI-3 even faster bus types are introduced, along with a serial SCSI busses that reduces the cabling overhead and allows a higher maximum bus length. You might see names like SSA and Fiberchannel in this context. None of the serial buses are currently in widespread use (especially not in the typical FreeBSD environment). For this reason the serial bus types are not discussed any further. As you could have guessed from the description above, SCSI devices are intelligent. They have to be to adhere to the SCSI standard (which is over 2 inches thick BTW). So, for a hard disk drive for instance you do not specify a head/cylinder/sector to address a particular block, but simply the number of the block you want. Elaborate caching schemes, automatic bad block replacement etc are all made possible by this 'intelligent device' approach. On a SCSI bus, each possible pair of devices can communicate. Whether their function allows this is another matter, but the standard does not restrict it. To avoid signal contention, the 2 devices have to arbitrate for the bus before using it. The philosophy of SCSI is to have a standard that allows older-standard devices to work with newer-standard ones. So, an old SCSI-1 device should normally work on a SCSI-2 bus. I say Normally, because it is not absolutely sure that the implementation of an old device follows the (old) standard closely enough to be acceptable on a new bus. Modern devices are usually more well-behaved, because the standardization has become more strict and is better adhered to by the device manufacturers. Generally speaking, the chances of getting a working set of devices on a single bus is better when all the devices are SCSI-2 or newer. This implies that you do not have to dump all your old stuff when you get that shiny 2GB disk: I own a system on which a pre-SCSI-1 disk, a SCSI-2 QIC tape unit, a SCSI-1 helical scan tape unit and 2 SCSI-1 disks work together quite happily. From a performance standpoint you might want to separate your older and newer (=faster) devices however. Components of SCSI As said before, SCSI devices are smart. The idea is to put the knowledge about intimate hardware details onto the SCSI device itself. In this way, the host system does not have to worry about things like how many heads are hard disks has, or how many tracks there are on a specific tape device. If you are curious, the standard specifies commands with which you can query your devices on their hardware particulars. FreeBSD uses this capability during boot to check out what devices are connected and whether they need any special treatment. The advantage of intelligent devices is obvious: the device drivers on the host can be made in a much more generic fashion, there is no longer a need to change (and qualify!) drivers for every odd new device that is introduced. For cabling and connectors there is a golden rule: get good stuff. With bus speeds going up all the time you will save yourself a lot of grief by using good material. So, gold plated connectors, shielded cabling, sturdy connector hoods with strain reliefs etc are the way to go. Second golden rule: do no use cables longer than necessary. I once spent 3 days hunting down a problem with a flaky machine only to discover that shortening the SCSI bus by 1 meter solved the problem. And the original bus length was well within the SCSI specification. SCSI bus types From an electrical point of view, there are two incompatible bus types: single-ended and differential. This means that there are two different main groups of SCSI devices and controllers, which cannot be mixed on the same bus. It is possible however to use special converter hardware to transform a single-ended bus into a differential one (and vice versa). The differences between the bus types are explained in the next sections. In lots of SCSI related documentation there is a sort of jargon in use to abbreviate the different bus types. A small list: FWD: Fast Wide Differential FND: Fast Narrow Differential SE: Single Ended FN: Fast Narrow etc. With a minor amount of imagination one can usually imagine what is meant. Wide is a bit ambiguous, it can indicate 16 or 32 bit buses. As far as I know, the 32 bit variant is not (yet) in use, so wide normally means 16 bit. Fast means that the timing on the bus is somewhat different, so that on a narrow (8 bit) bus 10 Mbytes/sec are possible instead of 5 Mbytes/sec for 'slow' SCSI. As discussed before, bus speeds of 20 and 40 million transfers/second are also emerging (Fast-20 == Ultra SCSI and Fast-40 == Ultra2 SCSI). The data lines > 8 are only used for data transfers and device addressing. The transfers of commands and status messages etc are only performed on the lowest 8 data lines. The standard allows narrow devices to operate on a wide bus. The usable bus width is negotiated between the devices. You have to watch your device addressing closely when mixing wide and narrow. Single ended buses A single-ended SCSI bus uses signals that are either 5 Volts or 0 Volts (indeed, TTL levels) and are relative to a COMMON ground reference. A singled ended 8 bit SCSI bus has approximately 25 ground lines, who are all tied to a single `rail' on all devices. A standard single ended bus has a maximum length of 6 meters. If the same bus is used with fast-SCSI devices, the maximum length allowed drops to 3 meters. Fast-SCSI means that instead of 5Mbytes/sec the bus allows 10Mbytes/sec transfers. Fast-20 (Ultra SCSI) and Fast-40 allow for 20 and 40 million transfers/second respectively. So, F20 is 20 Mbytes/second on a 8 bit bus, 40 Mbytes/second on a 16 bit bus etc. For F20 the max bus length is 1.5 meters, for F40 it becomes 0.75 meters. Be aware that F20 is pushing the limits quite a bit, so you will quickly find out if your SCSI bus is electrically sound. If some devices on your bus use 'fast' to communicate your bus must adhere to the length restrictions for fast buses! It is obvious that with the newer fast-SCSI devices the bus length can become a real bottleneck. This is why the differential SCSI bus was introduced in the SCSI-2 standard. For connector pinning and connector types please refer to the SCSI-2 standard (see Further reading) itself, connectors etc are listed there in painstaking detail. Beware of devices using non-standard cabling. For instance Apple uses a 25pin D-type connecter (like the one on serial ports and parallel printers). Considering that the official SCSI bus needs 50 pins you can imagine the use of this connector needs some 'creative cabling'. The reduction of the number of ground wires they used is a bad idea, you better stick to 50 pins cabling in accordance with the SCSI standard. For Fast-20 and 40 do not even think about buses like this. Differential buses A differential SCSI bus has a maximum length of 25 meters. Quite a difference from the 3 meters for a single-ended fast-SCSI bus. The idea behind differential signals is that each bus signal has its own return wire. So, each signal is carried on a (preferably twisted) pair of wires. The voltage difference between these two wires determines whether the signal is asserted or de-asserted. To a certain extent the voltage difference between ground and the signal wire pair is not relevant (do not try 10 kVolts though). It is beyond the scope of this document to explain why this differential idea is so much better. Just accept that electrically seen the use of differential signals gives a much better noise margin. You will normally find differential buses in use for inter-cabinet connections. Because of the lower cost single ended is mostly used for shorter buses like inside cabinets. There is nothing that stops you from using differential stuff with FreeBSD, as long as you use a controller that has device driver support in FreeBSD. As an example, Adaptec marketed the AHA1740 as a single ended board, whereas the AHA1744 was differential. The software interface to the host is identical for both. Terminators Terminators in SCSI terminology are resistor networks that are used to get a correct impedance matching. Impedance matching is important to get clean signals on the bus, without reflections or ringing. If you once made a long distance telephone call on a bad line you probably know what reflections are. With 20Mbytes/sec traveling over your SCSI bus, you do not want signals echoing back. Terminators come in various incarnations, with more or less sophisticated designs. Of course, there are internal and external variants. Many SCSI devices come with a number of sockets in which a number of resistor networks can (must be!) installed. If you remove terminators from a device, carefully store them. You will need them when you ever decide to reconfigure your SCSI bus. There is enough variation in even these simple tiny things to make finding the exact replacement a frustrating business. There are also SCSI devices that have a single jumper to enable or disable a built-in terminator. There are special terminators you can stick onto a flat cable bus. Others look like external connectors, or a connector hood without a cable. So, lots of choice as you can see. There is much debate going on if and when you should switch from simple resistor (passive) terminators to active terminators. Active terminators contain slightly more elaborate circuit to give cleaner bus signals. The general consensus seems to be that the usefulness of active termination increases when you have long buses and/or fast devices. If you ever have problems with your SCSI buses you might consider trying an active terminator. Try to borrow one first, they reputedly are quite expensive. Please keep in mind that terminators for differential and single-ended buses are not identical. You should not mix the two variants. OK, and now where should you install your terminators? This is by far the most misunderstood part of SCSI. And it is by far the simplest. The rule is: every single line on the SCSI bus has 2 (two) terminators, one at each end of the bus. So, two and not one or three or whatever. Do yourself a favor and stick to this rule. It will save you endless grief, because wrong termination has the potential to introduce - highly mysterious bugs. (Note the “potential” here; + highly mysterious bugs. (Note the potential here; the nastiest part is that it may or may not work.) A common pitfall is to have an internal (flat) cable in a machine and also an external cable attached to the controller. It seems almost everybody forgets to remove the terminators from the controller. The terminator must now be on the last external device, and not on the controller! In general, every reconfiguration of a SCSI bus must pay attention to this. Termination is to be done on a per-line basis. This means if you have both narrow and wide buses connected to the same host adapter, you need to enable termination on the higher 8 bits of the bus on the adapter (as well as the last devices on each bus, of course). What I did myself is remove all terminators from my SCSI devices and controllers. I own a couple of external terminators, for both the Centronics-type external cabling and for the internal flat cable connectors. This makes reconfiguration much easier. On modern devices, sometimes integrated terminators are used. These things are special purpose integrated circuits that can be dis/en-abled with a control pin. It is not necessary to physically remove them from a device. You may find them on newer host adapters, sometimes they are software configurable, using some sort of setup tool. Some will even auto-detect the cables attached to the connectors and automatically set up the termination as necessary. At any rate, consult your documentation! Terminator power The terminators discussed in the previous chapter need power to operate properly. On the SCSI bus, a line is dedicated to this purpose. So, simple huh? Not so. Each device can provide its own terminator power to the terminator sockets it has on-device. But if you have external terminators, or when the device supplying the terminator power to the SCSI bus line is switched off you are in trouble. The idea is that initiators (these are devices that initiate actions on the bus, a discussion follows) must supply terminator power. All SCSI devices are allowed (but not required) to supply terminator power. To allow for un-powered devices on a bus, the terminator power must be supplied to the bus via a diode. This prevents the backflow of current to un-powered devices. To prevent all kinds of nastiness, the terminator power is usually fused. As you can imagine, fuses might blow. This can, but does not have to, lead to a non functional bus. If multiple devices supply terminator power, a single blown fuse will not put you out of business. A single supplier with a blown fuse certainly will. Clever external terminators sometimes have a LED indication that shows whether terminator power is present. In newer designs auto-restoring fuses that 'reset' themselves after some time are sometimes used. Device addressing Because the SCSI bus is, ehh, a bus there must be a way to distinguish or address the different devices connected to it. This is done by means of the SCSI or target ID. Each device has a unique target ID. You can select the ID to which a device must respond using a set of jumpers, or a dip switch, or something similar. Some SCSI host adapters let you change the target ID from the boot menu. (Yet some others will not let you change the ID from 7.) Consult the documentation of your device for more information. Beware of multiple devices configured to use the same ID. Chaos normally reigns in this case. A pitfall is that one of the devices sharing the same ID sometimes even manages to answer to I/O requests! For an 8 bit bus, a maximum of 8 targets is possible. The maximum is 8 because the selection is done bitwise using the 8 data lines on the bus. For wide buses this increases to the number of data lines (usually 16). A narrow SCSI device can not communicate with a SCSI device with a target ID larger than 7. This means it is generally not a good idea to move your SCSI host adapter's target ID to something higher than 7 (or your CD-ROM will stop working). The higher the SCSI target ID, the higher the priority the devices has. When it comes to arbitration between devices that want to use the bus at the same time, the device that has the highest SCSI ID will win. This also means that the SCSI host adapter usually uses target ID 7. Note however that the lower 8 IDs have higher priorities than the higher 8 IDs on a wide-SCSI bus. Thus, the order of target IDs is: [7 6 .. 1 0 15 14 .. 9 8] on a wide-SCSI system. (If you you are wondering why the lower 8 have higher priority, read the previous paragraph for a hint.) For a further subdivision, the standard allows for Logical Units or LUNs for short. A single target ID may have multiple LUNs. For example, a tape device including a tape changer may have LUN 0 for the tape device itself, and LUN 1 for the tape changer. In this way, the host system can address each of the functional units of the tape changer as desired. Bus layout SCSI buses are linear. So, not shaped like Y-junctions, star topologies, rings, cobwebs or whatever else people might want to invent. One of the most common mistakes is for people with wide-SCSI host adapters to connect devices on all three connecters (external connector, internal wide connector, internal narrow connector). Don't do that. It may appear to work if you are really lucky, but I can almost guarantee that your system will stop functioning at the most unfortunate moment (this is also - known as “Murphy's law”). + known as Murphy's law). You might notice that the terminator issue discussed earlier becomes rather hairy if your bus is not linear. Also, if you have more connectors than devices on your internal SCSI cable, make sure you attach devices on connectors on both ends instead of using the connectors in the middle and let one or both ends dangle. This will screw up the termination of the bus. The electrical characteristics, its noise margins and ultimately the reliability of it all are tightly related to linear bus rule. Stick to the linear bus rule! Using SCSI with FreeBSD About translations, BIOSes and magic... As stated before, you should first make sure that you have a electrically sound bus. When you want to use a SCSI disk on your PC as boot disk, you must aware of some quirks related to PC BIOSes. The PC BIOS in its first incarnation used a low level physical interface to the hard disk. So, you had to tell the BIOS (using a setup tool or a BIOS built-in setup) how your disk physically looked like. This involved stating number of heads, number of cylinders, number of sectors per track, obscure things like precompensation and reduced write current cylinder etc. One might be inclined to think that since SCSI disks are smart you can forget about this. Alas, the arcane setup issue is still present today. The system BIOS needs to know how to access your SCSI disk with the head/cyl/sector method in order to load the FreeBSD kernel during boot. The SCSI host adapter or SCSI controller you have put in your AT/EISA/PCI/whatever bus to connect your disk therefore has its own on-board BIOS. During system startup, the SCSI BIOS takes over the hard disk interface routines from the system BIOS. To fool the system BIOS, the system setup is normally set to No hard disk present. Obvious, isn't it? The SCSI BIOS itself presents to the system a so called translated drive. This means that a fake drive table is constructed that allows the PC to boot the drive. This translation is often (but not always) done using a pseudo drive with 64 heads and 32 sectors per track. By varying the number of cylinders, the SCSI BIOS adapts to the actual drive size. It is useful to note that 32 * 64 / 2 = the size of your drive in megabytes. The division by 2 is to get from disk blocks that are normally 512 bytes in size to Kbytes. Right. All is well now?! No, it is not. The system BIOS has another quirk you might run into. The number of cylinders of a bootable hard disk cannot be greater than 1024. Using the translation above, this is a show-stopper for disks greater than 1 GB. With disk capacities going up all the time this is causing problems. Fortunately, the solution is simple: just use another translation, e.g. with 128 heads instead of 32. In most cases new SCSI BIOS versions are available to upgrade older SCSI host adapters. Some newer adapters have an option, in the form of a jumper or software setup selection, to switch the translation the SCSI BIOS uses. It is very important that all operating systems on the disk use the same translation to get the right idea about where to find the relevant partitions. So, when installing FreeBSD you must answer any questions about heads/cylinders etc using the translated values your host adapter uses. Failing to observe the translation issue might lead to un-bootable systems or operating systems overwriting each others partitions. Using fdisk you should be able to see all partitions. - You might have heard some talk of “lying” devices? + You might have heard some talk of lying devices? Older FreeBSD kernels used to report the geometry of SCSI disks when booting. An example from one of my systems: aha0 targ 0 lun 0: <MICROP 1588-15MB1057404HSP4> sd0: 636MB (1303250 total sec), 1632 cyl, 15 head, 53 sec, bytes/sec 512 Newer kernels usually do not report this information. e.g. (bt0:0:0): "SEAGATE ST41651 7574" type 0 fixed SCSI 2 sd0(bt0:0:0): Direct-Access 1350MB (2766300 512 byte sectors) Why has this changed? This info is retrieved from the SCSI disk itself. Newer disks often use a technique called zone bit recording. The idea is that on the outer cylinders of the drive there is more space so more sectors per track can be put on them. This results in disks that have more tracks on outer cylinders than on the inner cylinders and, last but not least, have more capacity. You can imagine that the value reported by the drive when inquiring about the geometry now becomes suspect at best, and nearly always misleading. When asked for a geometry , it is nearly always better to supply the geometry used by the BIOS, or if the BIOS is never going to know about this disk, (e.g. it is not a booting disk) to supply a fictitious geometry that is convenient. SCSI subsystem design FreeBSD uses a layered SCSI subsystem. For each different controller card a device driver is written. This driver knows all the intimate details about the hardware it controls. The driver has a interface to the upper layers of the SCSI subsystem through which it receives its commands and reports back any status. On top of the card drivers there are a number of more generic drivers for a class of devices. More specific: a driver for tape devices (abbreviation: st), magnetic disks (sd), CD-ROMs (cd) etc. In case you are wondering where you can find this stuff, it all lives in /sys/scsi. See the man pages in section 4 for more details. The multi level design allows a decoupling of low-level bit banging and more high level stuff. Adding support for another piece of hardware is a much more manageable problem. Kernel configuration Dependent on your hardware, the kernel configuration file must contain one or more lines describing your host adapter(s). This includes I/O addresses, interrupts etc. Consult the man page for your adapter driver to get more info. Apart from that, check out /sys/i386/conf/LINT for an overview of a kernel config file. LINT contains every possible option you can dream of. It does not imply LINT will actually get you to a working kernel at all. Although it is probably stating the obvious: the kernel config file should reflect your actual hardware setup. So, interrupts, I/O addresses etc must match the kernel config file. During system boot messages will be displayed to indicate whether the configured hardware was actually found. Note that most of the EISA/PCI drivers (namely ahb, ahc, ncr and amd will automatically obtain the correct parameters from the host adapters themselves at boot time; thus, you just need to write, for instance, controller ahc0. An example loosely based on the FreeBSD 2.2.5-Release kernel config file LINT with some added comments (between []): # SCSI host adapters: `aha', `ahb', `aic', `bt', `nca' # # aha: Adaptec 154x # ahb: Adaptec 174x # ahc: Adaptec 274x/284x/294x # aic: Adaptec 152x and sound cards using the Adaptec AIC-6360 (slow!) # amd: AMD 53c974 based SCSI cards (e.g., Tekram DC-390 and 390T) # bt: Most Buslogic controllers # nca: ProAudioSpectrum cards using the NCR 5380 or Trantor T130 # ncr: NCR/Symbios 53c810/815/825/875 etc based SCSI cards # uha: UltraStore 14F and 34F # sea: Seagate ST01/02 8 bit controller (slow!) # wds: Western Digital WD7000 controller (no scatter/gather!). # [For an Adaptec AHA274x/284x/294x/394x etc controller] controller ahc0 [For an NCR/Symbios 53c875 based controller] controller ncr0 [For an Ultrastor adapter] controller uha0 at isa? port "IO_UHA0" bio irq ? drq 5 vector uhaintr # Map SCSI buses to specific SCSI adapters controller scbus0 at ahc0 controller scbus2 at ncr0 controller scbus1 at uha0 # The actual SCSI devices disk sd0 at scbus0 target 0 unit 0 [SCSI disk 0 is at scbus 0, LUN 0] disk sd1 at scbus0 target 1 [implicit LUN 0 if omitted] disk sd2 at scbus1 target 3 [SCSI disk on the uha0] disk sd3 at scbus2 target 4 [SCSI disk on the ncr0] tape st1 at scbus0 target 6 [SCSI tape at target 6] device cd0 at scbus? [the first ever CD-ROM found, no wiring] The example above tells the kernel to look for a ahc (Adaptec 274x) controller, then for an NCR/Symbios board, and so on. The lines following the controller specifications tell the kernel to configure specific devices but only attach them when they match the target ID and LUN specified on the corresponding bus. - Wired down devices get “first shot” at the unit - numbers so the first non “wired down” device, is + Wired down devices get first shot at the unit + numbers so the first non wired down device, is allocated the unit number one greater than the highest - “wired down” unit number for that kind of device. So, + wired down unit number for that kind of device. So, if you had a SCSI tape at target ID 2 it would be configured as st2, as the tape at target ID 6 is wired down to unit number 1. Wired down devices need not be found to get their unit number. The unit number for a wired down device is reserved for that device, even if it is turned off at boot time. This allows the device to be turned on and brought on-line at a later time, without rebooting. Notice that a device's unit number has no relationship with its target ID on the SCSI bus. Below is another example of a kernel config file as used by FreeBSD version < 2.0.5. The difference with the first example - is that devices are not “wired down”. “Wired - down” means that you specify which SCSI target belongs to + is that devices are not wired down. Wired + down means that you specify which SCSI target belongs to which device. A kernel built to the config file below will attach the first SCSI disk it finds to sd0, the second disk to sd1 etc. If you ever removed or added a disk, all other devices of the same type (disk in this case) would 'move around'. This implies you have to change /etc/fstab each time. Although the old style still works, you are strongly recommended to use this new feature. It will save you a lot of grief whenever you shift your hardware around on the SCSI buses. So, when you re-use your old trusty config file after upgrading from a pre-FreeBSD2.0.5.R system check this out. [driver for Adaptec 174x] controller ahb0 at isa? bio irq 11 vector ahbintr [for Adaptec 154x] controller aha0 at isa? port "IO_AHA0" bio irq 11 drq 5 vector ahaintr [for Seagate ST01/02] controller sea0 at isa? bio irq 5 iomem 0xc8000 iosiz 0x2000 vector seaintr controller scbus0 device sd0 [support for 4 SCSI harddisks, sd0 up sd3] device st0 [support for 2 SCSI tapes] [for the CD-ROM] device cd0 #Only need one of these, the code dynamically grows Both examples support SCSI disks. If during boot more devices of a specific type (e.g. sd disks) are found than are configured in the booting kernel, the system will simply allocate more devices, incrementing the unit number starting at the last number - “wired down”. If there are no “wired - down” devices then counting starts at unit 0. + wired down. If there are no wired + down devices then counting starts at unit 0. Use man 4 scsi to check for the latest info on the SCSI subsystem. For more detailed info on host adapter drivers use eg man 4 ahc for info on the Adaptec 294x driver. Tuning your SCSI kernel setup Experience has shown that some devices are slow to respond to INQUIRY commands after a SCSI bus reset (which happens at boot time). An INQUIRY command is sent by the kernel on boot to see what kind of device (disk, tape, CD-ROM etc) is connected to a specific target ID. This process is called device probing by the way. To work around the 'slow response' problem, FreeBSD allows a tunable delay time before the SCSI devices are probed following a SCSI bus reset. You can set this delay time in your kernel configuration file using a line like: options SCSI_DELAY=15 #Be pessimistic about Joe SCSI device This line sets the delay time to 15 seconds. On my own system I had to use 3 seconds minimum to get my trusty old CD-ROM drive to be recognized. Start with a high value (say 30 seconds or so) when you have problems with device recognition. If this helps, tune it back until it just stays working. Rogue SCSI devices Although the SCSI standard tries to be complete and concise, it is a complex standard and implementing things correctly is no easy task. Some vendors do a better job then others. - This is exactly where the “rogue” devices come + This is exactly where the rogue devices come into view. Rogues are devices that are recognized by the FreeBSD kernel as behaving slightly (...) non-standard. Rogue devices are reported by the kernel when booting. An example for two of my cartridge tape units: Feb 25 21:03:34 yedi /kernel: ahb0 targ 5 lun 0: <TANDBERG TDC 3600 -06:> Feb 25 21:03:34 yedi /kernel: st0: Tandberg tdc3600 is a known rogue Mar 29 21:16:37 yedi /kernel: aha0 targ 5 lun 0: <ARCHIVE VIPER 150 21247-005> Mar 29 21:16:37 yedi /kernel: st1: Archive Viper 150 is a known rogue For instance, there are devices that respond to all LUNs on a certain target ID, even if they are actually only one device. It is easy to see that the kernel might be fooled into believing that there are 8 LUNs at that particular target ID. The confusion this causes is left as an exercise to the reader. The SCSI subsystem of FreeBSD recognizes devices with bad habits by looking at the INQUIRY response they send when probed. Because the INQUIRY response also includes the version number of the device firmware, it is even possible that for different firmware versions different workarounds are used. See e.g. /sys/scsi/st.c and /sys/scsi/scsiconf.c for more info on how this is done. This scheme works fine, but keep in mind that it of course only works for devices that are known to be weird. If you are the first to connect your bogus Mumbletech SCSI CD-ROM you might be the one that has to define which workaround is needed. After you got your Mumbletech working, please send the required workaround to the FreeBSD development team for inclusion in the next release of FreeBSD. Other Mumbletech owners will be grateful to you. Multiple LUN devices In some cases you come across devices that use multiple logical units (LUNs) on a single SCSI ID. In most cases FreeBSD only probes devices for LUN 0. An example are so called bridge boards that connect 2 non-SCSI harddisks to a SCSI bus (e.g. an Emulex MD21 found in old Sun systems). This means that any devices with LUNs != 0 are not normally found during device probe on system boot. To work around this problem you must add an appropriate entry in /sys/scsi/scsiconf.c and rebuild your kernel. Look for a struct that is initialized like below: { T_DIRECT, T_FIXED, "MAXTOR", "XT-4170S", "B5A", "mx1", SC_ONE_LU } For you Mumbletech BRIDGE2000 that has more than one LUN, acts as a SCSI disk and has firmware revision 123 you would add something like: { T_DIRECT, T_FIXED, "MUMBLETECH", "BRIDGE2000", "123", "sd", SC_MORE_LUS } The kernel on boot scans the inquiry data it receives against the table and acts accordingly. See the source for more info. Tagged command queueing Modern SCSI devices, particularly magnetic disks, support what is called tagged command queuing (TCQ). In a nutshell, TCQ allows the device to have multiple I/O requests outstanding at the same time. Because the device is intelligent, it can optimise its operations (like head positioning) based on its own request queue. On SCSI devices like RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) arrays the TCQ function is indispensable to take advantage of the device's inherent parallelism. - Each I/O request is uniquely identified by a “tag” + Each I/O request is uniquely identified by a tag (hence the name tagged command queuing) and this tag is used by FreeBSD to see which I/O in the device drivers queue is reported as complete by the device. It should be noted however that TCQ requires device driver - support and that some devices implemented it “not quite - right” in their firmware. This problem bit me once, and it + support and that some devices implemented it not quite + right in their firmware. This problem bit me once, and it leads to highly mysterious problems. In such cases, try to disable TCQ. Busmaster host adapters Most, but not all, SCSI host adapters are bus mastering controllers. This means that they can do I/O on their own without putting load onto the host CPU for data movement. This is of course an advantage for a multitasking operating system like FreeBSD. It must be noted however that there might be some rough edges. For instance an Adaptec 1542 controller can be set to use different transfer speeds on the host bus (ISA or AT in this case). The controller is settable to different rates because not all motherboards can handle the higher speeds. Problems like hangups, bad data etc might be the result of using a higher data transfer rate then your motherboard can stomach. The solution is of course obvious: switch to a lower data transfer rate and try if that works better. In the case of a Adaptec 1542, there is an option that can be put into the kernel config file to allow dynamic determination of the right, read: fastest feasible, transfer rate. This option is disabled by default: options "TUNE_1542" #dynamic tune of bus DMA speed Check the man pages for the host adapter that you use. Or better still, use the ultimate documentation (read: driver source). Tracking down problems The following list is an attempt to give a guideline for the most common SCSI problems and their solutions. It is by no means complete. Check for loose connectors and cables. Check and double check the location and number of your terminators. Check if your bus has at least one supplier of terminator power (especially with external terminators. Check if no double target IDs are used. Check if all devices to be used are powered up. Make a minimal bus config with as little devices as possible. If possible, configure your host adapter to use slow bus speeds. Disable tagged command queuing to make things as simple as possible (for a NCR hostadapter based system see man ncrcontrol) If you can compile a kernel, make one with the SCSIDEBUG option, and try accessing the device with debugging turned on for that device. If your device does not even probe at startup, you may have to define the address of the device that is failing, and the desired debug level in /sys/scsi/scsidebug.h. If it probes but just does not work, you can use the &man.scsi.8; command to dynamically set a debug level to it in a running kernel (if SCSIDEBUG is defined). This will give you copious debugging output with which to confuse the gurus. See man 4 scsi for more exact information. Also look at man 8 scsi. Further reading If you intend to do some serious SCSI hacking, you might want to have the official standard at hand: Approved American National Standards can be purchased from ANSI at
13th Floor 11 West 42nd Street New York NY 10036 Sales Dept: (212) 642-4900
You can also buy many ANSI standards and most committee draft documents from Global Engineering Documents,
15 Inverness Way East Englewood CO, 80112-5704 Phone: (800) 854-7179 Outside USA and Canada: (303) 792-2181 Fax: (303) 792- 2192
Many X3T10 draft documents are available electronically on the SCSI BBS (719-574-0424) and on the ncrinfo.ncr.com anonymous ftp site. Latest X3T10 committee documents are: AT Attachment (ATA or IDE) [X3.221-1994] (Approved) ATA Extensions (ATA-2) [X3T10/948D Rev 2i] Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) [X3.170-1990/X3.170a-1991] (Approved) Small Computer System Interface — 2 (SCSI-2) [X3.131-1994] (Approved) SCSI-2 Common Access Method Transport and SCSI Interface Module (CAM) [X3T10/792D Rev 11] Other publications that might provide you with additional information are: - “SCSI: Understanding the Small Computer System - Interface”, written by NCR Corporation. Available from: + SCSI: Understanding the Small Computer System + Interface, written by NCR Corporation. Available from: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 07632 Phone: (201) 767-5937 ISBN 0-13-796855-8 - “Basics of SCSI”, a SCSI tutorial written by + Basics of SCSI, a SCSI tutorial written by Ancot Corporation Contact Ancot for availability information at: Phone: (415) 322-5322 Fax: (415) 322-0455 - “SCSI Interconnection Guide Book”, an AMP + SCSI Interconnection Guide Book, an AMP publication (dated 4/93, Catalog 65237) that lists the various SCSI connectors and suggests cabling schemes. Available from AMP at (800) 522-6752 or (717) 564-0100 - “Fast Track to SCSI”, A Product Guide written by + Fast Track to SCSI, A Product Guide written by Fujitsu. Available from: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 07632 Phone: (201) 767-5937 ISBN 0-13-307000-X - “The SCSI Bench Reference”, “The SCSI - Encyclopedia”, and the “SCSI Tutor”, ENDL + The SCSI Bench Reference, The SCSI + Encyclopedia, and the SCSI Tutor, ENDL Publications, 14426 Black Walnut Court, Saratoga CA, 95070 Phone: (408) 867-6642 - “Zadian SCSI Navigator” (quick ref. book) and - “Discover the Power of SCSI” (First book along with + Zadian SCSI Navigator (quick ref. book) and + Discover the Power of SCSI (First book along with a one-hour video and tutorial book), Zadian Software, Suite 214, 1210 S. Bascom Ave., San Jose, CA 92128, (408) 293-0800 On Usenet the newsgroups comp.periphs.scsi and comp.periphs are noteworthy places to look for more info. You can also find the SCSI-Faq there, which is posted periodically. Most major SCSI device and host adapter suppliers operate ftp sites and/or BBS systems. They may be valuable sources of information about the devices you own. * Disk/tape controllers * SCSI * IDE * Floppy Hard drives SCSI hard drives Contributed by &a.asami;. 17 February 1998. As mentioned in the SCSI section, virtually all SCSI hard drives sold today are SCSI-2 compliant and thus will work fine as long as you connect them to a supported SCSI host adapter. Most problems people encounter are either due to badly designed cabling (cable too long, star topology, etc.), insufficient termination, or defective parts. Please refer to the SCSI section first if your SCSI hard drive is not working. However, there are a couple of things you may want to take into account before you purchase SCSI hard drives for your system. Rotational speed Rotational speeds of SCSI drives sold today range from around 4,500RPM to 10,000RPM. Most of them are either 5,400RPM or 7,200RPM. Even though the 7,200RPM drives can generally transfer data faster, they run considerably hotter than their 5,400RPM counterparts. A large fraction of today's disk drive malfunctions are heat-related. If you do not have very good cooling in your PC case, you may want to stick with 5,400RPM or slower drives. Note that newer drives, with higher areal recording densities, can deliver much more bits per rotation than older ones. Today's top-of-line 5,400RPM drives can sustain a throughput comparable to 7,200RPM drives of one or two model generations ago. The number - to find on the spec sheet for bandwidth is “internal data - (or transfer) rate”. It is usually in megabits/sec so + to find on the spec sheet for bandwidth is internal data + (or transfer) rate. It is usually in megabits/sec so divide it by 8 and you'll get the rough approximation of how much megabytes/sec you can get out of the drive. (If you are a speed maniac and want a 10,000RPM drive for your cute little peecee, be my guest; however, those drives become extremely hot. Don't even think about it if you don't have a fan blowing air directly at the drive or a properly ventilated disk enclosure.) Obviously, the latest 10,000RPM drives and 7,200RPM drives can deliver more data than the latest 5,400RPM drives, so if absolute bandwidth is the necessity for your applications, you have little choice but to get the faster drives. Also, if you need low latency, faster drives are better; not only do they usually have lower average seek times, but also the rotational delay is one place where slow-spinning drives can never beat a faster one. (The average rotational latency is half the time it takes to rotate the drive once; thus, it's 3 milliseconds for 10,000RPM drives, 4.2ms for 7,200RPM drives and 5.6ms for 5,400RPM drives.) Latency is seek time plus rotational delay. Make sure you understand whether you need low latency or more accesses per second, though; in the latter case (e.g., news servers), it may not be optimal to purchase one big fast drive. You can achieve similar or even better results by using the ccd (concatenated disk) driver to create a striped disk array out of multiple slower drives for comparable overall cost. Make sure you have adequate air flow around the drive, especially if you are going to use a fast-spinning drive. You generally need at least 1/2" (1.25cm) of spacing above and below a drive. Understand how the air flows through your PC case. Most cases have the power supply suck the air out of the back. See where the air flows in, and put the drive where it will have the largest volume of cool air flowing around it. You may need to seal some unwanted holes or add a new fan for effective cooling. Another consideration is noise. Many 7,200 or faster drives generate a high-pitched whine which is quite unpleasant to most people. That, plus the extra fans often required for cooling, may make 7,200 or faster drives unsuitable for some office and home environments. Form factor Most SCSI drives sold today are of 3.5" form factor. They - come in two different heights; 1.6" (“half-height”) or - 1" (“low-profile”). The half-height drive is the same + come in two different heights; 1.6" (half-height) or + 1" (low-profile). The half-height drive is the same height as a CD-ROM drive. However, don't forget the spacing rule mentioned in the previous section. If you have three standard 3.5" drive bays, you will not be able to put three half-height drives in there (without frying them, that is). Interface The majority of SCSI hard drives sold today are Ultra or Ultra-wide SCSI. The maximum bandwidth of Ultra SCSI is 20MB/sec, and Ultra-wide SCSI is 40MB/sec. There is no difference in max cable length between Ultra and Ultra-wide; however, the more devices you have on the same bus, the sooner you will start having bus integrity problems. Unless you have a well-designed disk enclosure, it is not easy to make more than 5 or 6 Ultra SCSI drives work on a single bus. On the other hand, if you need to connect many drives, going for Fast-wide SCSI may not be a bad idea. That will have the same max bandwidth as Ultra (narrow) SCSI, while electronically it's - much easier to get it “right”. My advice would be: if + much easier to get it right. My advice would be: if you want to connect many disks, get wide SCSI drives; they usually cost a little more but it may save you down the road. (Besides, if you can't afford the cost difference, you shouldn't be building a disk array.) There are two variant of wide SCSI drives; 68-pin and 80-pin SCA (Single Connector Attach). The SCA drives don't have a separate 4-pin power connector, and also read the SCSI ID settings through the 80-pin connector. If you are really serious about building a large storage system, get SCA drives and a good SCA enclosure (dual power supply with at least one extra fan). They are more electronically sound than 68-pin counterparts because - there is no “stub” of the SCSI bus inside the disk + there is no stub of the SCSI bus inside the disk canister as in arrays built from 68-pin drives. They are easier to install too (you just need to screw the drive in the canister, instead of trying to squeeze in your fingers in a tight place to hook up all the little cables (like the SCSI ID and disk activity LED lines). * IDE hard drives Tape drives Contributed by &a.jmb;. 2 July 1996. General tape access commands &man.mt.1; provides generic access to the tape drives. Some of the more common commands are rewind, erase, and status. See the &man.mt.1; manual page for a detailed description. Controller Interfaces There are several different interfaces that support tape drives. The interfaces are SCSI, IDE, Floppy and Parallel Port. A wide variety of tape drives are available for these interfaces. Controllers are discussed in Disk/tape controllers. SCSI drives The &man.st.4; driver provides support for 8mm (Exabyte), 4mm (DAT: Digital Audio Tape), QIC (Quarter-Inch Cartridge), DLT (Digital Linear Tape), QIC Minicartridge and 9-track (remember the big reels that you see spinning in Hollywood computer rooms) tape drives. See the &man.st.4; manual page for a detailed description. The drives listed below are currently being used by members of the FreeBSD community. They are not the only drives that will work with FreeBSD. They just happen to be the ones that we use. 4mm (DAT: Digital Audio Tape) Archive Python 28454 Archive Python 04687 HP C1533A HP C1534A HP 35450A HP 35470A HP 35480A SDT-5000 Wangtek 6200 8mm (Exabyte) EXB-8200 EXB-8500 EXB-8505 QIC (Quarter-Inch Cartridge) Archive Ananconda 2750 Archive Viper 60 Archive Viper 150 Archive Viper 2525 Tandberg TDC 3600 Tandberg TDC 3620 Tandberg TDC 3800 Tandberg TDC 4222 Wangtek 5525ES DLT (Digital Linear Tape) Digital TZ87 Mini-Cartridge Conner CTMS 3200 Exabyte 2501 Autoloaders/Changers Hewlett-Packard HP C1553A Autoloading DDS2 * IDE drives Floppy drives Conner 420R * Parallel port drives Detailed Information Archive Anaconda 2750 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE ANCDA 2750 28077 -003 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 1.35GB when using QIC-1350 tapes. This drive will read and write QIC-150 (DC6150), QIC-250 (DC6250), and QIC-525 (DC6525) tapes as well. Data transfer rate is 350kB/s using &man.dump.8;. Rates of 530kB/s have been reported when using Amanda Production of this drive has been discontinued. The SCSI bus connector on this tape drive is reversed from that on most other SCSI devices. Make sure that you have enough SCSI cable to twist the cable one-half turn before and after the Archive Anaconda tape drive, or turn your other SCSI devices upside-down. Two kernel code changes are required to use this drive. This drive will not work as delivered. If you have a SCSI-2 controller, short jumper 6. Otherwise, the drive behaves are a SCSI-1 device. When operating as a SCSI-1 - device, this drive, “locks” the SCSI bus during some + device, this drive, locks the SCSI bus during some tape operations, including: fsf, rewind, and rewoffl. If you are using the NCR SCSI controllers, patch the file /usr/src/sys/pci/ncr.c (as shown below). Build and install a new kernel. *** 4831,4835 **** }; ! if (np->latetime>4) { /* ** Although we tried to wake it up, --- 4831,4836 ---- }; ! if (np->latetime>1200) { /* ** Although we tried to wake it up, Reported by: &a.jmb; Archive Python 28454 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE Python 28454-XXX4ASB type 1 removable SCSI 2 density code 0x8c, 512-byte blocks This is a DDS-1 tape drive. Native capacity is 2.5GB on 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is XXX. This drive was repackaged by Sun Microsystems as model 595-3067. Reported by: Bob Bishop rb@gid.co.uk Throughput is in the 1.5 MByte/sec range, however this will drop if the disks and tape drive are on the same SCSI controller. Reported by: Robert E. Seastrom rs@seastrom.com Archive Python 04687 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE Python 04687-XXX 6580 Removable Sequential Access SCSI-2 device This is a DAT-DDS-2 drive. Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Switch 4 controls MRS (Media Recognition System). MRS tapes have stripes on the transparent leader. Switch 4 off enables MRS, on disables MRS. Parity is controlled by switch 5. Switch 5 on to enable parity control. Compression is enabled with Switch 6 off. It is possible to override compression with the SCSI MODE SELECT command (see &man.mt.1;). Data transfer rate is 800kB/s. Archive Viper 60 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE VIPER 60 21116 -007 type 1 removable SCSI 1 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 60MB. Data transfer rate is XXX. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Philippe Regnauld regnauld@hsc.fr Archive Viper 150 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE VIPER 150 21531 -004 Archive Viper 150 is a known rogue type 1 removable SCSI 1. A multitude of firmware revisions exist for this drive. Your drive may report different numbers (e.g 21247 -005. This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 150/250MB. Both 150MB (DC6150) and 250MB (DC6250) tapes have the recording format. The 250MB tapes are approximately 67% longer than the 150MB tapes. This drive can read 120MB tapes as well. It can not write 120MB tapes. Data transfer rate is 100kB/s This drive reads and writes DC6150 (150MB) and DC6250 (250MB) tapes. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (&man.st.4;). Under FreeBSD 2.2-current, use mt blocksize 512 to set the blocksize. (The particular drive had firmware revision 21247 -005. Other firmware revisions may behave differently) Previous versions of FreeBSD did not have this problem. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Pedro A M Vazquez vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR Mike Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au Archive Viper 2525 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE VIPER 2525 25462 -011 type 1 removable SCSI 1 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 525MB. Data transfer rate is 180kB/s at 90 inches/sec. The drive reads QIC-525, QIC-150, QIC-120 and QIC-24 tapes. Writes QIC-525, QIC-150, and QIC-120. Firmware revisions prior to 25462 -011 are bug ridden and will not function properly. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Conner 420R The boot message identifier for this drive is Conner tape. This is a floppy controller, minicartridge tape drive. Native capacity is XXXX Data transfer rate is XXX The drive uses QIC-80 tape cartridges. Reported by: Mark Hannon mark@seeware.DIALix.oz.au Conner CTMS 3200 The boot message identifier for this drive is CONNER CTMS 3200 7.00 type 1 removable SCSI 2. This is a minicartridge tape drive. Native capacity is XXXX Data transfer rate is XXX The drive uses QIC-3080 tape cartridges. Reported by: Thomas S. Traylor tst@titan.cs.mci.com <ulink url="http://www.digital.com/info/Customer-Update/931206004.txt.html">DEC TZ87</ulink> The boot message identifier for this drive is DEC TZ87 (C) DEC 9206 type 1 removable SCSI 2 density code 0x19 This is a DLT tape drive. Native capacity is 10GB. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 1.2MB/s. This drive is identical to the Quantum DLT2000. The drive firmware can be set to emulate several well-known drives, including an Exabyte 8mm drive. Reported by: &a.wilko; <ulink url="http://www.Exabyte.COM:80/Products/Minicartridge/2501/Rfeatures.html">Exabyte EXB-2501</ulink> The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-2501 This is a mini-cartridge tape drive. Native capacity is 1GB when using MC3000XL minicartridges. Data transfer rate is XXX This drive can read and write DC2300 (550MB), DC2750 (750MB), MC3000 (750MB), and MC3000XL (1GB) minicartridges. WARNING: This drive does not meet the SCSI-2 specifications. The drive locks up completely in response to a SCSI MODE_SELECT command unless there is a formatted tape in the drive. Before using this drive, set the tape blocksize with &prompt.root; mt -f /dev/st0ctl.0 blocksize 1024 Before using a minicartridge for the first time, the minicartridge must be formated. FreeBSD 2.1.0-RELEASE and earlier: &prompt.root; /sbin/scsi -f /dev/rst0.ctl -s 600 -c "4 0 0 0 0 0" (Alternatively, fetch a copy of the scsiformat shell script from FreeBSD 2.1.5/2.2.) FreeBSD 2.1.5 and later: &prompt.root; /sbin/scsiformat -q -w /dev/rst0.ctl Right now, this drive cannot really be recommended for FreeBSD. Reported by: Bob Beaulieu ez@eztravel.com Exabyte EXB-8200 The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-8200 252X type 1 removable SCSI 1 This is an 8mm tape drive. Native capacity is 2.3GB. Data transfer rate is 270kB/s. This drive is fairly slow in responding to the SCSI bus during boot. A custom kernel may be required (set SCSI_DELAY to 10 seconds). There are a large number of firmware configurations for this drive, some have been customized to a particular vendor's hardware. The firmware can be changed via EPROM replacement. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Mike Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au Exabyte EXB-8500 The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-8500-85Qanx0 0415 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is an 8mm tape drive. Native capacity is 5GB. Data transfer rate is 300kB/s. Reported by: Greg Lehey grog@lemis.de <ulink url="http://www.Exabyte.COM:80/Products/8mm/8505XL/Rfeatures.html">Exabyte EXB-8505</ulink> The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-85058SQANXR1 05B0 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is an 8mm tape drive which supports compression, and is upward compatible with the EXB-5200 and EXB-8500. Native capacity is 5GB. The drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 300kB/s. Reported by: Glen Foster gfoster@gfoster.com Hewlett-Packard HP C1533A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP C1533A 9503 type 1 removable SCSI 2. This is a DDS-2 tape drive. DDS-2 means hardware data compression and narrower tracks for increased data capacity. Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 510kB/s. This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 6000eU and 6000i tape drives and C1533A DDS-2 DAT drive. The drive has a block of 8 dip switches. The proper settings for FreeBSD are: 1 ON; 2 ON; 3 OFF; 4 ON; 5 ON; 6 ON; 7 ON; 8 ON. switch 1 switch 2 Result On On Compression enabled at power-on, with host control On Off Compression enabled at power-on, no host control Off On Compression disabled at power-on, with host control Off Off Compression disabled at power-on, no host control Switch 3 controls MRS (Media Recognition System). MRS tapes have stripes on the transparent leader. These identify the tape as DDS (Digital Data Storage) grade media. Tapes that do not have the stripes will be treated as write-protected. Switch 3 OFF enables MRS. Switch 3 ON disables MRS. See HP SureStore Tape Products and Hewlett-Packard Disk and Tape Technical Information for more information on configuring this drive. Warning: Quality control on these drives varies greatly. One FreeBSD core-team member has returned 2 of these drives. Neither lasted more than 5 months. Reported by: &a.se; Hewlett-Packard HP 1534A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35470A T503 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13, variable blocks. This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. The same mechanism is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 2000i tape drive, C35470A DDS format DAT drive, C1534A DDS format DAT drive and HP C1536A DDS format DAT drive. The HP C1534A DDS format DAT drive has two indicator lights, one green and one amber. The green one indicates tape action: slow flash during load, steady when loaded, fast flash during read/write operations. The amber one indicates warnings: slow flash when cleaning is required or tape is nearing the end of its useful life, steady indicates an hard fault. (factory service required?) Reported by Gary Crutcher gcrutchr@nightflight.com Hewlett-Packard HP C1553A Autoloading DDS2 The boot message identifier for this drive is "". This is a DDS-2 tape drive with a tape changer. DDS-2 means hardware data compression and narrower tracks for increased data capacity. Native capacity is 24GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 510kB/s (native). This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 12000e tape drive. The drive has two selectors on the rear panel. The selector closer to the fan is SCSI id. The other selector should be set to 7. There are four internal switches. These should be set: 1 ON; 2 ON; 3 ON; 4 OFF. At present the kernel drivers do not automatically change tapes at the end of a volume. This shell script can be used to change tapes: #!/bin/sh PATH="/sbin:/usr/sbin:/bin:/usr/bin"; export PATH usage() { echo "Usage: dds_changer [123456ne] raw-device-name echo "1..6 = Select cartridge" echo "next cartridge" echo "eject magazine" exit 2 } if [ $# -ne 2 ] ; then usage fi cdb3=0 cdb4=0 cdb5=0 case $1 in [123456]) cdb3=$1 cdb4=1 ;; n) ;; e) cdb5=0x80 ;; ?) usage ;; esac scsi -f $2 -s 100 -c "1b 0 0 $cdb3 $cdb4 $cdb5" Hewlett-Packard HP 35450A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35450A -A C620 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13 This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 1.2GB. Data transfer rate is 160kB/s. Reported by: mark thompson mark.a.thompson@pobox.com Hewlett-Packard HP 35470A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35470A 9 09 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. The same mechanism is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 2000i tape drive, C35470A DDS format DAT drive, C1534A DDS format DAT drive, and HP C1536A DDS format DAT drive. Warning: Quality control on these drives varies greatly. One FreeBSD core-team member has returned 5 of these drives. None lasted more than 9 months. Reported by: David Dawes dawes@rf900.physics.usyd.edu.au (9 09) Hewlett-Packard HP 35480A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35480A 1009 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13. This is a DDS-DC tape drive. DDS-DC is DDS-1 with hardware data compression. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. It cannot handle 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Please refer to the section on HP C1533A for the proper switch settings. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 5000eU and 5000i tape drives and C35480A DDS format DAT drive.. This drive will occasionally hang during a tape eject operation (mt offline). Pressing the front panel button will eject the tape and bring the tape drive back to life. WARNING: HP 35480-03110 only. On at least two occasions this tape drive when used with FreeBSD 2.1.0, an IBM Server 320 and an 2940W SCSI controller resulted in all SCSI disk partitions being lost. The problem has not be analyzed or resolved at this time. <ulink url="http://www.sel.sony.com/SEL/ccpg/storage/tape/t5000.html">Sony SDT-5000</ulink> There are at least two significantly different models: one is a DDS-1 and the other DDS-2. The DDS-1 version is SDT-5000 3.02. The DDS-2 version is SONY SDT-5000 327M. The DDS-2 version has a 1MB cache. This cache is able to keep the tape streaming in almost any circumstances. The boot message identifier for this drive is SONY SDT-5000 3.02 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13 Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is depends upon the model or the drive. The rate is 630kB/s for the SONY SDT-5000 327M while compressing the data. For the SONY SDT-5000 3.02, the data transfer rate is 225kB/s. In order to get this drive to stream, set the blocksize to 512 bytes (mt blocksize 512) reported by Kenneth Merry ken@ulc199.residence.gatech.edu SONY SDT-5000 327M information reported by Charles Henrich henrich@msu.edu Reported by: &a.jmz; Tandberg TDC 3600 The boot message identifier for this drive is TANDBERG TDC 3600 =08: type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 150/250MB. This drive has quirks which are known and work around code is present in the scsi tape device driver (&man.st.4;). Upgrading the firmware to XXX version will fix the quirks and provide SCSI 2 capabilities. Data transfer rate is 80kB/s. IBM and Emerald units will not work. Replacing the firmware EPROM of these units will solve the problem. Reported by: Michael Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au Tandberg TDC 3620 This is very similar to the Tandberg TDC 3600 drive. Reported by: &a.joerg; Tandberg TDC 3800 The boot message identifier for this drive is TANDBERG TDC 3800 =04Y Removable Sequential Access SCSI-2 device This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 525MB. Reported by: &a.jhs; Tandberg TDC 4222 The boot message identifier for this drive is TANDBERG TDC 4222 =07 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 2.5GB. The drive will read all cartridges from the 60 MB (DC600A) upwards, and write 150 MB (DC6150) upwards. Hardware compression is optionally supported for the 2.5 GB cartridges. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (&man.st.4;) beginning with FreeBSD 2.2-current. For previous versions of FreeBSD, use mt to read one block from the tape, rewind the tape, and then execute the backup program (mt fsr 1; mt rewind; dump ...) Data transfer rate is 600kB/s (vendor claim with compression), 350 KB/s can even be reached in start/stop mode. The rate decreases for smaller cartridges. Reported by: &a.joerg; Wangtek 5525ES The boot message identifier for this drive is WANGTEK 5525ES SCSI REV7 3R1 type 1 removable SCSI 1 density code 0x11, 1024-byte blocks This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 525MB. Data transfer rate is 180kB/s. The drive reads 60, 120, 150, and 525MB tapes. The drive will not write 60MB (DC600 cartridge) tapes. In order to overwrite 120 and 150 tapes reliably, first erase (mt erase) the tape. 120 and 150 tapes used a wider track (fewer tracks per - tape) than 525MB tapes. The “extra” width of the + tape) than 525MB tapes. The extra width of the previous tracks is not overwritten, as a result the new data lies in a band surrounded on both sides by the previous data unless the tape have been erased. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (&man.st.4;). Other firmware revisions that are known to work are: M75D Reported by: Marc van Kempen marc@bowtie.nl REV73R1 Andrew Gordon Andrew.Gordon@net-tel.co.uk M75D Wangtek 6200 The boot message identifier for this drive is WANGTEK 6200-HS 4B18 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13 This is a DDS-1 tape drive. Native capacity is 2GB using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 150kB/s. Reported by: Tony Kimball alk@Think.COM * Problem drives CD-ROM drives Contributed by &a.obrien;. 23 November 1997. As mentioned in Jordan's Picks Generally speaking those in The FreeBSD Project prefer SCSI CDROM drives over IDE CDROM drives. However not all SCSI CDROM drives are equal. Some feel the quality of some SCSI CDROM drives have been deteriorating to that of IDE CDROM drives. Toshiba used to be the favored stand-by, but many on the SCSI mailing list have found displeasure with the 12x speed XM-5701TA as its volume (when playing audio CDROMs) is not controllable by the various audio player software. Another area where SCSI CDROM manufacturers are cutting corners is adherence to the SCSI specification. Many SCSI CDROMs will respond to multiple LUNs for its target address. Known violators include the 6x Teac CD-56S 1.0D. * Other * Other * PCMCIA diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml index 8634d0a3cf..2f2e9adbdd 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1673 +1,1673 @@ Installing FreeBSD Restructured, updated, and parts rewritten by &a.jim;, January 2000. Synopsis The following chapter will attempt to guide you through the install of FreeBSD on your system. It can be installed through a variety of methods, including anonymous FTP (assuming you have network connectivity via modem or local network), CDROM, floppy disk, tape, an MS-DOS partition, or even NFS. No matter which method you choose, you will need to get started by creating the installation disks as described in the next section. By booting into the FreeBSD installer, even if you are not planning on installing FreeBSD right away, will provide important information about compatibility with your hardware. This information may dictate which installation options are even possible for you. It can also provide clues early-on in the process to potential problems you may come across later. If you plan to install FreeBSD via anonymous FTP, the only things you will need are the installation floppies. The install program itself will handle anything else that is required. For more information about obtaining FreeBSD, see the Obtaining FreeBSD section of the Appendix. By now, you are probably wondering what exactly it is you need to do. Continue on to the installation guide. Installation Guide The following sections will guide you through preparing for and actually installing FreeBSD. If you find something missing, please let us know about it by sending email to the &a.doc;. Preparing for the Installation There are various things you should do in preparation for the install. The following describes what needs to be done prior to each type of installation. The first thing you should do is make sure your hardware is supported by FreeBSD. The list of supported hardware should come in handy here. ;-) It would also be a good idea to make a - list of any “special” cards you have installed, + list of any special cards you have installed, such as SCSI controllers, ethernet cards, sound cards, etc.. The list should include their IRQs and IO port addresses. Creating the Boot Floppies Please read the installation boot image information before proceeding. To make the installation boot disks from the image files, do the following: The first thing you will need to do is download the image files. These can be retrieved from the floppies directory of the FreeBSD FTP site or your local mirror. If you are installing from an MS-DOS partition, download the fdimage.exe program or get it from tools\fdimage.exe on the CDROM and then run it like so: E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp a: The fdimage program will format the A: drive and then copy kern.flp to it (assuming that you are at the top level of a FreeBSD distribution and the floppy images live in a floppies subdirectory, which is typically the case). If you are using a UNIX-based system to create the boot floppies, do the following: &prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=disk_device disk_device is the /dev entry for the floppy drive. On FreeBSD, this is /dev/rfd0 for the A: drive and /dev/rfd1 for the B: drive. With the kern.flp disk in your floppy drive, reboot your computer. After a couple of minutes (while the kernel loads from the floppy), you will be prompted to insert the mfsroot.flp, after which the installation will proceed normally. Before Installing from CDROM If your CDROM is of an unsupported type, please skip ahead to the MS-DOS Preparation section. There is not a whole lot of preparation needed if you are installing from one of Walnut Creek CDROM's FreeBSD CDROMs (other CDROM distributions may work as well, though we cannot say for certain as we have no hand or say in how they created). You can either boot into the CD installation directly from DOS using the install.bat or you can make floppies with the makeflp.bat command. If the CD has El Torito boot support and your system supports booting directly from the CDROM drive (many older systems do NOT), simply insert the first FreeBSD of the set into the drive and reboot your system. You will be put into the install menu directly from the CD. If you are installing from an MS-DOS partition and have the proper drivers to access your CD, run the install.bat script provided on the CDROM. This will attempt to boot the FreeBSD installation directly from DOS. You must do this from actual DOS (i.e., boot in DOS mode) and not from a DOS window under Windows. For the easiest interface of all (from DOS), type view. This will bring up a DOS menu utility that leads you through all of the available options. If you are creating the boot floppies from a UNIX machine, see the Creating the Boot Floppies section of this guide for examples. Once you have booted from DOS or floppy, you should then be able to select CDROM as the media type during the install process and load the entire distribution from CDROM. No other types of installation media should be required. After your system is fully installed and you have rebooted (from the hard disk), you can mount the CDROM at any time by typing: &prompt.root; mount /cdrom Before removing the CD from the drive again, you must first unmount it. This is done with the following command: &prompt.root; umount /cdrom Do not just remove it from the drive! Before invoking the installation, be sure that the CDROM is in the drive so that the install probe can find it. This is also true if you wish the CDROM to be added to the default system configuration automatically during the install (whether or not you actually use it as the installation media). Finally, if you would like people to be able to FTP install FreeBSD directly from the CDROM in your machine, you will find it quite easy. After the machine is fully installed, you simply need to add the following line to the password file (using the vipw command): ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent Anyone with network connectivity to your machine can now chose a media type of FTP and type in ftp://your machine - after picking “Other” in the FTP sites menu during + after picking Other in the FTP sites menu during the install. If you choose to enable anonymous FTP during the installation of your system, the installation program will do the above procedure for you. Before installing from Floppies If you must install from floppy disk (which we suggest you do NOT do), either due to unsupported hardware or simply because you insist on doing things the hard way, you must first prepare some floppies for the install. At a minimum, you will need as many 1.44MB or 1.2MB floppies as it takes to hold all the files in the bin (binary distribution) directory. If you are preparing the floppies from DOS, then they MUST be formatted using the MS-DOS FORMAT command. If you are using Windows, use Explorer to format the disks (right-click on the A: drive, and select "Format". Do NOT trust factory pre-formatted floppies! Format them again yourself, just to be sure. Many problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from the use of improperly formatted media, which is why we are making a point of it now. If you are creating the floppies on another FreeBSD machine, a format is still not a bad idea, though you do not need to put a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the disklabel and newfs commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44MB floppy) illustrate: &prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440 &prompt.root; disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3 &prompt.root; newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/rfd0 Use fd0.1200 and floppy5 for 5.25" 1.2MB disks. Then you can mount and write to them like any other filesystem. After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy the files to them. The distribution files are split into chunks conveniently sized so that 5 of them will fit on a conventional 1.44MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many files as will fit on each one, until you have all of the distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.: a:\bin\bin.aa, a:\bin\bin.ab, and so on. Once you come to the Media screen during the install - process, select “Floppy” and you will be prompted + process, select Floppy and you will be prompted for the rest. Before Installing from MS-DOS To prepare for an installation from an MS-DOS partition, copy the files from the distribution into a directory named, for example, c:\FreeBSD. The directory structure of the CDROM or FTP site must be partially reproduced within this directory, so we suggest using the DOS xcopy command if you are copying it from a CD. For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of FreeBSD: C:\> md c:\FreeBSD C:\> xcopy /s e:\bin c:\FreeBSD\bin\ C:\> xcopy /s e:\manpages c:\FreeBSD\manpages\ Assuming that C: is where you have free space and E: is where your CDROM is mounted. If you do not have a CDROM drive, you can download the distribution from ftp.FreeBSD.org. Each distribution is in its own directory; for example, the bin distribution can be found in the &rel.current;/bin directory. For as many distributions you wish to install from an MS-DOS partition (and you have the free space for), install each one under c:\FreeBSD — the BIN distribution is the only one required for a minimum installation. Before Installing from QIC/SCSI Tape Installing from tape is probably the easiest method, short of an online FTP install or CDROM install. The installation program expects the files to be simply tar'ed onto the tape, so after getting all of the distribution files you are interested in, simply tar them onto the tape like so: &prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir &prompt.root; tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2 When you go to do the installation, you should also make sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory (which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the full contents of the tape you have created. Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. You should expect to require as much temporary storage as you have stuff written on tape. When starting the installation, the tape must be in the drive before booting from the boot floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find it. Before Installing over a Network There are three types of network installations you can do. Serial port (SLIP or PPP), Parallel port (PLIP (laplink cable)), or Ethernet (a standard ethernet controller (includes some PCMCIA)). The SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a laptop computer and another computer. The link should be hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever possible. If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly your only choice. Make sure that you have your service provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly early in the installation process. If you use PAP or CHAP to connect your ISP (in other words, if you can connect to the ISP in Windows without using a script), then all you will need to do is type in dial at the ppp prompt. Otherwise, you will need to know - how to dial your ISP using the “AT commands” + how to dial your ISP using the AT commands specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very simple terminal emulator. Please to the user-ppp handbook and FAQ entries for further information. If you have problems, logging can be directed to the screen using the command set log local .... If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0-R or later) machine is available, you might also consider installing - over a “laplink” parallel port cable. The data rate + over a laplink parallel port cable. The data rate over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically possible over a serial line (up to 50kbytes/sec), thus resulting in a quicker installation. Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an ethernet adapter is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most common PC ethernet cards; a table of supported cards (and their required settings) is provided in the Supported Hardware list. If you are using one of the supported PCMCIA ethernet cards, also be sure that it is plugged in before the laptop is powered on! FreeBSD does not, unfortunately, currently support hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation. You will also need to know your IP address on the network, the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your machine. If you are installing over a PPP connection and do not have a static IP, fear not, the IP address can be dynamically assigned by your ISP. Your system administrator can tell you which values to use for your particular network setup. If you will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address, you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address) to use in talking to it. If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions, then you should really probably talk to your system administrator or ISP before trying this type of installation. Before Installing via NFS The NFS installation is fairly straight-forward. Simply copy the FreeBSD distribution files you want onto a server somewhere and then point the NFS media selection at it. - If this server supports only “privileged port” + If this server supports only privileged port (as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will need to set this option in the Options menu before installation can proceed. If you have a poor quality ethernet card which suffers from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the appropriate Options flag. In order for NFS installation to work, the server must support subdir mounts, e.g., if your FreeBSD 3.4 distribution directory lives on:ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, then ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, not just /usr or /usr/archive/stuff. In FreeBSD's /etc/exports file, this is controlled by the . Other NFS servers may have different conventions. If you are getting - “permission denied” messages from the server, then + permission denied messages from the server, then it is likely that you do not have this enabled properly. Before Installing via FTP FTP installation may be done from any FreeBSD mirror site containing a reasonably up-to-date version of FreeBSD. A full list of FTP mirrors located all over the world is provided during the install process. If you are installing from an FTP site not listed in this menu, or are having trouble getting your name server configured properly, you can also specify a URL to use by - selecting the choice labeled “Other” in that menu. + selecting the choice labeled Other in that menu. You can also use the IP address of a machine you wish to install from, so the following would work in the absence of a name server: ftp://209.55.82.20/pub/FreeBSD/&rel.current;-RELEASE There are two FTP installation modes you can choose from, active or passive FTP. FTP Active This option will make all FTP transfers - use “Active” + use Active mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will often work with older FTP servers that do not support passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive mode (the default), try active! FTP Passive This option instructs FreeBSD to use - “Passive” mode for all FTP operations. + Passive mode for all FTP operations. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow incoming connections on random port addresses. Active and passive modes are not the same as a - “proxy” connection, where a proxy FTP server is + proxy connection, where a proxy FTP server is listening and forwarding FTP requests! For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give the name of the server you really want as a part of the username, after - an “@” sign. The proxy server then - “fakes” the real server. For example, assuming + an @ sign. The proxy server then + fakes the real server. For example, assuming you want to install from ftp.FreeBSD.org, using the proxy FTP server foo.bar.com, listening on port 1024. In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username to ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org, and the password to your email address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or passive FTP, if the proxy supports it), and the URL ftp://foo.bar.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD. Since /pub/FreeBSD from ftp.FreeBSD.org is proxied under foo.bar.com, you are able to install from that machine (which will fetch the files from ftp.FreeBSD.org as your installation requests them. Check your BIOS drive numbering If you have used features in your BIOS to renumber your disk drives without recabling them then you should read first to ensure you do not confused. Installing FreeBSD Once you have completed the pre-installation step relevant to your situation, you are ready to install FreeBSD! Although you should not experience any difficulties, there is always the chance you might, no matter how slight it is. If this is the case in your situation, then you may wish to go back and re-read the relevant preparation section or sections. Perhaps you will come across something you missed the first time. If you are having hardware problems, or FreeBSD refuses to boot at all, read the Hardware Guide on the boot floppy for a list of possible solutions. The FreeBSD boot floppies contain all of the online documentation you should need to be able to navigate through an installation. If it does not, please let us know what you found to be the most confusing or most lacking. Send your comments to the &a.doc;. It is the objective of the installation program (sysinstall) to be self-documenting enough that painful - “step-by-step” guides are no longer necessary. It may + step-by-step guides are no longer necessary. It may take us a little while to reach that objective, but nonetheless, it is still our objective :-) - Meanwhile, you may also find the following “typical - installation sequence” to be helpful: + Meanwhile, you may also find the following typical + installation sequence to be helpful: Boot the kern.flp floppy and when asked, remove it and insert the mfsroot.flp and hit return. After a boot sequence which can take anywhere from 30 seconds to 3 minutes, depending on your hardware, you should be presented with a menu of initial choices. If the kern.flp floppy does not boot at all or the boot hangs at some stage, read the Q&A section of the Hardware Guide on the floppy for possible causes. Press F1. You should see some basic usage instructions on the menu screen and general navigation. If you have not used this menu system before then please read this thoroughly. Select the Options item and set any special preferences you may have. Select a Standard, Express, or Custom install, depending on whether or not you would like the installation to help you through a typical installation, give you a high degree of control over each step, or simply whizz through it (using reasonable defaults when possible) as fast as possible. If you have never used FreeBSD before, the Standard installation method is most recommended. The final configuration menu choice allows you to further configure your FreeBSD installation by giving you menu-driven access to various system defaults. Some items, like networking, may be especially important if you did a CDROM, tape, or floppy install and have not yet configured your network interfaces (assuming you have any). Properly configuring such interfaces here will allow FreeBSD to come up on the network when you first reboot from the hard disk. Supported Hardware FreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA, and PCI bus based PCs, ranging from the 386SX to Pentium class machines (though the 386SX is not recommended). Support for generic IDE or ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controllers, and network and serial cards is also provided. In order to run FreeBSD, a recommmended minimum of eight megabytes of RAM is suggested. Sixteen megabytes is the preferred amount of RAM as you may have some trouble with anything less than sixteen depending on your hardware. What follows is a list of hardware currently known to work with FreeBSD. There may be other hardware that works as well, but we have simply not received any confirmation of it. Disk Controllers WD1003 (any generic MFM/RLL) WD1007 (any generic IDE/ESDI) IDE ATA Adaptec 1535 ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 154X series ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 174X series EISA SCSI controllers in standard and enhanced mode Adaptec 274X/284X/2920C/294X/2950/3940/3950 (Narrow/Wide/Twin) series EISA/VLB/PCI SCSI controllers Adaptec AIC-7850, AIC-7860, AIC-7880, AIC-789X on-board SCSI controllers Adaptec 1510 series ISA SCSI controllers (not for bootable devices) Adaptec 152X series ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec AIC-6260 and AIC-6360 based boards, which include the AHA-152X and SoundBlaster SCSI cards AdvanSys SCSI controllers (all models) - BusLogic MultiMaster “W” Series Host Adapters + BusLogic MultiMaster W Series Host Adapters including BT-948, BT-958, BT-9580 - BusLogic MultiMaster “C” Series Host Adapters + BusLogic MultiMaster C Series Host Adapters including BT-946C, BT-956C, BT-956CD, BT-445C, BT-747C, BT-757C, BT-757CD, BT-545C, BT-540CF - BusLogic MultiMaster “S” Series Host Adapters + BusLogic MultiMaster S Series Host Adapters including BT-445S, BT-747S, BT-747D, BT-757S, BT-757D, BT-545S, BT-542D, BT-742A, BT-542B - BusLogic MultiMaster “A” Series Host Adapters + BusLogic MultiMaster A Series Host Adapters including BT-742A, BT-542B AMI FastDisk controllers that are true BusLogic MultiMaster clones are also supported. - BusLogic/Mylex “Flashpoint” adapters are NOT + BusLogic/Mylex Flashpoint adapters are NOT yet supported. DPT SmartCACHE Plus, SmartCACHE III, SmartRAID III, SmartCACHE IV, and SmartRAID IV SCSI/RAID are supported. The DPT SmartRAID/CACHE V is not yet supported. Compaq Intelligent Disk Array Controllers: IDA, IDA-2, IAES, SMART, SMART-2/E, Smart-2/P, SMART-2SL, Integrated Array, and Smart Arrays 3200, 3100ES, 221, 4200, 4200, 4250ES. SymBios (formerly NCR) 53C810, 53C810a, 53C815, 53C820, 53C825a, 53C860, 53C875, 53C875j, 53C885, and 53C896 PCI SCSI controllers including ASUS SC-200, Data Technology DTC3130 (all variants), Diamond FirePort (all), NCR cards (all), SymBios cards (all), Tekram DC390W, 390U, and 390F, and Tyan S1365 QLogic 1020, 1040, 1040B, and 2100 SCSI and Fibre Channel Adapters DTC 3290 EISA SCSI controller in 1542 evaluation mode With all supported SCSI controllers, full support is provided for SCSI-I and SCSI-II peripherals, including hard disks, optical disks, tape drives (including DAT and 8mm Exabyte), medium changers, processor target devices, and CDROM drives. WORM devices that support CDROM commands are supported for read-only access by the CDROM driver. WORM/CD-R/CD-RW writing support is provided by cdrecord, which is in the ports tree. The following CD-ROM type systems are supported at this time: cd - SCSI interface (includes ProAudio Spectrum and SoundBlaster SCSI) matcd - Matsushita/Panasonic (Creative Soundblaster) proprietary interface (562/563 models) scd - Sony proprietary interface (all models) acd - ATAPI IDE interface The following drivers were supported under the old SCSI subsystem, but are NOT YET supported under the new CAM SCSI subsystem: - NCR5380/NCR53400 (“ProAudio Spectrum”) SCSI + NCR5380/NCR53400 (ProAudio Spectrum) SCSI controller UltraStor 14F, 24F, and 34F SCSI controllers Seagate ST01/02 SCSI controllers Future Domain 8XX/950 series SCSI controllers WD7000 SCSI controller There is work-in-progress to port the UltraStor driver to the new CAM framework, but no estimates on when or if it will be completed. Unmaintained drivers, they might or might not work for your hardware: Floppy tape interface (Colorado/Mountain/Insight) mcd - Mitsumi proprietary CD-ROM interface (all models) Network Cards Adaptec Duralink PCI fast ethernet adapters based on the Adaptec AIC-6195 fast ethernet controller chip, including the following: ANA-62011 64-bit single port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-62022 64-bit dual port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-62044 64-bit quad port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-69011 32-bit single port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-62020 64-bit single port 100baseFX adapter Allied-Telesyn AT1700 and RE2000 cards Alteon Networks PCI gigabit ethernet NICs based on the Tigon 1 and Tigon 2 chipsets including the Alteon AceNIC (Tigon 1 and 2), 3Com 3c985-SX (Tigon 1 and 2), Netgear GA620 (Tigon 2), Silicon Graphics Gigabit Ethernet, DEC/Compaq EtherWORKS 1000, NEC Gigabit Ethernet AMD PCnet/PCI (79c970 and 53c974 or 79c974) RealTek 8129/8139 fast ethernet NICs including the following: Allied-Telesyn AT2550 Allied-Telesyn AT2500TX Genius GF100TXR (RTL8139) NDC Communications NE100TX-E OvisLink LEF-8129TX OvisLink LEF-8139TX Netronix Inc. EA-1210 NetEther 10/100 KTX-9130TX 10/100 Fast Ethernet - Accton “Cheetah” EN1027D (MPX 5030/5038; + Accton Cheetah EN1027D (MPX 5030/5038; RealTek 8139 clone?) SMC EZ Card 10/100 PCI 1211-TX Lite-On 98713, 98713A, 98715, and 98725 fast ethernet NICs, including the LinkSys EtherFast LNE100TX, NetGear FA310-TX Rev. D1, Matrox FastNIC 10/100, Kingston KNE110TX Macronix 98713, 98713A, 98715, 98715A, and 98725 fast ethernet NICs including the NDC Communications SFA100A (98713A), CNet Pro120A (98713 or 98713A), CNet Pro120B (98715), SVEC PN102TX (98713) Macronix/Lite-On PNIC II LC82C115 fast ethernet NICs including the LinkSys EtherFast LNE100TX version 2 Winbond W89C840F fast ethernet nics including the Trendware TE100-PCIE - VIA Technologies VT3043 “Rhine I” and - VT86C100A “Rhine II” fast ethernet NICs including + VIA Technologies VT3043 Rhine I and + VT86C100A Rhine II fast ethernet NICs including the Hawking Technologies PN102TX and D-Link DFE-530TX Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900 and SiS 7016 PCI fast ethernet NICs Sundance Technologies ST201 PCI fast ethernet NICs including the D-Link DFE-550TX SysKonnect SK-984x PCI gigabit ethernet cards including the SK-9841 1000baseLX (single mode fiber, single port), the SK-9842 1000baseSX (multimode fiber, single port), the SK-9843 1000baseLX (single mode fiber, dual port), and the SK-9844 1000baseSX (multimode fiber, dual port). Texas Instruments ThunderLAN PCI NICs, including the Compaq Netelligent 10, 10/100, 10/100 Proliant, 10/100 Dual-Port, 10/100 TX Embedded UTP, 10 T PCI UTP/Coax, and 10/100 TX UTP, the Compaq NetFlex 3P, 3P Integrated, and 3P w/BNC, the Olicom OC-2135/2138, OC-2325, OC-2326 10/100 TX UTP, and the Racore 8165 10/100baseTX and 8148 10baseT/100baseTX/100baseFX multi-personality cards ADMtek AL981-based and AN985-based PCI fast ethernet NICs ASIX Electronics AX88140A PCI NICs including the Alfa Inc. GFC2204 and CNet Pro110B DEC EtherWORKS III NICs (DE203, DE204, and DE205) DEC EtherWORKS II NICs (DE200, DE201, DE202, and DE422) DEC DC21040, DC21041, or DC21140 based NICs (SMC Etherpower 8432T, DE245, etc.) DEC FDDI (DEFPA/DEFEA) NICs Efficient ENI-155p ATM PCI FORE PCA-200E ATM PCI Fujitsu MB86960A/MB86965A HP PC Lan+ cards (model numbers: 27247B and 27252A) Intel EtherExpress (not recommended due to driver instability) Intel EtherExpress Pro/10 Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B PCI Fast Ethernet Isolan AT 4141-0 (16 bit) Isolink 4110 (8 bit) Novell NE1000, NE2000, and NE2100 Ethernet interfaces PCI network cards emulating the NE2000, including the RealTek 8029, NetVin 5000, Winbond W89C940, Surecom NE-34, VIA VT86C926 3Com 3C501, 3C503 Etherlink II, 3C505 Etherlink/+, 3C507 Etherlink 16/TP, 3C509, 3C579, 3C589 (PCMCIA), 3C590/592/595/900/905/905B/905C PCI and EISA (Fast) Etherlink III / (Fast) Etherlink XL, 3C980/3C980B Fast Etherlink XL server adapter, 3CSOHO100-TX OfficeConnect adapter Toshiba ethernet cards PCMCIA ethernet cards from IBM and National Semiconductor are also supported USB Peripherals A wide range of USB peripherals are supported. Owing to the generic nature of most USB devices, with some exceptions any device of a given class will be supported even if not explicitly listed here. USB keyboards USB mice USB printers and USB to parallel printer conversion cables USB hubs Motherboard chipsets: ALi Aladdin-V Intel 82371SB (PIIX3) and 82371AB and EB (PIIX4) chipsets NEC uPD 9210 Host Controller VIA 83C572 USB Host Controller and any other UHCI or OHCI compliant motherboard chipset (no exceptions known). PCI plug-in USB host controllers ADS Electronics PCI plug-in card (2 ports) Entrega PCI plug-in card (4 ports) Specific USB devices reported to be working: Agiler Mouse 29UO Andromeda hub Apple iMac mouse and keyboard ATen parallel printer adapter Belkin F4U002 parallel printer adapter and Belkin mouse BTC BTC7935 keyboard with mouse port Cherry G81-3504 Chic mouse Cypress mouse Entrega USB-to-parallel printer adapter Genius Niche mouse Iomega USB Zip 100 MB Kensington Mouse-in-a-Box Logitech M2452 keyboard Logictech wheel mouse (3 buttons) Logitech PS/2 / USB mouse (3 buttons) MacAlly mouse (3 buttons) MacAlly self-powered hub (4 ports) Microsoft Intellimouse (3 buttons) Microsoft keyboard NEC hub Trust Ami Mouse (3 buttons) ISDN (European DSS1 [Q.921/Q.931] protocol) Asuscom I-IN100-ST-DV (experimental, may work) Asuscom ISDNlink 128K AVM A1 AVM Fritz!Card classic AVM Fritz!Card PCI AVM Fritz!Card PCMCIA AVM Fritz!Card PnP Creatix ISDN-S0/8 Creatix ISDN-S0/16 Creatix ISDN-S0 PnP Dr.Neuhaus Niccy 1008 Dr.Neuhaus Niccy 1016 Dr.Neuhaus Niccy GO@ (ISA PnP) Dynalink IS64PH (no longer maintained) ELSA 1000pro ISA ELSA 1000pro PCI ELSA PCC-16 ITK ix1 micro ITK ix1 micro V.3 Sagem Cybermod (ISA PnP, may work) Sedlbauer Win Speed Siemens I-Surf 2.0 Stollman Tina-pp (under development) Teles S0/8 Teles S0/16 - Teles S0/16.3 (the “c” Versions - like 16.3c + Teles S0/16.3 (the c Versions - like 16.3c - are unsupported!) Teles S0 PnP (experimental, may work) 3Com/USRobotics Sportster ISDN TA intern (non-PnP version) Miscellaneous Devices AST 4 port serial card using shared IRQ ARNET 8 port serial card using shared IRQ ARNET (now Digiboard) Sync 570/i high-speed serial Boca BB1004 4-Port serial card (Modems NOT supported) Boca IOAT66 6-Port serial card (Modems supported) Boca BB1008 8-Port serial card (Modems NOT supported) Boca BB2016 16-Port serial card (Modems supported) Cyclades Cyclom-y Serial Board Moxa SmartIO CI-104J 4-Port serial card STB 4 port card using shared IRQ SDL Communications RISCom/8 Serial Board SDL Communications RISCom/N2 and N2pci high-speed sync serial boards Specialix SI/XIO/SX multiport serial cards, with both the - older SIHOST2.x and the new “enhanced” + older SIHOST2.x and the new enhanced (transputer based, aka JET) host cards; ISA, EISA and PCI are supported Stallion multiport serial boards: EasyIO, EasyConnection 8/32 & 8/64, ONboard 4/16 and Brumby Adlib, SoundBlaster, SoundBlaster Pro, ProAudioSpectrum, Gravis UltraSound, and Roland MPU-401 sound cards Connectix QuickCam Matrox Meteor Video frame grabber Creative Labs Video Spigot frame grabber Cortex1 frame grabber Various frame grabbers based ont he the Brooktree Bt848 and Bt878 chip HP4020, HP6020, Philips CDD2000/CDD2660 and Plasmon CD-R drives Bus mice PS/2 mice Standard PC Joystick X-10 power controllers GPIB and Transputer drives Genius and Mustek hand scanners Floppy tape drives (some rather old models only, driver is rather stale) Lucent Technologies WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 PCMCIA and ISA standard speed (2Mbps) and turbo speed (6Mbps) wireless network adapters and workalikes (NCR WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11, Cabletron RoamAbout 802.11 DS) The ISA versions of these adapters are actually PCMCIA cards combined with an ISA to PCMCIA bridge card, so both kinds of devices work with the same driver. FreeBSD currently does NOT support IBM's microchannel (MCA) bus. Troubleshooting The following section covers basic installation troubleshooting, such as common problems people have reported. There are also a few questions and answers for people wishing to dual-boot FreeBSD with MS-DOS. What to do if something goes wrong... Due to various limitations of the PC architecture, it is impossible for probing to be 100% reliable, however, there are a few things you can do if it fails. Check the supported hardware list to make sure your hardware is supported. If your hardware is supported and you still experience lock-ups or other problems, reset your computer, and when the visual kernel configuration option is given, choose it. This will allow you to go through your hardware and supply information to the system about it. The kernel on the boot disks is configured assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses, and DMA channels. If your hardware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to use the configuration editor to tell FreeBSD where to find things. It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be disabled. Do not disable any drivers you will need during the installation, such as your screen (sc0). If the installation wedges or fails mysteriously after leaving the configuration editor, you have probably removed or changed something you should not have. Reboot and try again. In configuration mode, you can: List the device drivers installed in the kernel. Change device drivers for hardware that is not present in your system. Change IRQs, DRQs, and IO port addresses used by a device driver. After adjusting the kernel to match your hardware configuration, type Q to boot with the new settings. Once the installation has completed, any changes you made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have to reconfigure every time you boot. It is still highly likely that you will eventually want to build a custom kernel. MS-DOS User's Questions and Answers Many users wish to install FreeBSD on PCs inhabited by MS-DOS. Here are some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on such systems. Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete everything first? If your machine is already running MS-DOS and has little or no free space available for the FreeBSD installation, all hope is not lost! You may find the FIPS utility, provided in the tools directory on the FreeBSD CDROM or various FreeBSD FTP sites to be quite useful. FIPS allows you to split an existing MS-DOS partition into two pieces, preserving the original partition and allowing you to install onto the second free piece. You first defragment your MS-DOS partition using the Windows DEFRAG utility (go into Explorer, right-click on the hard drive, and choose to defrag your hard drive), or Norton Disk Tools. You then must run FIPS. It will prompt you for the rest of the information it needs. Afterwards, you can reboot and install FreeBSD on the new free slice. See the Distributions menu for an estimate of how much free space you will need for the kind of installation you want. There is also a very useful product from PowerQuest called Partition Magic. This application has far more functionality than FIPS, and is highly recommended if you plan to often add/remove operating systems (like me). However, it does cost money, and if you plan to install FreeBSD once and then leave it there, FIPS will probably be fine for you. Can I use compressed MS-DOS filesystems from FreeBSD? No. If you are using a utility such as Stacker(tm) or DoubleSpace(tm), FreeBSD will only be able to use whatever portion of the filesystem you leave uncompressed. The rest of the filesystem will show up as one large file (the stacked/double spaced file!). Do not remove that file or you will probably regret it greatly! It is probably better to create another uncompressed primary MS-DOS partition and use this for communications between MS-DOS and FreeBSD. Can I mount my extended MS-DOS partition? Yes. DOS extended partitions are mapped in at the end - of the other “slices” in FreeBSD, e.g., your + of the other slices in FreeBSD, e.g., your D: drive might be /dev/da0s5, your E: drive, /dev/da0s6, and so on. This example assumes, of course, that your extended partition is on SCSI drive 0. For IDE drives, substitute ad for da appropriately if installing 4.0-RELEASE or later, and substitute wd for da if you are installing a version of FreeBSD prior to 4.0. You otherwise mount extended partitions exactly like you would any other DOS drive, for example: &prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/ad0s5 /dos_d diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml index 03e088addb..32d77bdbe4 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml @@ -1,718 +1,718 @@ Introduction Restructured, reorganized, and parts rewritten by &a.jim;, 17 January 2000. Synopsis Thank you for your interest in FreeBSD! The following chapter covers various items about the FreeBSD Project, such as its history, goals, development model, and so on. FreeBSD is a 4.4BSD-Lite2 based operating system for the Intel architecture (x86) and DEC Alpha based systems. Ports to other architectures are also underway. For a brief overview of FreeBSD, see the next section. You can also read about the history of FreeBSD, or the current release. If you are interested in contributing something to the Project (code, hardware, unmarked bills), see the contributing to FreeBSD section. Welcome to FreeBSD! Since you are still here reading this, you most likely have some idea as to what FreeBSD is and what it can do for you. If you are new to FreeBSD, read on for more information. What is FreeBSD? In general, FreeBSD is a state-of-the-art operating system based on 4.4BSD-Lite2. It runs on computer systems based on the Intel architecture (x86), and also the DEC Alpha architecture. FreeBSD is used to power some of the biggest sites on the Internet, including: Yahoo! Hotmail Apache Be, Inc. Blue Mountain Arts Pair Networks Whistle Communications Walnut Creek CDROM and many more. What can FreeBSD do? FreeBSD has many noteworthy features. Some of these are: Preemptive multitasking with dynamic priority adjustment to ensure smooth and fair sharing of the computer between applications and users, even under the heaviest of loads. Multi-user facilities which allow many people to use a FreeBSD system simultaneously for a variety of things. This means, for example, that system peripherals such as printers and tape drives are properly shared between all users on the system or the network and that individual resource limits can be placed on users or groups of users, protecting critical system resources from over-use. Strong TCP/IP networking with support for industry standards such as SLIP, PPP, NFS, DHCP and NIS support. This means that your FreeBSD machine can inter-operate easily with other systems as well act as an enterprise server, providing vital functions such as NFS (remote file access) and e-mail services or putting your organization on the Internet with WWW, FTP, routing and firewall (security) services. Memory protection ensures that applications (or users) cannot interfere with each other. One application crashing will not affect others in any way. FreeBSD is a 32-bit operating system (64-bit on the Alpha) and was designed as such from the ground up. The industry standard X Window System (X11R6) provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for the cost of a common VGA card and monitor and comes with full sources. Binary compatibility with many programs built for Linux, SCO, SVR4, BSDI and NetBSD. Thousands of ready-to-run applications are available from the FreeBSD ports and packages collection. Why search the net when you can find it all right here? Thousands of additional and easy-to-port applications are available on the Internet. FreeBSD is source code compatible with most popular commercial Unix systems and thus most applications require few, if any, changes to compile. Demand paged virtual memory and - “merged VM/buffer cache” design efficiently + merged VM/buffer cache design efficiently satisfies applications with large appetites for memory while still maintaining interactive response to other users. SMP support for machines with multiple CPUs (Intel only). A full complement of C, C++, Fortran, and Perl development tools. Many additional languages for advanced research and development are also available in the ports and packages collection. Source code for the entire system means you have the greatest degree of control over your environment. Why be locked into a proprietary solution and at the mercy of your vendor when you can have a truly Open System? Extensive on-line documentation. And many more! FreeBSD is based on the 4.4BSD-Lite2 release from Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California at Berkeley, and carries on the distinguished tradition of BSD systems development. In addition to the fine work provided by CSRG, the FreeBSD Project has put in many thousands of hours in fine tuning the system for maximum performance and reliability in real-life load situations. As many of the commercial giants struggle to field PC operating systems with such features, performance and reliability, FreeBSD can offer them now! The applications to which FreeBSD can be put are truly limited only by your own imagination. From software development to factory automation, inventory control to azimuth correction of remote satellite antennae; if it can be done with a commercial UNIX product then it is more than likely that you can do it with FreeBSD, too! FreeBSD also benefits significantly from the literally thousands of high quality applications developed by research centers and universities around the world, often available at little to no cost. Commercial applications are also available and appearing in greater numbers every day. Because the source code for FreeBSD itself is generally available, the system can also be customized to an almost unheard of degree for special applications or projects, and in ways not generally possible with operating systems from most major commercial vendors. Here is just a sampling of some of the applications in which people are currently using FreeBSD: Internet Services: The robust TCP/IP networking built into FreeBSD makes it an ideal platform for a variety of Internet services such as: FTP servers World Wide Web servers (standard or secure [SSL]) - Firewalls and NAT (“IP masquerading”) + Firewalls and NAT (IP masquerading) gateways. Electronic Mail servers USENET News or Bulletin Board Systems And more... With FreeBSD, you can easily start out small with an inexpensive 386 class PC and upgrade all the way up to a quad-processor Xeon with RAID storage as your enterprise grows. Education: Are you a student of computer science or a related engineering field? There is no better way of learning about operating systems, computer architecture and networking than the hands on, under the hood experience that FreeBSD can provide. A number of freely available CAD, mathematical and graphic design packages also make it highly useful to those whose primary interest in a computer is to get other work done! Research: With source code for the entire system available, FreeBSD is an excellent platform for research in operating systems as well as other branches of computer science. FreeBSD's freely available nature also makes it possible for remote groups to collaborate on ideas or shared development without having to worry about special licensing agreements or limitations on what may be discussed in open forums. Networking: Need a new router? A name server (DNS)? A firewall to keep people out of your internal network? FreeBSD can easily turn that unused 386 or 486 PC sitting in the corner into an advanced router with sophisticated packet-filtering capabilities. X Window workstation: FreeBSD is a fine choice for an inexpensive X terminal solution, either using the freely available XFree86 server or one of the excellent commercial servers provided by X Inside. Unlike an X terminal, FreeBSD allows many applications to be run locally, if desired, thus relieving the burden on a central - server. FreeBSD can even boot “diskless”, making + server. FreeBSD can even boot diskless, making individual workstations even cheaper and easier to administer. Software Development: The basic FreeBSD system comes with a full complement of development tools including the renowned GNU C/C++ compiler and debugger. FreeBSD is available in both source and binary form on CDROM and via anonymous FTP. See Obtaining FreeBSD for more details. About the FreeBSD Project The following section provides some background information on the project, including a brief history, project goals, and the development model of the project. A Brief History of FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. The FreeBSD project had its genesis in the early part of 1993, - partially as an outgrowth of the “Unofficial 386BSD - Patchkit” by the patchkit's last 3 coordinators: Nate + partially as an outgrowth of the Unofficial 386BSD + Patchkit by the patchkit's last 3 coordinators: Nate Williams, Rod Grimes and myself. Our original goal was to produce an intermediate snapshot of 386BSD in order to fix a number of problems with it that the patchkit mechanism just was not capable of solving. Some of you may remember the early working title for the project being - “386BSD 0.5” or “386BSD Interim” in + 386BSD 0.5 or 386BSD Interim in reference to that fact. 386BSD was Bill Jolitz's operating system, which had been up to that point suffering rather severely from almost a year's worth of neglect. As the patchkit swelled ever more uncomfortably with each passing day, we were in unanimous agreement that something had to be done and decided to try and assist Bill by providing - this interim “cleanup” snapshot. Those plans came to + this interim cleanup snapshot. Those plans came to a rude halt when Bill Jolitz suddenly decided to withdraw his sanction from the project without any clear indication of what would be done instead. It did not take us long to decide that the goal remained worthwhile, even without Bill's support, and so we adopted the - name “FreeBSD”, coined by David Greenman. Our initial + name FreeBSD, coined by David Greenman. Our initial objectives were set after consulting with the system's current users and, once it became clear that the project was on the road to perhaps even becoming a reality, I contacted Walnut Creek CDROM with an eye towards improving FreeBSD's distribution channels for those many unfortunates without easy access to the Internet. Walnut Creek CDROM not only supported the idea of distributing FreeBSD on CD but also went so far as to provide the project with a machine to work on and a fast Internet connection. Without Walnut Creek CDROM's almost unprecedented degree of faith in what was, at the time, a completely unknown project, it is quite unlikely that FreeBSD would have gotten as far, as fast, as it has today. The first CDROM (and general net-wide) distribution was FreeBSD 1.0, released in December of 1993. This was based on the - 4.3BSD-Lite (“Net/2”) tape from U.C. Berkeley, with + 4.3BSD-Lite (Net/2) tape from U.C. Berkeley, with many components also provided by 386BSD and the Free Software Foundation. It was a fairly reasonable success for a first offering, and we followed it with the highly successful FreeBSD 1.1 release in May of 1994. Around this time, some rather unexpected storm clouds formed on the horizon as Novell and U.C. Berkeley settled their long-running lawsuit over the legal status of the Berkeley Net/2 tape. A condition of that settlement was U.C. Berkeley's - concession that large parts of Net/2 were “encumbered” + concession that large parts of Net/2 were encumbered code and the property of Novell, who had in turn acquired it from AT&T some time previously. What Berkeley got in return was - Novell's “blessing” that the 4.4BSD-Lite release, when + Novell's blessing that the 4.4BSD-Lite release, when it was finally released, would be declared unencumbered and all existing Net/2 users would be strongly encouraged to switch. This included FreeBSD, and the project was given until the end of July 1994 to stop shipping its own Net/2 based product. Under the terms of that agreement, the project was allowed one last release before the deadline, that release being FreeBSD 1.1.5.1. FreeBSD then set about the arduous task of literally re-inventing itself from a completely new and rather incomplete - set of 4.4BSD-Lite bits. The “Lite” releases were + set of 4.4BSD-Lite bits. The Lite releases were light in part because Berkeley's CSRG had removed large chunks of code required for actually constructing a bootable running system (due to various legal requirements) and the fact that the Intel port of 4.4 was highly incomplete. It took the project until November of 1994 to make this transition, at which point it released FreeBSD 2.0 to the net and on CDROM (in late December). Despite being still more than a little rough around the edges, the release was a significant success and was followed by the more robust and easier to install FreeBSD 2.0.5 release in June of 1995. We released FreeBSD 2.1.5 in August of 1996, and it appeared to be popular enough among the ISP and commercial communities that another release along the 2.1-STABLE branch was merited. This was FreeBSD 2.1.7.1, released in February 1997 and capping the end of mainstream development on 2.1-STABLE. Now in maintenance mode, only security enhancements and other critical bug fixes will be done on this branch (RELENG_2_1_0). FreeBSD 2.2 was branched from the development mainline - (“-CURRENT”) in November 1996 as the RELENG_2_2 + (-CURRENT) in November 1996 as the RELENG_2_2 branch, and the first full release (2.2.1) was released in April 1997. Further releases along the 2.2 branch were done in the summer and fall of '97, the last of which (2.2.8) appeared in November 1998. The first official 3.0 release appeared in October 1998 and spelled the beginning of the end for the 2.2 branch. The tree branched again on Jan 20, 1999, leading to the 4.0-CURRENT and 3.X-STABLE branches. From 3.X-STABLE, 3.1 was released on February 15, 1999, 3.2 on May 15, 1999, and 3.3 on September 16, 1999. The most current release on this branch is 3.4, which was released on December 20, 1999. There was another branch on March 13, 2000, which saw the emergence of the 5.0-CURRENT and 4.X-STABLE branches. The only release from this branch so far is &rel.current;-RELEASE. Long-term development projects continue to take place in the 5.0-CURRENT branch, and SNAPshot releases of 5.0 on CDROM (and, of course, on the net) are continually made available as work progresses. FreeBSD Project Goals Contributed by &a.jkh;. The goals of the FreeBSD Project are to provide software that may be used for any purpose and without strings attached. Many of us have a significant investment in the code (and project) and would certainly not mind a little financial compensation now and then, but we are definitely not prepared to insist on it. We - believe that our first and foremost “mission” is to + believe that our first and foremost mission is to provide code to any and all comers, and for whatever purpose, so that the code gets the widest possible use and provides the widest possible benefit. This is, I believe, one of the most fundamental goals of Free Software and one that we enthusiastically support. That code in our source tree which falls under the GNU General Public License (GPL) or Library General Public License (LGPL) comes with slightly more strings attached, though at least on the side of enforced access rather than the usual opposite. Due to the additional complexities that can evolve in the commercial use of GPL software we do, however, prefer software submitted under the more relaxed BSD copyright when it's a reasonable option to do so. The FreeBSD Development Model Contributed by &a.asami;. The development of FreeBSD is a very open and flexible process, FreeBSD being literally built from the contributions of hundreds of people around the world, as can be seen from our list of contributors. We are constantly on the lookout for new developers and ideas, and those interested in becoming more closely involved with the project need simply contact us at the &a.hackers;. The &a.announce; is also available to those wishing to make other FreeBSD users aware of major areas of work. Useful things to know about the FreeBSD project and its development process, whether working independently or in close cooperation: The CVS repository The central source tree for FreeBSD is maintained by CVS (Concurrent Version System), a freely available source code control tool that comes bundled with FreeBSD. The primary CVS repository resides on a machine in Concord CA, USA from where it is replicated to numerous mirror machines throughout the world. The CVS tree, as well as the -CURRENT and -STABLE trees which are checked out of it, can be easily replicated to your own machine as well. Please refer to the Synchronizing your source tree section for more information on doing this. The committers list The committers are the people who have write access to the CVS tree, and are thus authorized to make modifications - to the FreeBSD source (the term “committer” + to the FreeBSD source (the term committer comes from the &man.cvs.1; commit command, which is used to bring new changes into the CVS repository). The best way of making submissions for review by the committers list is to use the &man.send-pr.1; command, though if something appears to be jammed in the system then you may also reach them by sending mail to cvs-committers@FreeBSD.org. The FreeBSD core team The FreeBSD core team would be equivalent to the board of directors if the FreeBSD Project were a company. The primary task of the core team is to make sure the project, as a whole, is in good shape and is heading in the right directions. Inviting dedicated and responsible developers to join our group of committers is one of the functions of the core team, as is the recruitment of new core team members as others move on. Most current members of the core team started as committers whose addiction to the project got the better of them. Some core team members also have specific areas of responsibility, meaning that they are committed to ensuring that some large portion of the system works as advertised. Most members of the core team are volunteers when it comes to FreeBSD development and do not benefit from the - project financially, so “commitment” should - also not be misconstrued as meaning “guaranteed - support.” The “board of directors” + project financially, so commitment should + also not be misconstrued as meaning guaranteed + support. The board of directors analogy above is not actually very accurate, and it may be more suitable to say that these are the people who gave up their lives in favor of FreeBSD against their better judgment! ;-) Outside contributors Last, but definitely not least, the largest group of developers are the users themselves who provide feedback and bug fixes to us on an almost constant basis. The primary way of keeping in touch with FreeBSD's more non-centralized development is to subscribe to the &a.hackers; (see mailing list info) where such things are discussed. The list of those who have contributed something, which made its way into our source tree, is a long and growing one, so why not join it by contributing something back to FreeBSD today? :-) Providing code is not the only way of contributing to the project; for a more complete list of things that need doing, please refer to the how to contribute section in this handbook. In summary, our development model is organized as a loose set of concentric circles. The centralized model is designed for the convenience of the users of FreeBSD, who are thereby provided with an easy way of tracking one central code base, not to keep potential contributors out! Our desire is to present a stable operating system with a large set of coherent application programs that the users can easily install and use, and this model works very well in accomplishing that. All we ask of those who would join us as FreeBSD developers is some of the same dedication its current people have to its continued success! The Current FreeBSD Release FreeBSD is a freely available, full source 4.4BSD-Lite2 based release for Intel i386, i486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Celeron, Pentium II, Pentium III (or compatible) and DEC Alpha based computer systems. It is based primarily on software from U.C. Berkeley's CSRG group, with some enhancements from NetBSD, OpenBSD, 386BSD, and the Free Software Foundation. Since our release of FreeBSD 2.0 in late 94, the performance, feature set, and stability of FreeBSD has improved dramatically. The largest change is a revamped virtual memory system with a merged VM/file buffer cache that not only increases performance, but also reduces FreeBSD's memory footprint, making a 5MB configuration a more acceptable minimum. Other enhancements include full NIS client and server support, transaction TCP support, dial-on-demand PPP, integrated DHCP support, an improved SCSI subsystem, ISDN support, support for ATM, FDDI, Fast and Gigabit Ethernet (1000Mbit) adapters, improved support for the latest Adaptec controllers and many hundreds of bug fixes. We have also taken the comments and suggestions of many of our users to heart and have attempted to provide what we hope is a more sane and easily understood installation process. Your feedback on this (constantly evolving) process is especially welcome! In addition to the base distributions, FreeBSD offers a ported software collection with hundreds of commonly sought-after programs. By mid-January 2000, there were nearly 3000 ports! The list of ports ranges from http (WWW) servers, to games, languages, editors and almost everything in between. The entire ports collection requires approximately 50MB of storage, all ports being - expressed as “deltas” to their original sources. This + expressed as deltas to their original sources. This makes it much easier for us to update ports, and greatly reduces the disk space demands made by the older 1.0 ports collection. To compile a port, you simply change to the directory of the program you wish to install, type make install, and let the system do the rest. The full original distribution for each port you build is retrieved dynamically off the CDROM or a local FTP site, so you need only enough disk space to build the ports you want. Almost every port is also provided as a pre-compiled - “package”, which can be installed with a simple command + package, which can be installed with a simple command (pkg_add) by those who do not wish to compile their own ports from source. A number of additional documents which you may find very helpful in the process of installing and using FreeBSD may now also be found in the /usr/share/doc directory on any machine running FreeBSD 2.1 or later. You may view the locally installed manuals with any HTML capable browser using the following URLs: The FreeBSD Handbook file:/usr/share/doc/handbook/handbook.html The FreeBSD FAQ file:/usr/share/doc/FAQ/FAQ.html You can also visit the master (and most frequently updated) copies at http://www.FreeBSD.org/. The core of FreeBSD does not contain DES code which would inhibit its being exported outside the United States. There is an add-on package to the core distribution, for use only in the United States, which contains the programs that normally use DES. The auxiliary packages provided separately can be used by anyone. A freely (from outside the U.S.) exportable European distribution of DES for our non-U.S. users also exists and is described in the FreeBSD FAQ. If password security for FreeBSD is all you need, and you have no requirement for copying encrypted passwords from different hosts (Suns, DEC machines, etc) into FreeBSD password entries, then FreeBSD's MD5 based security may be all you require! We feel that our default security model is more than a match for DES, and without any messy export issues to deal with. If you are outside (or even inside) the U.S., give it a try! diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml index 343b18cfaa..2ada01d765 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1133 +1,1133 @@ Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel Synopsis Updated and restructured by &a.jim;, March 2000. Originally contributed by &a.jehamby;, 6 October 1995. The following chapter of the handbook covers everything you will need to know in order to build a custom kernel. If you are wondering what the benefits of a custom kernel are, or would like to know how to configure, compile, and install a custom kernel, this chapter is for you. Why Build a Custom Kernel? Building a custom kernel is one of the most important rites of passage nearly every UNIX user must endure. This process, while time consuming, will provide many benefits to your FreeBSD system. Unlike the GENERIC kernel, which must support a wide range of hardware, a custom kernel only contains support for your PC's hardware. This has a number of benefits, such as: Faster boot time. Since the kernel will only probe the hardware you have on your system, the time it takes your system to boot will decrease dramatically. Less memory use. A custom kernel often uses less memory than the GENERIC kernel, which is important because the kernel is one process that must always be present in memory. For this reason, a custom kernel is especially useful on a system with a small amount of RAM. Additional hardware support. A custom kernel allows you to add in support for devices such as sound cards, which are not present in the GENERIC kernel. Building and Installing a Custom Kernel First, let us take a quick tour of the kernel build directory. All directories mentioned will be relative to the main /usr/src/sys directory, which is also accessible through /sys. There are a number of subdirectories here representing different parts of the kernel, but the most important, for our purposes, are arch/conf, where you will edit your custom kernel configuration, and compile, which is the staging area where your kernel will be built. arch represents either i386, alpha, or pc98 (an alternative development branch of PC hardware, popular in Japan). Everything inside a particular architecture's directory deals with that architecture only; the rest of the code is common to all platforms to which FreeBSD could potentially be ported. Notice the logical organization of the directory structure, with each supported device, filesystem, and option in its own subdirectory. If there is not a /usr/src/sys directory on your system, then the kernel source has not been been installed. The easiest way to do this is by running /stand/sysinstall as root, choosing Configure, then Distributions, then src, then sys. Next, move to the arch/conf directory and copy the GENERIC configuration file to the name you want to give your kernel. For example: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL Traditionally, this name is in all capital letters and, if you are maintaining multiple FreeBSD machines with different hardware, it is a good idea to name it after your machine's hostname. We will call it MYKERNEL for the purpose of this example. You must execute these and all of the following commands under the root account or you will get permission denied errors. Now, edit MYKERNEL with your favorite text editor. If you are just starting out, the only editor available will probably be vi, which is too complex to explain here, but is covered well in many books in the bibliography. However, FreeBSD does - offer an easier editor called “ee” which, if you are a + offer an easier editor called ee which, if you are a beginner, should be your editor of choice. Feel free to change the comment lines at the top to reflect your configuration or the changes you have made to differentiate it from GENERIC. If you have build a kernel under SunOS or some other BSD operating system, much of this file will be very familiar to you. If you are coming from some other operating system such as DOS, on the other hand, the GENERIC configuration file might seem overwhelming to you, so follow the descriptions in the Configuration File section slowly and carefully. If you are trying to upgrade your kernel from an older version of FreeBSD, you will probably have to get a new version of &man.config.8; from the same place you got the new kernel sources. It is located in /usr/src/usr.sbin, so you will need to download those sources as well. Re-build and install it before running the next commands. When you are finished, type the following to compile and install your kernel: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL &prompt.root; cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL &prompt.root; make depend &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install The new kernel will be copied to the root directory as /kernel and the old kernel will be moved to /kernel.old. Now, shutdown the system and reboot to use your kernel. In case something goes wrong, there are some troubleshooting instructions at the end of this document. Be sure to read the section which explains how to recover in case your new kernel does not boot. If you have added any new devices (such as sound cards) you may have to add some device nodes to your /dev directory before you can use them. The Configuration File The general format of a configuration file is quite simple. Each line contains a keyword and one or more arguments. For simplicity, most lines only contain one argument. Anything following a # is considered a comment and ignored. The following sections describe each keyword, generally in the order they are listed in GENERIC, although some related keywords have been grouped together in a single section (such as Networking) even though they are actually scattered throughout the GENERIC file. An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the device lines is present in the LINT configuration file, located in the same directory as GENERIC. If you are in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. Quoting numbers In all versions of FreeBSD up to and including 3.X, &man.config.8; required that any strings in the configuration file that contained numbers used as text had to be enclosed in double quotes. This requirement was removed in the 4.X branch, which this book covers, so if you are on a pre-4.X system, see the /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT and /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC files on your system for examples. The following is an example GENERIC kernel configuration file with various additional comments where needed for clarity. This example should match your copy in /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC fairly closely. For details of all the possible kernel options, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. # # GENERIC -- Generic kernel configuration file for FreeBSD/i386 # # For more information on this file, please read the handbook section on # Kernel Configuration Files: # # http://www.freebsd.org/handbook/kernelconfig-config.html # # The handbook is also available locally in /usr/share/doc/handbook # if you've installed the doc distribution, otherwise always see the # FreeBSD World Wide Web server (http://www.FreeBSD.ORG/) for the # latest information. # # An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the # device lines is also present in the ./LINT configuration file. If you are # in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. # # $FreeBSD: src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC,v 1.246 2000/03/09 16:32:55 jlemon Exp $ The following are the mandatory keywords required in every kernel you build: machine i386 This is the machine architecture. It must be either i386, alpha, or pc98. cpu I386_CPU cpu I486_CPU cpu I586_CPU cpu I686_CPU The above specifies the type of CPU you have in your system. You may have multiple instances of the CPU line (i.e., you are not sure whether you should use I586_CPU or I686_CPU), however, for a custom kernel, it is best to specify only the CPU you have. If you are unsure which type your CPU use, you can use the dmesg command to view your boot up messages. The Alpha architechture has different values for cpu_type. They include: cpu EV4 cpu EV5 If you are using an Alpha machine, you should be using one of the above CPU types. ident GENERIC This is the identification of the kernel. You should change this to whatever you named your kernel, in our previous example, MYKERNEL. The value you put in the ident string will print when you boot up the kernel, so it is useful to give a kernel a different name if you want to keep it separate from your usual kernel (i.e., you want to build an experimental kernel). maxusers 32 The maxusers option sets the size of a number of important system tables. This number is supposed to be roughly equal to the number of simultaneous users you expect to have on your machine. However, under normal circumstances, you will want to set maxusers to at least 4, especially if you are using the X Window System or compiling software. The reason is that the most important table set by maxusers is the maximum number of processes, which is set to 20 + 16 * maxusers, so if you set maxusers to 1, then you can only have 36 simultaneous processes, including the 18 or so that the system starts up at boot time, and the 15 or so you will probably create when you start the X Window System. Even a simple task like reading a man page will start up nine processes to filter, decompress, and view it. Setting maxusers to 64 will allow you to have up to 1044 simultaneous processes, which should be enough for nearly all uses. If, however, you see the dreaded proc table full error when trying to start another program, or are running a server with a large number of simultaneous users (like ftp.FreeBSD.org), you can always increase the number and rebuild. maxusers does not limit the number of users which can log into your machine. It simply sets various table sizes to reasonable values considering the maximum number of users you will likely have on your system and how many processes each of them will be running. One keyword which does limit the number of simultaneous remote logins is pseudo-device pty 16. Everything that follows is more or less optional. See the notes underneath or next to each option for more information. #makeoptions DEBUG=-g #Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols options MATH_EMULATE #Support for x87 emulation This line allows the kernel to simulate a math co-processor if your computer does not have one (386 or 486SX). If you have a 486DX, or a 386 or 486SX (with a separate 387 or 487 chip), or higher (Pentium, PentiumII, etc.), you can comment this line out. The normal math co-processor emulation routines that come with FreeBSD are not very accurate. If you do not have a math co-processor, and you need the best accuracy, it is recommended that you change this option to GPL_MATH_EMULATION to use the GNU math support, which is not included by default for licensing reasons. options INET #InterNETworking Networking support. Leave this in, even if you do not plan to be connected to a network. Most programs require at least loopback networking (i.e., making network connections within your PC), so this is essentially mandatory. options INET6 #IPv6 communications protocols This enables the IPv6 communication protocols. options FFS #Berkeley Fast Filesystem options FFS_ROOT #FFS usable as root device [keep this!] This is the basic hard drive filesystem. Leave it in if you boot from the hard disk. options MFS #Memory Filesystem options MD_ROOT #MD is a potential root device This is the memory-mapped filesystem. This is basically a RAM disk for fast storage of temporary files, useful if you have a lot of swap space that you want to take advantage of. A perfect place to mount an MFS partition is on the /tmp directory, since many programs store temporary data here. To mount an MFS RAM disk on /tmp, add the following line to /etc/fstab: /dev/ad1s2b /tmp mfs rw 0 0 Now you simply need to either reboot, or run the command mount /tmp. options NFS #Network Filesystem options NFS_ROOT #NFS usable as root device, NFS required The network filesystem. Unless you plan to mount partitions from a UNIX file server over ethernet, you can comment these out. options MSDOSFS #MSDOS Filesystem The MS-DOS filesystem. Unless you plan to mount a DOS formatted hard drive partition at boot time, you can safely comment this out. It will be automatically loaded the first time you mount a DOS partition, as described above. Also, the excellent mtools software (in the ports collection) allows you to access DOS floppies without having to mount and unmount them (and does not require MSDOSFS at all). options CD9660 #ISO 9660 Filesystem options CD9660_ROOT #CD-ROM usable as root, CD9660 required The ISO 9660 filesystem for CDROMs. Comment it out if you do not have a CDROM drive or only mount data CDs occasionally (since it will be dynamically loaded the first time you mount a data CD). Audio CDs do not need this filesystem. options PROCFS #Process filesystem - The process filesystem. This is a “pretend” + The process filesystem. This is a pretend filesystem mounted on /proc which allows programs like &man.ps.1; to give you more information on what processes are running. options COMPAT_43 #Compatible with BSD 4.3 [KEEP THIS!] Compatibility with 4.3BSD. Leave this in; some programs will act strangely if you comment this out. options SCSI_DELAY=15000 #Delay (in ms) before probing SCSI This causes the kernel to pause for 15 seconds before probing each SCSI device in your system. If you only have IDE hard drives, you can ignore this, otherwise you will probably want to lower this number, perhaps to 5 seconds, to speed up booting. Of course, if you do this, and FreeBSD has trouble recognizing your SCSI devices, you will have to raise it back up. options UCONSOLE #Allow users to grab the console Allow users to grab the console, which is useful for X users. For example, you can create a console xterm by typing xterm -C, which will display any write, talk, and any other messages you receive, as well as any console messages sent by the kernel. options USERCONFIG #boot -c editor This option allows you to boot the configuration editor from the boot menu. options VISUAL_USERCONFIG #visual boot -c editor This option allows you to boot the visual configuration editor from the boot menu. options KTRACE #ktrace(1) support This enables kernel process tracing, which is useful in debugging. options SYSVSHM #SYSV-style shared memory This option provides for System V shared memory. The most common use of this is the XSHM extension in X, which many graphics-intensive programs will automatically take advantage of for extra speed. If you use X, you'll definitely want to include this. options SYSVSEM #SYSV-style semaphores Support for System V semaphores. Less commonly used but only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. options SYSVMSG #SYSV-style message queues Support for System V messages. Again, only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. The &man.ipcs.1; command will list any processes using each of these System V facilities. options P1003_1B #Posix P1003_1B real-time extentions options _KPOSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING Real-time extensions added in the 1993 POSIX. Certain applications in the ports collection use these (such as Star Office). options ICMP_BANDLIM #Rate limit bad replies This option enables ICMP error response bandwidth limiting. You typically want this option as it will help protect the machine from denial of service packet attacks. # To make an SMP kernel, the next two are needed #options SMP # Symmetric MultiProcessor Kernel #options APIC_IO # Symmetric (APIC) I/O The above are both required for SMP support. # Optionally these may need tweaked, (defaults shown): #options NCPU=2 # number of CPUs #options NBUS=4 # number of busses #options NAPIC=1 # number of IO APICs #options NINTR=24 # number of INTs These are some additional SMP knobs. device isa All PCs supported by FreeBSD have one of these. If you have an IBM PS/2 (Micro Channel Architecture), you cannot run FreeBSD at this time (support is being worked on). device eisa Include this if you have an EISA motherboard. This enables auto-detection and configuration support for all devices on the EISA bus. device pci Include this if you have a PCI motherboard. This enables auto-detection of PCI cards and gatewaying from the PCI to ISA bus. # Floppy drives device fdc0 at isa? port IO_FD1 irq 6 drq 2 device fd0 at fdc0 drive 0 device fd1 at fdc0 drive 1 This is the floppy drive controller. fd0 is the A: floppy drive, and fd1 is the B: drive. device ata This driver supports all ATA and ATAPI devices. You only need one device ata line for the kernel to detect all PCI ATA/ATAPI devices on modern machines. device atadisk # ATA disk drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI disk drives. device atapicd # ATAPI CDROM drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI CDROM drives. device atapifd # ATAPI floppy drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI floppy drives. device atapist # ATAPI tape drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI tape drives. options ATA_STATIC_ID #Static device numbering This makes the controller number static (like the old driver) or else the device numbers are dynamically allocated. #options ATA_ENABLE_ATAPI_DMA #Enable DMA on ATAPI devices This enables DMA on the ATAPI device. Since many ATAPI devices claim to support DMA, but it does not actually work, this is turned off by default. # ATA and ATAPI devices device ata0 at isa? port IO_WD1 irq 14 device ata1 at isa? port IO_WD2 irq 15 Use the above for older, non-PCI systems. # SCSI Controllers device ahb # EISA AHA1742 family device ahc # AHA2940 and onboard AIC7xxx devices device amd # AMD 53C974 (Teckram DC-390(T)) device dpt # DPT Smartcache - See LINT for options! device isp # Qlogic family device ncr # NCR/Symbios Logic device sym # NCR/Symbios Logic (newer chipsets) device adv0 at isa? device adw device bt0 at isa? device aha0 at isa? device aic0 at isa? SCSI controllers. Comment out any you do not have in your system. If you have an IDE only system, you can remove these altogether. # SCSI peripherals device scbus # SCSI bus (required) device da # Direct Access (disks) device sa # Sequential Access (tape etc) device cd # CD device pass # Passthrough device (direct SCSI access) SCSI peripherals. Again, comment out any you do not have, or if you have only IDE hardware, you can remove them completely. # RAID controllers device ida # Compaq Smart RAID device amr # AMI MegaRAID device mlx # Mylex DAC960 family Supported RAID controllers. If you do not have any of these, you can comment them out or remove them. # atkbdc0 controls both the keyboard and the PS/2 mouse device atkbdc0 at isa? port IO_KBD The keyboard controller (atkbdc) provides I/O services for the AT keyboard and PS/2 style pointing devices. This controller is required by the keyboard driver (atkbd) and the PS/2 pointing device driver (psm). device atkbd0 at atkbdc? irq 1 The atkbd driver, together with atkbdc controller, provides access to the AT 84 keyboard or the AT enhanced keyboard which is connected to the AT keyboard controller. device psm0 at atkbdc? irq 12 Use this device if your mouse plugs into the PS/2 mouse port. device vga0 at isa? The video card driver. # splash screen/screen saver pseudo-device splash Splash screen at start up! Screen savers require this too. # syscons is the default console driver, resembling an SCO console device sc0 at isa? sc0 is the default console driver, which resembles a SCO console. Since most full-screen programs access the console through a terminal database library like termcap, it should not matter whether you use this or vt0, the VT220 compatible console driver. When you log in, set your TERM variable to scoansi if full-screen programs have trouble running under this console. # Enable this and PCVT_FREEBSD for pcvt vt220 compatible console driver #device vt0 at isa? #options XSERVER # support for X server on a vt console #options FAT_CURSOR # start with block cursor # If you have a ThinkPAD, uncomment this along with the rest of the PCVT lines #options PCVT_SCANSET=2 # IBM keyboards are non-std This is a VT220-compatible console driver, backward compatible to VT100/102. It works well on some laptops which have hardware incompatibilities with sc0. Also set your TERM variable to vt100 or vt220 when you log in. This driver might also prove useful when connecting to a large number of different machines over the network, where termcap or terminfo entries for the sc0 device are often not available — vt100 should be available on virtually any platform. # Floating point support - do not disable. device npx0 at nexus? port IO_NPX irq 13 npx0 is the interface to the floating point math unit in FreeBSD, which is either the hardware co-processor or the software math emulator. This is not optional. # Power management support (see LINT for more options) device apm0 at nexus? disable flags 0x20 # Advanced Power Management Advanced Power Management support. Useful for laptops. # PCCARD (PCMCIA) support device card device pcic0 at isa? irq 10 port 0x3e0 iomem 0xd0000 device pcic1 at isa? irq 11 port 0x3e2 iomem 0xd4000 disable PCMCIA support. You need this if you are installing on a laptop. # Serial (COM) ports device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4 device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 irq 3 device sio2 at isa? disable port IO_COM3 irq 5 device sio3 at isa? disable port IO_COM4 irq 9 These are the four serial ports referred to as COM1 through COM4 in the MS-DOS/Windows world. If you have an internal modem on COM4 and a serial port at COM2, you will have to change the IRQ of the modem to 2 (for obscure technical reasons, IRQ2 = IRQ 9) in order to access it from FreeBSD. If you have a multiport serial card, check the manual page for &man.sio.4; for more information on the proper values for these lines. Some video cards (notably those based on S3 chips) use IO addresses in the form of 0x*2e8, and since many cheap serial cards do not fully decode the 16-bit IO address space, they clash with these cards making the COM4 port practically unavailable. Each serial port is required to have a unique IRQ (unless you are using one of the multiport cards where shared interrupts are supported), so the default IRQs for COM3 and COM4 cannot be used. # Parallel port device ppc0 at isa? irq 7 This is the ISA-bus parallel port interface. device ppbus # Parallel port bus (required) Provides support for the parallel port bus. device lpt # Printer Support for parallel port printers. All three of the above are required to enable parallel printer support. device plip # TCP/IP over parallel This is the driver for the parallel network interface. device ppi # Parallel port interface device - The general-purpose I/O (“geek port”) + IEEE1284 + The general-purpose I/O (geek port) + IEEE1284 I/O. #device vpo # Requires scbus and da This is for an Iomega Zip drive. It requires scbus and da support. Best performance is achieved with ports in EPP 1.9 mode. # PCI Ethernet NICs. -device de # DEC/Intel DC21x4x (“Tulip”) +device de # DEC/Intel DC21x4x (Tulip) device fxp # Intel EtherExpress PRO/100B (82557, 82558) -device tx # SMC 9432TX (83c170 “EPIC”) -device vx # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (“Vortex”) -device wx # Intel Gigabit Ethernet Card (“Wiseman”) +device tx # SMC 9432TX (83c170 EPIC) +device vx # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (Vortex) +device wx # Intel Gigabit Ethernet Card (Wiseman) Various PCI network card drivers. Comment out or remove any of these not present in your system. # PCI Ethernet NICs that use the common MII bus controller code. device miibus # MII bus support MII bus support is required for some PCI 10/100 ethernet NICs, namely those which use MII-compliant transceivers or implement transceiver control interfaces taht operate like an MII. Adding device miibus to the kernel config pulls in support for the generic miibus API and all of the PHY drivers, including a generic one for PHYs that are not specifically handled by an individual driver device dc # DEC/Intel 21143 and various workalikes device rl # RealTek 8129/8139 -device sf # Adaptec AIC-6915 (“Starfire”) +device sf # Adaptec AIC-6915 (Starfire) device sis # Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900/SiS 7016 device ste # Sundance ST201 (D-Link DFE-550TX) device tl # Texas Instruments ThunderLAN device vr # VIA Rhine, Rhine II device wb # Winbond W89C840F -device xl # 3Com 3c90x (“Boomerang”, “Cyclone”) +device xl # 3Com 3c90x (Boomerang, Cyclone) Drivers that use the MII bus controller code. # ISA Ethernet NICs. device ed0 at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 iomem 0xd8000 device ex device ep # WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the WaveLAN/IEEE really # exists only as a PCMCIA device, so there is no ISA attatement needed # and resources will always be dynamically assigned by the pccard code. device wi # Aironet 4500/4800 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the declaration below will # work for PCMCIA and PCI cards, as well as ISA cards set to ISA PnP # mode (the factory default). If you set the switches on your ISA # card for a manually chosen I/O address and IRQ, you must specify # those paremeters here. device an # The probe order of these is presently determined by i386/isa/isa_compat.c. device ie0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 iomem 0xd0000 device fe0 at isa? port 0x300 device le0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 5 iomem 0xd0000 device lnc0 at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 drq 0 device cs0 at isa? port 0x300 device sn0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 # requires PCCARD (PCMCIA) support to be activated #device xe0 at isa? ISA ethernet drivers. See /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT for which cards are supported by which driver. # Pseudo devices - the number indicates how many units to allocated. pseudo-device loop # Network loopback This is the generic loopback device for TCP/IP. If you telnet or FTP to localhost (a.k.a., 127.0.0.1 it will come back at you through this pseudo-device. This is mandatory. pseudo-device ether # Ethernet support ether is only needed if you have an Ethernet card. It includes generic Ethernet protocol code. pseudo-device sl 1 # Kernel SLIP sl is for SLIP support. This has been almost entirely supplanted by PPP, which is easier to set up, better suited for modem-to-modem connection, and more powerful. The number after sl specifies how many simultaneous SLIP sessions to support. pseudo-device ppp 1 # Kernel PPP This is for kernel PPP support for dial-up connections. There is also a version of PPP implemented as a userland application that uses tun and offers more flexibility and features such as demand dialing. The number after ppp specifies how many simultaneous PPP connections to support. pseudo-device tun # Packet tunnel. This is used by the userland PPP software. The number after tun specifies the number of simultaneous PPP sessions to support. See the PPP section of this book for more information. pseudo-device pty # Pseudo-ttys (telnet etc) - This is a “pseudo-terminal” or simulated login port. + This is a pseudo-terminal or simulated login port. It is used by incoming telnet and rlogin sessions, xterm, and some other applications such as emacs. The number indicates the number of ptys to create. If you need more than the default of 16 simultaneous xterm windows and/or remote logins, be sure to increase this number accordingly, up to a maximum of 256. -pseudo-device md # Memory “disks” +pseudo-device md # Memory disks Memory disk pseudo-devices. pseudo-device gif 4 # IPv6 and IPv4 tunneling This implements IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv6 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv4 tunneling, and IPv6 over IPv6 tunneling. pseudo-device faith 1 # IPv6-to-IPv4 relaying (translation) This pseudo-device captures packets that are sent to it and diverts them to the IPv4/IPv6 translation daemon. # The `bpf' pseudo-device enables the Berkeley Packet Filter. # Be aware of the administrative consequences of enabling this! pseudo-device bpf # Berkeley packet filter This is the Berkeley Packet Filter. This pseudo-device allows network interfaces to be placed in promiscuous mode, capturing every packet on a broadcast network (e.g., an ethernet). These packets can be captured to disk and or examined with the &man.tcpdump.1; program. # USB support #device uhci # UHCI PCI->USB interface #device ohci # OHCI PCI->USB interface #device usb # USB Bus (required) #device ugen # Generic -#device uhid # “Human Interface Devices” +#device uhid # Human Interface Devices #device ukbd # Keyboard #device ulpt # Printer #device umass # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da #device ums # Mouse # USB Ethernet, requires mii #device aue # ADMtek USB ethernet #device cue # CATC USB ethernet #device kue # Kawasaki LSI USB ethernet Support for various USB devices. For more information and additional devices supported by FreeBSD, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. Making Device Nodes Almost every device in the kernel has a corresponding - “node” entry in the /dev directory. + node entry in the /dev directory. These nodes look like regular files, but are actually special entries into the kernel which programs use to access the device. The shell script /dev/MAKEDEV, which is executed when you first install the operating system, creates nearly all of the device nodes supported. However, it does not create all of them, so when you add support for a new device, it pays to make sure that the appropriate entries are in this directory, and if not, add them. Here is a simple example: Suppose you add the IDE CD-ROM support to the kernel. The line to add is: device acd0 This means that you should look for some entries that start with acd0 in the /dev directory, possibly followed by a letter, such as c, or preceded by the letter - r, which means a “raw” device. It + r, which means a raw device. It turns out that those files are not there, so I must change to the /dev directory and type: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV acd0 When this script finishes, you will find that there are now acd0c and racd0c entries in /dev so you know that it executed correctly. For sound cards, the following command creates the appropriate entries: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 When creating device nodes for devices such as sound cards, if other people have access to your machine, it may be desirable to protect the devices from outside access by adding them to the /etc/fbtab file. See &man.fbtab.5; for more information. Follow this simple procedure for any other non-GENERIC devices which do not have entries. All SCSI controllers use the same set of /dev entries, so you do not need to create these. Also, network cards and SLIP/PPP pseudo-devices do not have entries in /dev at all, so you do not have to worry about these either. If Something Goes Wrong There are four categories of trouble that can occur when building a custom kernel. They are: config fails If the config command fails when you give it your kernel description, you have probably made a simple error somewhere. Fortunately, config will print the line number that it had trouble with, so you can quickly skip to it with vi. For example, if you see: config: line 17: syntax error You can skip to the problem in vi by typing 17G in command mode. Make sure the keyword is typed correctly, by comparing it to the GENERIC kernel or another reference. make fails If the make command fails, it usually signals an error in your kernel description, but not severe enough for config to catch it. Again, look over your configuration, and if you still cannot resolve the problem, send mail to the &a.questions; with your kernel configuration, and it should be diagnosed very quickly. The kernel will not boot If your new kernel does not boot, or fails to recognize your devices, do not panic! Fortunately, BSD has an excellent mechanism for recovering from incompatible kernels. Simply choose the kernel you want to boot from at the FreeBSD boot loader (i.e., boot kernel.old). When reconfiguring a kernel, it is always a good idea to keep a kernel that is known to work on hand. After booting with a good kernel you can check over your configuration file and try to build it again. One helpful resource is the /var/log/messages file which records, among other things, all of the kernel messages from every successful boot. Also, the &man.dmesg.8; command will print the kernel messages from the current boot. If you are having trouble building a kernel, make sure to keep a GENERIC, or some other kernel that is known to work on hand as a different name that will not get erased on the next build. You cannot rely on kernel.old because when installing a new kernel, kernel.old is overwritten with the last installed kernel which may be non-functional. Also, as soon as possible, move the working kernel to the proper kernel location or commands such as &man.ps.1; will not work properly. The proper command to - “unlock” the kernel file that + unlock the kernel file that make installs (in order to move another kernel back permanently) is: &prompt.root; chflags noschg /kernel - And, if you want to “lock” your new kernel + And, if you want to lock your new kernel into place, or any file for that matter, so that it cannot be moved or tampered with: &prompt.root; chflags schg /kernel The kernel works, but ps does not work any more! If you have installed a different version of the kernel from the one that the system utilities have been built with, for example, a 4.X kernel on a 3.X system, many system-status commands like &man.ps.1; and &man.vmstat.8; will not work any more. You must recompile the libkvm library as well as these utilities. This is one reason it is not normally a good idea to use a different version of the kernel from the rest of the operating system. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml index f80715b6da..c7bb721c09 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml @@ -1,597 +1,597 @@ Kernel Debugging Contributed by &a.paul; and &a.joerg; Debugging a Kernel Crash Dump with <command>kgdb</command> Here are some instructions for getting kernel debugging working on a crash dump. They assume that you have enough swap space for a crash dump. If you have multiple swap partitions and the first one is too small to hold the dump, you can configure your kernel to use an alternate dump device (in the config kernel line), or you can specify an alternate using the &man.dumpon.8; command. The best way to use &man.dumpon.8; is to set the dumpdev variable in /etc/rc.conf. Typically you want to specify one of the swap devices specified in /etc/fstab. Dumps to non-swap devices, tapes for example, are currently not supported. Config your kernel using config -g. See Kernel Configuration for details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel. Use the &man.dumpon.8; command to tell the kernel where to dump to (note that this will have to be done after configuring the partition in question as swap space via &man.swapon.8;). This is normally arranged via /etc/rc.conf and /etc/rc. Alternatively, you can hard-code the dump device via the dump clause in the config line of your kernel config file. This is deprecated and should be used only if you want a crash dump from a kernel that crashes during booting. In the following, the term kgdb refers to - gdb run in “kernel debug mode”. This + gdb run in kernel debug mode. This can be accomplished by either starting the gdb with the option , or by linking and starting it under the name kgdb. This is not being done by default, however, and the idea is basically deprecated since the GNU folks do not like their tools to behave differently when called by another name. This feature may well be discontinued in further releases. When the kernel has been built make a copy of it, say kernel.debug, and then run strip -g on the original. Install the original as normal. You may also install the unstripped kernel, but symbol table lookup time for some programs will drastically increase, and since the whole kernel is loaded entirely at boot time and cannot be swapped out later, several megabytes of physical memory will be wasted. If you are testing a new kernel, for example by typing the new kernel's name at the boot prompt, but need to boot a different one in order to get your system up and running again, boot it only into single user state using the flag at the boot prompt, and then perform the following steps: &prompt.root; fsck -p &prompt.root; mount -a -t ufs # so your file system for /var/crash is writable &prompt.root; savecore -N /kernel.panicked /var/crash &prompt.root; exit # ...to multi-user This instructs &man.savecore.8; to use another kernel for symbol name extraction. It would otherwise default to the currently running kernel and most likely not do anything at all since the crash dump and the kernel symbols differ. Now, after a crash dump, go to /sys/compile/WHATEVER and run kgdb. From kgdb do: symbol-file kernel.debug exec-file /var/crash/kernel.0 core-file /var/crash/vmcore.0 and voila, you can debug the crash dump using the kernel sources just like you can for any other program. Here is a script log of a kgdb session illustrating the procedure. Long lines have been folded to improve readability, and the lines are numbered for reference. Despite this, it is a real-world error trace taken during the development of the pcvt console driver. 1:Script started on Fri Dec 30 23:15:22 1994 2:&prompt.root; cd /sys/compile/URIAH 3:&prompt.root; kgdb kernel /var/crash/vmcore.1 4:Reading symbol data from /usr/src/sys/compile/URIAH/kernel ...done. 5:IdlePTD 1f3000 6:panic: because you said to! 7:current pcb at 1e3f70 8:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/machdep.c...done. 9:(kgdb) where 10:#0 boot (arghowto=256) (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 767) 11:#1 0xf0115159 in panic () 12:#2 0xf01955bd in diediedie () (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 698) 13:#3 0xf010185e in db_fncall () 14:#4 0xf0101586 in db_command (-266509132, -266509516, -267381073) 15:#5 0xf0101711 in db_command_loop () 16:#6 0xf01040a0 in db_trap () 17:#7 0xf0192976 in kdb_trap (12, 0, -272630436, -266743723) 18:#8 0xf019d2eb in trap_fatal (...) 19:#9 0xf019ce60 in trap_pfault (...) 20:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (...) 21:#11 0xf01932a1 in exception:calltrap () 22:#12 0xf0191503 in cnopen (...) 23:#13 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 24:#14 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 25:#15 0xf012a183 in open () 26:#16 0xf019d4eb in syscall (...) 27:(kgdb) up 10 28:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/trap.c...done. 29:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (frame={tf_es = -260440048, tf_ds = 16, tf_\ 30:edi = 3072, tf_esi = -266445372, tf_ebp = -272630356, tf_isp = -27\ 31:2630396, tf_ebx = -266427884, tf_edx = 12, tf_ecx = -266427884, tf\ 32:_eax = 64772224, tf_trapno = 12, tf_err = -272695296, tf_eip = -26\ 33:6672343, tf_cs = -266469368, tf_eflags = 66066, tf_esp = 3072, tf_\ 34:ss = -266427884}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 283) 35:283 (void) trap_pfault(&frame, FALSE); 36:(kgdb) frame frame->tf_ebp frame->tf_eip 37:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c...done. 38:#0 0xf01ae729 in pcopen (dev=3072, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(struct p\ 39:roc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c line 403) 40:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 41:(kgdb) list 42:398 43:399 tp->t_state |= TS_CARR_ON; 44:400 tp->t_cflag |= CLOCAL; /* cannot be a modem (:-) */ 45:401 46:402 #if PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) 47:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 48:404 #else 49:405 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp, flag)); 50:406 #endif /* PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) */ 51:407 } 52:(kgdb) print tp 53:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/cons.c...done. 54:$1 = (struct tty *) 0x1bae 55:(kgdb) print tp->t_line 56:$2 = 1767990816 57:(kgdb) up 58:#1 0xf0191503 in cnopen (dev=0x00000000, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(st\ 59:ruct proc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/i386/cons.c line 126) 60: return ((*cdevsw[major(dev)].d_open)(dev, flag, mode, p)); 61:(kgdb) up 62:#2 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 63:(kgdb) up 64:#3 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 65:(kgdb) up 66:#4 0xf012a183 in open () 67:(kgdb) up 68:#5 0xf019d4eb in syscall (frame={tf_es = 39, tf_ds = 39, tf_edi =\ 69: 2158592, tf_esi = 0, tf_ebp = -272638436, tf_isp = -272629788, tf\ 70:_ebx = 7086, tf_edx = 1, tf_ecx = 0, tf_eax = 5, tf_trapno = 582, \ 71:tf_err = 582, tf_eip = 75749, tf_cs = 31, tf_eflags = 582, tf_esp \ 72:= -272638456, tf_ss = 39}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 673) 73:673 error = (*callp->sy_call)(p, args, rval); 74:(kgdb) up 75:Initial frame selected; you cannot go up. 76:(kgdb) quit 77:&prompt.root; exit 78:exit 79: 80:Script done on Fri Dec 30 23:18:04 1994 Comments to the above script: line 6: This is a dump taken from within DDB (see below), hence the - panic comment “because you said to!”, and a rather + panic comment because you said to!, and a rather long stack trace; the initial reason for going into DDB has been a page fault trap though. line 20: This is the location of function trap() in the stack trace. line 36: Force usage of a new stack frame; this is no longer necessary now. The stack frames are supposed to point to the right locations now, even in case of a trap. (I do not have a new core dump handy <g>, my kernel has not panicked for a rather long time.) From looking at the code in source line 403, there is a high probability that either the pointer access for - “tp” was messed up, or the array access was out of + tp was messed up, or the array access was out of bounds. line 52: The pointer looks suspicious, but happens to be a valid address. line 56: However, it obviously points to garbage, so we have found our error! (For those unfamiliar with that particular piece of code: tp->t_line refers to the line discipline of the console device here, which must be a rather small integer number.) Debugging a Crash Dump with DDD Examining a kernel crash dump with a graphical debugger like ddd is also possible. Add the option to the ddd command line you would use normally. For example; &prompt.root; ddd -k /var/crash/kernel.0 /var/crash/vmcore.0 You should then be able to go about looking at the crash dump using ddd's graphical interface. Post-Mortem Analysis of a Dump What do you do if a kernel dumped core but you did not expect it, and it is therefore not compiled using config -g? Not everything is lost here. Do not panic! Of course, you still need to enable crash dumps. See above on the options you have to specify in order to do this. Go to your kernel config directory (/usr/src/sys/arch/conf) and edit your configuration file. Uncomment (or add, if it does not exist) the following line makeoptions DEBUG=-g #Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols Rebuild the kernel. Due to the time stamp change on the Makefile, there will be some other object files rebuild, for example trap.o. With a bit of luck, the added option will not change anything for the generated code, so you will finally get a new kernel with similar code to the faulting one but some debugging symbols. You should at least verify the old and new sizes with the &man.size.1; command. If there is a mismatch, you probably need to give up here. Go and examine the dump as described above. The debugging symbols might be incomplete for some places, as can be seen in the stack trace in the example above where some functions are displayed without line numbers and argument lists. If you need more debugging symbols, remove the appropriate object files and repeat the kgdb session until you know enough. All this is not guaranteed to work, but it will do it fine in most cases. On-Line Kernel Debugging Using DDB While kgdb as an offline debugger provides a very high level of user interface, there are some things it cannot do. The most important ones being breakpointing and single-stepping kernel code. If you need to do low-level debugging on your kernel, there is an on-line debugger available called DDB. It allows to setting breakpoints, single-stepping kernel functions, examining and changing kernel variables, etc. However, it cannot access kernel source files, and only has access to the global and static symbols, not to the full debug information like kgdb. To configure your kernel to include DDB, add the option line options DDB to your config file, and rebuild. (See Kernel Configuration for details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel. Note that if you have an older version of the boot blocks, your debugger symbols might not be loaded at all. Update the boot blocks; the recent ones load the DDB symbols automagically.) Once your DDB kernel is running, there are several ways to enter DDB. The first, and earliest way is to type the boot flag right at the boot prompt. The kernel will start up in debug mode and enter DDB prior to any device probing. Hence you can even debug the device probe/attach functions. The second scenario is a hot-key on the keyboard, usually Ctrl-Alt-ESC. For syscons, this can be remapped; some of the distributed maps do this, so watch out. There is an option available for serial consoles that allows the use of a serial line BREAK on the console line to enter DDB (options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER in the kernel config file). It is not the default since there are a lot of crappy serial adapters around that gratuitously generate a BREAK condition, for example when pulling the cable. The third way is that any panic condition will branch to DDB if the kernel is configured to use it. For this reason, it is not wise to configure a kernel with DDB for a machine running unattended. The DDB commands roughly resemble some gdb commands. The first thing you probably need to do is to set a breakpoint: b function-name b address Numbers are taken hexadecimal by default, but to make them distinct from symbol names; hexadecimal numbers starting with the letters a-f need to be preceded with 0x (this is optional for other numbers). Simple expressions are allowed, for example: function-name + 0x103. To continue the operation of an interrupted kernel, simply type: c To get a stack trace, use: trace Note that when entering DDB via a hot-key, the kernel is currently servicing an interrupt, so the stack trace might be not of much use for you. If you want to remove a breakpoint, use del del address-expression The first form will be accepted immediately after a breakpoint hit, and deletes the current breakpoint. The second form can remove any breakpoint, but you need to specify the exact address; this can be obtained from: show b To single-step the kernel, try: s This will step into functions, but you can make DDB trace them until the matching return statement is reached by: n This is different from gdb's next statement; it is like gdb's finish. To examine data from memory, use (for example): x/wx 0xf0133fe0,40 x/hd db_symtab_space x/bc termbuf,10 x/s stringbuf for word/halfword/byte access, and hexadecimal/decimal/character/ string display. The number after the comma is the object count. To display the next 0x10 items, simply use: x ,10 Similarly, use x/ia foofunc,10 to disassemble the first 0x10 instructions of foofunc, and display them along with their offset from the beginning of foofunc. To modify memory, use the write command: w/b termbuf 0xa 0xb 0 w/w 0xf0010030 0 0 The command modifier (b/h/w) specifies the size of the data to be written, the first following expression is the address to write to and the remainder is interpreted as data to write to successive memory locations. If you need to know the current registers, use: show reg Alternatively, you can display a single register value by e.g. p $eax and modify it by: set $eax new-value Should you need to call some kernel functions from DDB, simply say: call func(arg1, arg2, ...) The return value will be printed. For a &man.ps.1; style summary of all running processes, use: ps Now you have now examined why your kernel failed, and you wish to reboot. Remember that, depending on the severity of previous malfunctioning, not all parts of the kernel might still be working as expected. Perform one of the following actions to shut down and reboot your system: panic This will cause your kernel to dump core and reboot, so you can later analyze the core on a higher level with kgdb. This command usually must be followed by another continue statement. call boot(0) Which might be a good way to cleanly shut down the running system, sync() all disks, and finally reboot. As long as the disk and file system interfaces of the kernel are not damaged, this might be a good way for an almost clean shutdown. call cpu_reset() is the final way out of disaster and almost the same as hitting the Big Red Button. If you need a short command summary, simply type: help However, it is highly recommended to have a printed copy of the &man.ddb.4; manual page ready for a debugging session. Remember that it is hard to read the on-line manual while single-stepping the kernel. On-Line Kernel Debugging Using Remote GDB This feature has been supported since FreeBSD 2.2, and it is actually a very neat one. GDB has already supported remote debugging for a long time. This is done using a very simple protocol along a serial line. Unlike the other methods described above, you will need two machines for doing this. One is the host providing the debugging environment, including all the sources, and a copy of the kernel binary with all the symbols in it, and the other one is the target machine that simply runs a similar copy of the very same kernel (but stripped of the debugging information). You should configure the kernel in question with config -g, include into the configuration, and compile it as usual. This gives a large blurb of a binary, due to the debugging information. Copy this kernel to the target machine, strip the debugging symbols off with strip -x, and boot it using the boot option. Connect the serial line of the target machine that has "flags 080" set on its sio device to any serial line of the debugging host. Now, on the debugging machine, go to the compile directory of the target kernel, and start gdb: &prompt.user; gdb -k kernel GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details. GDB 4.16 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1996 Free Software Foundation, Inc... (kgdb) Initialize the remote debugging session (assuming the first serial port is being used) by: (kgdb) target remote /dev/cuaa0 Now, on the target host (the one that entered DDB right before even starting the device probe), type: Debugger("Boot flags requested debugger") Stopped at Debugger+0x35: movb $0, edata+0x51bc db> gdb DDB will respond with: Next trap will enter GDB remote protocol mode Every time you type gdb, the mode will be toggled between remote GDB and local DDB. In order to force a next trap immediately, simply type s (step). Your hosting GDB will now gain control over the target kernel: Remote debugging using /dev/cuaa0 Debugger (msg=0xf01b0383 "Boot flags requested debugger") at ../../i386/i386/db_interface.c:257 (kgdb) You can use this session almost as any other GDB session, including full access to the source, running it in gud-mode inside an Emacs window (which gives you an automatic source code display in another Emacs window) etc. Remote GDB can also be used to debug LKMs. First build the LKM with debugging symbols: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lkm/linux &prompt.root; make clean; make COPTS=-g Then install this version of the module on the target machine, load it and use modstat to find out where it was loaded: &prompt.root; linux &prompt.root; modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev Module Name EXEC 0 4 f5109000 001c f510f010 1 linux_mod Take the load address of the module and add 0x20 (probably to account for the a.out header). This is the address that the module code was relocated to. Use the add-symbol-file command in GDB to tell the debugger about the module: (kgdb) add-symbol-file /usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o 0xf5109020 add symbol table from file "/usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o" at text_addr = 0xf5109020? (y or n) y (kgdb) You now have access to all the symbols in the LKM. Debugging a Console Driver Since you need a console driver to run DDB on, things are more complicated if the console driver itself is failing. You might remember the use of a serial console (either with modified boot blocks, or by specifying at the Boot: prompt), and hook up a standard terminal onto your first serial port. DDB works on any configured console driver, of course also on a serial console. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelopts/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelopts/chapter.sgml index f39d90a1e6..71e0e85ab3 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelopts/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/kernelopts/chapter.sgml @@ -1,165 +1,165 @@ Adding New Kernel Configuration Options Contributed by &a.joerg; You should be familiar with the section about kernel configuration before reading here. What's a <emphasis>Kernel Option</emphasis>, Anyway? The use of kernel options is basically described in the kernel configuration section. - There's also an explanation of “historic” and - “new-style” options. The ultimate goal is to eventually + There's also an explanation of historic and + new-style options. The ultimate goal is to eventually turn all the supported options in the kernel into new-style ones, so for people who correctly did a make depend in their kernel compile directory after running &man.config.8;, the build process will automatically pick up modified options, and only recompile those files where it is necessary. Wiping out the old compile directory on each run of &man.config.8; as it is still done now can then be eliminated again. Basically, a kernel option is nothing else than the definition of a C preprocessor macro for the kernel compilation process. To make the build truly optional, the corresponding part of the kernel source (or kernel .h file) must be written with the option concept in mind, i.e. the default must have been made overridable by the config option. This is usually done with something like: #ifndef THIS_OPTION #define THIS_OPTION (some_default_value) #endif /* THIS_OPTION */ This way, an administrator mentioning another value for the option in his config file will take the default out of effect, and replace it with his new value. Clearly, the new value will be substituted into the source code during the preprocessor run, so it must be a valid C expression in whatever context the default value would have been used. It is also possible to create value-less options that simply enable or disable a particular piece of code by embracing it in #ifdef THAT_OPTION [your code here] #endif Simply mentioning THAT_OPTION in the config file (with or without any value) will then turn on the corresponding piece of code. People familiar with the C language will immediately recognize that - everything could be counted as a “config option” where there + everything could be counted as a config option where there is at least a single #ifdef referencing it... However, it's unlikely that many people would put options notyet,notdef in their config file, and then wonder why the kernel compilation falls over. :-) Clearly, using arbitrary names for the options makes it very hard to track their usage throughout the kernel source tree. That is the rationale behind the new-style option scheme, where each option goes into a separate .h file in the kernel compile directory, which is by convention named opt_foo.h. This way, the usual Makefile dependencies could be applied, and make can determine what needs to be recompiled once an option has been changed. The old-style option mechanism still has one advantage for local options or maybe experimental options that have a short anticipated lifetime: since it is easy to add a new #ifdef to the kernel source, this has already made it a kernel config option. In this case, the administrator using such an option is responsible himself for knowing about its implications (and maybe manually forcing the recompilation of parts of his kernel). Once the transition of all supported options has been done, &man.config.8; will warn whenever an unsupported option appears in the config file, but it will nevertheless include it into the kernel Makefile. Now What Do I Have to Do for it? First, edit sys/conf/options (or sys/<arch>/conf/options.<arch>, e. g. sys/i386/conf/options.i386), and select an opt_foo.h file where your new option would best go into. If there is already something that comes close to the purpose of the new option, pick this. For example, options modifying the overall behaviour of the SCSI subsystem can go into opt_scsi.h. By default, simply mentioning an option in the appropriate option file, say FOO, implies its value will go into the corresponding file opt_foo.h. This can be overridden on the right-hand side of a rule by specifying another filename. If there is no opt_foo.h already available for the intended new option, invent a new name. Make it meaningful, and comment the new section in the options[.<arch>] file. &man.config.8; will automagically pick up the change, and create that file next time it is run. Most options should go in a header file by themselves.. Packing too many options into a single opt_foo.h will cause too many kernel files to be rebuilt when one of the options has been changed in the config file. Finally, find out which kernel files depend on the new option. Unless you have just invented your option, and it does not exist anywhere yet, &prompt.user; find /usr/src/sys -type f | xargs fgrep NEW_OPTION is your friend in finding them. Go and edit all those files, and add #include "opt_foo.h" on top before all the #include <xxx.h> stuff. This sequence is most important as the options could override defaults from the regular include files, if the defaults are of the form #ifndef NEW_OPTION #define NEW_OPTION (something) #endif in the regular header. Adding an option that overrides something in a system header file (i.e., a file sitting in /usr/include/sys/) is almost always a mistake. opt_foo.h cannot be included into those files since it would break the headers more seriously, but if it is not included, then places that include it may get an inconsistent value for the option. Yes, there are precedents for this right now, but that does not make them more correct. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml index d29eb004d5..f7d9341dd1 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml @@ -1,920 +1,920 @@ Localization - I18N/L10N Usage and Setup Contributed by &a.ache; Rewritten by Michael Chin-Yuan Wu keichii@mail.utexas.edu, 6 March 2000. Synopsis This section of the handbook discusses the internationalization and localization of FreeBSD to different countries and different settings. If the users wish to use languages other than the system default English, he/she will have to setup the system accordingly. Please note that language support for each language varies in level. Hence, the user should contact the respective FreeBSD local group that is responsible for each language. The author realizes that he may have been incomplete in the description of the i18n process in FreeBSD. Due to the various levels of i18n implementation in both the system and applicational levels, we advise you to refer to individual documentation, man pages, READMEs, and so forth. Should you have any questions or suggestions regarding this chapter, please email the author. The Basics What is i18n/l10n? Developers shortened internationalization into the term i18n, counting the number of letters between the first and the last letters of internationalization. l10n uses the same naming scheme, coming from "localization". Combined together, i18n/l10n methods, protocols, and applications allow users to use languages of their choice. I18n applications are programmed using i18n kits under libraries. It allows for developers to write a simple file and translate displayed menus and texts to each language. We strongly encourage programmers to follow this convention. Why should I use i18n/l10n? I18n/l10n is used whenever you wish to either view, input, or process data in non-English languages. What languages are supported in the i18n effort? I18n and l10n are not FreeBSD specific. Currently, one can choose from most of the major languages of the World, including but not limited to: Chinese, German, Japanese, French, Russian, and others. Using Localization In all its splendor, i18n is not FreeBSD-specific and is a convention. We encourage you to help FreeBSD in following this convention. Localization settings are based on three main terms: Language Code, Country Code, and Encoding. Locale names are constructed from these parts as follows: LanguageCode_CountryCode.Encoding Language and Country Codes In order to localize a FreeBSD system to a specific language (or any other i18n-supporting UNIX's), the user needs to find out the codes for the specify country and language (country codes tell applications what variation of given language to use). In addition, web browsers, SMTP/POP servers, HTTPd's, etc. make decisions based on them. The following are examples of language/country codes: Language/Country Code Description en_US English - United States ru_RU Russian for Russia zh_TW Traditional Chinese for Taiwan Encodings Some languages use non-ASCII encodings that are 8-bit, wide or multibyte characters, see &man.multibyte.3; for more details. Older applications do not recognize them and mistake them for control characters. Newer applications usually do recognize 8-bit characters. Depending on the implementation, users may be required to compile an application with wide or multibyte characters support, or configure it correctly. To be able to input and process wide or multibyte characters, the FreeBSD Ports collection has provided each language with different programs. Refer to the i18n documentation in the respective FreeBSD Port. Specifically, the user needs to look at the application documentation to decide on how to configure it correctly or to pass correct values into the configure/Makefile/compiler. Some things to keep in mind are: Language specific single C chars character sets (see &man.multibyte.3;), i.e., ISO_8859-1, KOI8-R, CP437. Wide or multibyte encodings, f.e. EUC, Big5. You can check the active list of character sets at the IANA Registry. I18n applications In the FreeBSD Ports and Package system, i18n applications have been named with i18n in their names for easy identification. However, they do not always support the language needed. Setting Locale Theoretically, one only needs to export the value of his/her locale name as LANG in the login shell and is usually done through the user's ~/.login_conf or the user login shell configuration (~/.profile, ~/.bashrc, ~/.cshrc). This should set all of the locale subsets (such as LC_CTYPE, LC_CTIME, etc.). Please refer to language-specific FreeBSD documentation for more information. You should set the following two values in your configuration files: LANG for POSIX &man.setlocale.3; family functions MM_CHARSET for applications' MIME character set This includes the user shell config, the specific application config, and the X11 config. Setting Locale Methods There are two methods for setting locale, and both are described below. The first (recommended one) is by assigning the environment variables in login class, and the second is by adding the environment variable assignments to the system's shell startup file. Login Classes Method This method allows environment variables needed for locale name and MIME character sets to be assigned once for every possible shell instead of adding specific shell assignments to each shell's startup file. User Level Setup can be done by an user himself and Administrator Level Setup require superuser priviledges. User Level Setup Here is a minimal example of a .login_conf file in user's home directory which has both variables set for Latin-1 encoding: me:My Account:\ :charset=ISO-8859-1:\ :lang=de_DE.ISO_8859-1: See Administrator Level Setup and &man.login.conf.5; for more details. Administrator Level Setup Check that /etc/login.conf have the correct language user's class. Make sure these settings appear in /etc/login.conf: language_name:accounts_title:\ :charset=MIME_charset:\ :lang=locale_name:\ :tc=default: So sticking with our previous example using Latin-1, it would look like this: german:German Users Accounts:\ :charset=ISO-8859-1:\ :lang=de_DE.ISO_8859-1:\ :tc=default: Changing Login Classes with &man.vipw.8; Use vipw to add new users, and make the entry look like this: user:password:1111:11:language:0:0:User Name:/home/user:/bin/sh Changing Login Classes with &man.adduser.8; Use adduser to add new users, and do the following: Set defaultclass = language in /etc/adduser.conf. Keep in mind you must enter a default class for all users of other languages in this case. An alternative variant is answering the specified language each time that Enter login class: default []: appears from &man.adduser.8; Another alternative is to use the following for each user of a different language that you wish to add: &prompt.root; adduser -class language Changing Login Classes with &man.pw.8; If you use &man.pw.8; for adding new users, call it in this form: &prompt.root; pw useradd user_name -L language Shell Startup File Method This method is not recommended because it requires a different setup for each possible login program chosen. Use the Login Class Method instead. To add the locale name and MIME character set, just set the two environment variables shown below in the /etc/profile and/or /etc/csh.login shell startup files. We will use the German language as an example below: In /etc/profile: LANG=de_DE.ISO_8859-1; export LANG MM_CHARSET=ISO-8859-1; export MM_CHARSET Or in /etc/csh.login: setenv LANG de_DE.ISO_8859-1 setenv MM_CHARSET ISO-8859-1 Alternatively, you can add the above instructions to /usr/share/skel/dot.profile (similar to what was used in /etc/profile above), or /usr/share/skel/dot.login (similar to what was used in /etc/csh.login above). For X11: In $HOME/.xinitrc: LANG=de_DE.ISO_8859-1; export LANG Or: setenv LANG de_DE.ISO_8859-1 Depending on your shell (see above). Console Setup For all single C chars character sets, set the correct console fonts in /etc/rc.conf for the language in question with: font8x16=font_name font8x14=font_name font8x8=font_name The font_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/fonts directory, without the .fnt suffix. Also be sure to set the correct keymap and screenmap for your single C chars character set through /stand/sysinstall. Once inside sysinstall, choose Configure, then Console. Alternatively, you can add the following to /etc/rc.conf: scrnmap=screenmap_name keymap=keymap_name keychange="fkey_number sequence" The screenmap_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/scrnmaps directory, without the .scm suffix. A screenmap with a corresponding mapped font is usually needed as a workaround for expanding bit 8 to bit 9 on a VGA adapter's font character matrix in pseudographics area, i.e., to move letters out of that area if screen font uses a bit 8 column. If you have the following settings, insert the kernel config specified in the paragraph after the list. Console uses a screen font that utilizes 8-bit column font character. The moused daemon is enabled by setting the following in your /etc/rc.conf: moused_enable="YES" A workaround for expanding 8-bit to 9-bit on a VGA adapter is usually needed for the above settings. This workaround disables 8-bit to 9-bit expansion of the font character with the mouse cursor the sc0 console driver. To enable the workaround, insert the following line into the kernel config. options SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03 The keymap_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/keymaps directory, without the .kbd suffix. The keychange is usually needed to program function keys to match the selected terminal type because function key sequences can not be defined in the key map. Also be sure to set the correct console terminal type in /etc/ttys for all ttyv* entries. Current pre-defined correspondences are: Character Set Terminal Type ISO-8859-1 or ISO-8859-15 cons25l1 ISO-8859-2 cons25l2 KOI8-R cons25r CP437 (hardware default) cons25 For wide or multibyte characters languages, use the correct FreeBSD port in your /usr/ports/language directory. Some ports appear as console while the system sees it as serial vtty's, hence you must reserve enough vtty's for both X11 and the pseudo-serial console. Here is a partial list of applications for using other languages in console: Language Location Traditional Chinese (BIG-5) /usr/ports/chinese/big5con Japanese /usr/ports/japanese/ja-kon2-* or /usr/ports/japanese/Mule_Wnn Korean /usr/ports/korean/ko-han X11 Setup Although X11 is not part of the FreeBSD Project, we have included some information here for FreeBSD users. For more details, refer to the XFree86 website or whichever X11 Server you use. In ~/.Xresources, you can additionally tune application specific i18n settings (e.g., fonts, menus, etc.). Displaying Fonts Install the X11 True Type-Common server (XTT-common) and install the language truetype fonts. Setting the correct locale should allow you to view your selected language in menus and such. Inputting Non-English Characters The X11 Input Method (XIM) Protocol is a new standard for all X11 clients. All X11 applications should be written as XIM clients that take input from XIM Input servers. There are several XIM servers available for different languages. Printer Setup Some single C chars character sets are usually hardware coded into printers. Wide or multibyte character sets require special setup and we recommend using apsfilter. You may also convert the document to Postscript or PDF formats using language specific converters. Kernel and File Systems The FreeBSD FFS filesystem is 8-bit clean, so it can be used with any single C chars character set (see &man.multibyte.3;), but there is no character set name stored in the filesystem; i.e., it is raw 8-bit and does not know anything about encoding order. Officially, FFS does not support any form of wide or multibyte character sets yet. However, some wide or multibyte character sets have independent patches for FFS enabling such support. They are only temporary unportable solutions or hacks and we have decided to not include them in the source tree. Refer to respective languages' websites for more informations and the patch files. The FreeBSD MSDOS filesystem has the configurable ability to convert between MSDOS, Unicode character sets and chosen FreeBSD filesystem character sets. See &man.mount.msdos.8; for details. Advanced Topics If you wish to compile i18n applications or program i18n compliant applications, please read this section. Compiling i18n Programs Many FreeBSD Ports have been ported with i18n support. Some of them are marked with -i18n in the port name. These and many other programs have built in support for i18n and need no special consideration. However, some applications such as MySQL need to be have the Makefile configured with the specific charset. This is usually done in the Makefile or done by passing a value to configure in the source. Programming i18n Compliant Applications To make your application more useful for speakers of other languages, we hope that you will program i18n compliant. The GNU gcc compiler, GUI Libraries like QT and GTK support i18n through special handling of strings. Making a program i18n compliant is very easy. It allows contributors to port your application to other languages quickly. Refer to library specific i18n documentation for more details. To the contrary of common perception, i18n compliant code is easy to write. Usually, it only involves wrapping your strings with library specific functions. In addition, please be sure to allow for wide or multibyte characters support. A Call to Unify the i18n effort It has come to our attention that the individual i18n/l10n efforts for each country has been repeating each others' efforts. Many of us have been reinventing the wheel repeatedly and inefficiently. We hope that the various major groups in i18n could congregate into a group effort similiar to the Core Team's responsibility. Currently, we hope that, when you write or port i18n programs, you would send it out to each country's related FreeBSD mailing lists for testing. In the future, we hope to create applications that work in all the languages out-of-the-box without dirty hacks. Perl and Python Perl and Python have i18n and wide characters handling libraries. Please use them for i18n compliance. In older FreeBSD versions, Perl may gives warning about not having a wide characters locale that is already installed in your system. You can set the environmental variable LD_PRELOAD to /usr/lib/libxpg4.so in your shell. In sh-based shells: LD_PRELOAD=/usr/lib/libxpg4.so In C-based shells: setenv LD_PRELOAD /usr/lib/libxpg4.so Localizing FreeBSD to Specific Languages Russian Language (KOI8-R encoding) Originally contributed by &a.ache;. For more information about KOI8-R encoding, see the KOI8-R References (Russian Net Character Set). Locale Setup Put the following lines into your ~/.login_conf file: me:My Account:\ :charset=KOI8-R:\ :lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R: See earlier in this chapter for examples of setting up the locale. Console Setup Add the following to your kernel configuration file: options SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03 Use following settings in /etc/rc.conf: keymap="ru.koi8-r" keychange="61 ^[[K" scrnmap="koi8-r2cp866" font8x16="cp866b-8x16" font8x14="cp866-8x14" font8x8="cp866-8x8" Note that the ^[ here stands for a real Escape character (\033) entered directly in /etc/rc.conf, not for sequence of two characters '^' and '['. For each ttyv* entry in /etc/ttys, use cons25r as the terminal type. See earlier in this chapter for examples of setting up the console. Printer Setup Since most printers with Russian characters come with hardware code page CP866, a special output filter is needed for KOI8-R -> CP866 conversion. Such a filter is installed by default as /usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt. A Russian printer /etc/printcap entry should look like: lp|Russian local line printer:\ :sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs: See &man.printcap.5; for a detailed description. MSDOS FS and Russian Filenames The following example &man.fstab.5; entry enables support for Russian filenames in mounted MSDOS filesystems: /dev/ad0s2 /dos/c msdos rw,-W=koi2dos,-L=ru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0 See &man.mount.msdos.8; for a detailed description of the and options. X11 Setup Do non-X locale setup first as described. The Russian KOI8-R locale may not work with old XFree86 releases (lower than 3.3). The XFree86 port from /usr/ports/x11/XFree86 already is the most recent XFree86 version, so it will work if you install XFree86 from the port. This should not be an issue unless you are using an old version of FreeBSD. Go to the /usr/ports/russian/X.language directory and issue the following command: &prompt.root; make install The above port installs the latest version of the KOI8-R fonts. XFree86 3.3 already has some KOI8-R fonts, but these are scaled better. Check the "Files" section in your /etc/XF86Config file. The following lines must be added before any other FontPath entries: FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/misc" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/75dpi" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/100dpi" If you use a high resolution video mode, swap the 75 dpi and 100 dpi lines. To activate a Russian keyboard, add the following to the "Keyboard" section of your XF86Config file: XkbLayout "ru" XkbOptions "grp:caps_toggle" Also make sure that XkbDisable is turned off (commented out) there. The RUS/LAT switch will be CapsLock. The old CapsLock function is still available via Shift+CapsLock (in LAT mode only). - If you have “Windows” keys on your keyboard, + If you have Windows keys on your keyboard, and notice that some non-alphabetical keys are mapped incorrectly in RUS mode, add the following line in your XF86Config file: XkbVariant "winkeys" The Russian XKB keyboard may not work with old XFree86 versions, see the above note for more information. The Russian XKB keyboard may also not work with non-localized applications as well. Minimally localized applications should call a XtSetLanguageProc (NULL, NULL, NULL); function early in the program. See KOI8-R for X-Window for more instructions on localizing X11 applications. Traditional Chinese Localization for Taiwan The FreeBSD-Taiwan Project has an i18n/l10n tutorial for FreeBSD at http://freebsd.sinica.edu.tw/~ncvs/zh-l10n-tut/index.html using many /usr/ports/chinese/* applications. The editor for the zh-l10n-tut is Clive Lin Clive@CirX.org. You can also cvsup the following collections at freebsd.sinica.edu.tw: Collection Description outta-port tag=. Beta-quality Ports Collection for Chinese zh-l10n-tut tag=. Localizing FreeBSD Tutorial in BIG-5 Traditional Chinese zh-doc tag=. FreeBSD Documenation Translation to BIG-5 Traditional Chinese Chuan-Hsing Shen s874070@mail.yzu.edu.tw has created the Chinese FreeBSD Extension (CFE) using FreeBSD-Taiwan's zh-l10n-tut. The packages and the script files are available at ftp://ftp-cnpa.yzu.edu.tw/FreeBSD/collect/cfe/cfe.txt and ftp://ftp-cnpa.yzu.edu.tw/FreeBSD/collect/cfe/. German Language Localization (For All ISO 8859-1 Languages) Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de wrote a tutorial how to use umlauts on a FreeBSD machine. The tutorial is written in German and available at http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/de/umlaute/. Japanese and Korean Language Localization For Japanese, refer to http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/, and for Korean, refer to http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/. Non-English FreeBSD Documentation Some FreeBSD contributors have translated parts of FreeBSD to other languages. They are available through links on the main site or in /usr/share/doc. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml index fc4c161153..11581bcb92 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml @@ -1,785 +1,785 @@ Linux Binary Compatibility Restructured and parts updated by &a.jim;, 22 March 2000. Originally contributed by &a.handy; and &a.rich; Synopsis The following chapter will cover FreeBSD's Linux binary compatibility features, how to install it, and how it works. At this point, you may be asking yourself why exactly, does FreeBSD need to be able to run Linux binaries? The answer to that question is quite simple. Many companies and developers develop - only for Linux, since it is the latest “hot thing” in + only for Linux, since it is the latest hot thing in the computing world. That leaves the rest of us FreeBSD users bugging these same companies and developers to put out native FreeBSD versions of their applications. The problem is, that most of these companies do not really realize how many people would use their product if there were FreeBSD versions too, and most continue to only develop for Linux. So what is a FreeBSD user to do? This is where the Linux binary compatibility of FreeBSD comes into play. In a nutshell, the compatibility allows FreeBSD users to run about 90% of all Linux applications without modification. This includes applications such as Star Office, the Linux version of Netscape, Adobe Acrobat, RealPlayer 5 and 7, VMWare, Oracle, WordPerfect, Doom, Quake, and more. It is also reported that in some situations, Linux binaries perform better on FreeBSD than they do under Linux. There are, however, some Linux-specific operating system features that are not supported under FreeBSD. Linux binaries will not work on FreeBSD if they overly use the Linux /proc filesystem (which is different from FreeBSD's /proc filesystem), or i386-specific calls, such as enabling virtual 8086 mode. For information on installing the Linux binary compatibility mode, see the next section. Installation With the advent of 3.0-RELEASE, it is no longer necessary to specify options LINUX or options COMPAT_LINUX in your kernel configuration. The Linux binary compatibility is now done via a KLD object - (“Kernel LoaDable object”), so it can be installed - “on-the-fly” without having to reboot. You will, + (Kernel LoaDable object), so it can be installed + on-the-fly without having to reboot. You will, however, need to have the following in /etc/rc.conf: - linux_enable=“YES” + linux_enable=YES This, in turn, triggers the following action in /etc/rc.i386: # Start the Linux binary compatibility if requested. # case ${linux_enable} in [Yy][Ee][Ss]) echo -n ' linux'; linux > /dev/null 2>&1 ;; esac If you wish to verify that the KLD is loaded, kldstat will do that: &prompt.user; kldstat Id Refs Address Size Name 1 2 0xc0100000 16bdb8 kernel 7 1 0xc24db000 d000 linux.ko If for some reason you do not want to or cannot load the KLD, then you may statically link the binary compatibility in the kernel by adding options LINUX to your kernel configuration file. Then install your new kernel as described in the kernel configuration section of this handbook. Installing Linux Runtime Libraries This can be done one of two ways, either by using the linux_base port, or by installing them manually. Installing using the linux_base port This is by far the easiest method to use when installing the runtime libraries. It is just like installing any other port from the ports collection. Simply do the following: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_base &prompt.root; make install distclean You should now have working Linux binary compatibility. Some programs may complain about incorrect minor versions of the system libraries. In general, however, this does not seem to be a problem. Installing libraries manually - If you do not have the “ports” collection + If you do not have the ports collection installed, you can install the libraries by hand instead. You will need the Linux shared libraries that the program depends on and the runtime linker. Also, you will need to create a - “shadow root” directory, + shadow root directory, /compat/linux, for Linux libraries on your FreeBSD system. Any shared libraries opened by Linux programs run under FreeBSD will look in this tree first. So, if a Linux program loads, for example, /lib/libc.so, FreeBSD will first try to open /compat/linux/lib/libc.so, and if that does not exist, it will then try /lib/libc.so. Shared libraries should be installed in the shadow tree /compat/linux/lib rather than the paths that the Linux ld.so reports. Generally, you will need to look for the shared libraries that Linux binaries depend on only the first few times that you install a Linux program on your FreeBSD system. After a while, you will have a sufficient set of Linux shared libraries on your system to be able to run newly imported Linux binaries without any extra work. How to install additional shared libraries What if you install the linux_base port and your application still complains about missing shared libraries? How do you know which shared libraries Linux binaries need, and where to get them? Basically, there are 2 possibilities (when following these instructions you will need to be root on your FreeBSD system). If you have access to a Linux system, see what shared libraries the application needs, and copy them to your FreeBSD system. Look at the following example: Let us assume you have just ftp'd the Linux binary of Doom, and put it on a Linux system you have access to. You then can check which shared libraries it needs by running ldd linuxxdoom, like so: &prompt.user; ldd linuxxdoom libXt.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 libX11.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) => /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 You would need to get all the files from the last column, and put them under /compat/linux, with the names in the first column as symbolic links pointing to them. This means you eventually have these files on your FreeBSD system: /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3 -> libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3 -> libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
Note that if you already have a Linux shared library with a matching major revision number to the first column of the ldd output, you will not need to copy the file named in the last column to your system, the one you already have should work. It is advisable to copy the shared library anyway if it is a newer version, though. You can remove the old one, as long as you make the symbolic link point to the new one. So, if you have these libraries on your system: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.27 and you find a new binary that claims to require a later version according to the output of ldd: libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -> libc.so.4.6.29 If it is only one or two versions out of date in the in the trailing digit then do not worry about copying /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 too, because the program should work fine with the slightly older version. However, if you like, you can decide to replace the libc.so anyway, and that should leave you with: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
The symbolic link mechanism is only needed for Linux binaries. The FreeBSD runtime linker takes care of looking for matching major revision numbers itself and you do not need to worry about it.
Installing Linux ELF binaries ELF binaries sometimes require an extra step of - “branding”. If you attempt to run an unbranded ELF + branding. If you attempt to run an unbranded ELF binary, you will get an error message like the following; &prompt.user; ./my-linux-elf-binary ELF binary type not known Abort To help the FreeBSD kernel distinguish between a FreeBSD ELF binary from a Linux binary, use the &man.brandelf.1; utility. &prompt.user; brandelf -t Linux my-linux-elf-binary The GNU toolchain now places the appropriate branding information into ELF binaries automatically, so you this step should become increasingly more rare in the future. Configuring the host name resolver If DNS does not work or you get this message: resolv+: "bind" is an invalid keyword resolv+: "hosts" is an invalid keyword You will need to configure a /compat/linux/etc/host.conf file containing: order hosts, bind multi on The order here specifies that /etc/hosts is searched first and DNS is searched second. When /compat/linux/etc/host.conf is not installed, linux applications find FreeBSD's /etc/host.conf and complain about the incompatible FreeBSD syntax. You should remove bind if you have not configured a name server using the /etc/resolv.conf file. Installing Mathematica Updated for Mathematica version 4.0 by Murray Stokely murray@cdrom.com and merged with work by Bojan Bistrovic bojanb@physics.odu.edu. This document describes the process of installing the Linux version of Mathematica 4.0 onto a FreeBSD system. The Linux version of Mathematica runs perfectly under FreeBSD however the binaries shipped by Wolfram need to be branded so that FreeBSD knows to use the Linux ABI to execute them. The Linux version of Mathematica or Mathematica for Students can be ordered directly from Wolfram at http://www.wolfram.com/. Branding the Linux binaries The Linux binaries are located in the Unix directory of the Mathematica CDROM distributed by Wolfram. You need to copy this directory tree to your local hard drive so that you can brand the Linux binaries with &man.brandelf.1; before running the installer: &prompt.root; mount /cdrom &prompt.root; cp -rp /cdrom/Unix/ /localdir/ &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Kernel/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/FrontEnd/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; cd /localdir/Installers/Linux/ &prompt.root; ./MathInstaller Obtaining your Mathematica Password Before you can run Mathematica you will have to obtain a - password from Wolfram that corresponds to your “machine - ID”. + password from Wolfram that corresponds to your machine + ID. Once you have installed the Linux compatibility runtime libraries and unpacked Mathematica you can obtain the - “machine ID” by running the program + machine ID by running the program mathinfo in the Install directory. This machine ID is based solely on the MAC address of your first ethernet card. &prompt.root; cd /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux &prompt.root; mathinfo disco.example.com 7115-70839-20412 When you register with Wolfram, either by email, phone or fax, - you will give them the “machine ID” and they will + you will give them the machine ID and they will respond with a corresponding password consisting of groups of numbers. You can then enter this information when you attempt to run Mathematica for the first time exactly as you would for any other Mathematica platform. Running the Mathematica front end over a network Mathematica uses some special fonts to display characters not present in any of the standard font sets (integrals, sums, greek letters, etc.). The X protocol requires these fonts to be install locally. This means you will have to copy these fonts from the CDROM or from a host with Mathematica installed to your local machine. These fonts are normally stored in /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts on the CDROM, or /usr/local/mathematica/SystemFiles/Fonts on your hard drive. The actual fonts are in the subdirectories Type1 and X. There are several ways to use them, as described below. The first way is to copy them into one of the existing font directories in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts. This will require editing the fonts.dir file, adding the font names to it, and changing the number of fonts on the first line. Alternatively, you should also just be able to run mkfontdir in the directory you have copied them to. The second way to do this is to copy the directories to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts: &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts &prompt.root; mkdir X &prompt.root; mkdir MathType1 &prompt.root; cd /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts &prompt.root; cp X/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; cp Type1/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1 &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; mkfontdir &prompt.root; cd ../MathType1 &prompt.root; mkfontdir Now add the new font directories to your font path: &prompt.root; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1 &prompt.root; xset fp rehash If you are using the XFree86 server, you can have these font directories loaded automatically by adding them to your XF86Config file. If you do not already have a directory called /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/Type1, you can change the name of the MathType1 directory in the example above to Type1. Installing Oracle Contributed by Marcel Moolenaar marcel@cup.hp.com Preface This document describes the process of installing Oracle 8.0.5 and Oracle 8.0.5.1 Enterprise Edition for Linux onto a FreeBSD machine Installing the Linux environment Make sure you have both linux_base and linux_devtools from the ports collection installed. These ports are added to the collection after the release of FreeBSD 3.2. If you are using FreeBSD 3.2 or an older version for that matter, update your ports collection. You may want to consider updating your FreeBSD version too. If you run into difficulties with linux_base-6.1 or linux_devtools-6.1 you may have to use version 5.2 of these packages. If you want to run the intelligent agent, you'll also need to install the Red Hat tcl package: tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm. The general command for installing packages with the official RPM port is : &prompt.root; rpm -i --ignoreos --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm package Installation of the package should not generate any errors. Creating the Oracle environment Before you can install Oracle, you need to set up a proper environment. This document only describes what to do specially to run Oracle for Linux on FreeBSD, not what has been described in the Oracle installation guide. Kernel Tuning As described in the Oracle installation guide, you need to set the maximum size of shared memory. Don't use SHMMAX under FreeBSD. SHMMAX is merely calculated out of SHMMAXPGS and PGSIZE. Therefore define SHMMAXPGS. All other options can be used as described in the guide. For example: options SHMMAXPGS=10000 options SHMMNI=100 options SHMSEG=10 options SEMMNS=200 options SEMMNI=70 options SEMMSL=61 Set these options to suit your intended use of Oracle. Also, make sure you have the following options in your kernel config-file: options SYSVSHM #SysV shared memory options SYSVSEM #SysV semaphores options SYSVMSG #SysV interprocess communication Oracle account Create an Oracle account just as you would create any other account. The Oracle account is special only that you need to give it a Linux shell. Add /compat/linux/bin/bash to /etc/shells and set the shell for the Oracle account to /compat/linux/bin/bash. Environment Besides the normal Oracle variables, such as ORACLE_HOME and ORACLE_SID you must set the following environment variables: Variable Value LD_LIBRARY_PATH $ORACLE_HOME/lib CLASSPATH $ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip PATH /compat/linux/bin /compat/linux/sbin /compat/linux/usr/bin /compat/linux/usr/sbin /bin /sbin /usr/bin /usr/sbin /usr/local/bin $ORACLE_HOME/bin It is advised to set all the environment variables in .profile. A complete example is: ORACLE_BASE=/oracle; export ORACLE_BASE ORACLE_HOME=/oracle; export ORACLE_HOME LD_LIBRARY_PATH=$ORACLE_HOME/lib export LD_LIBRARY_PATH ORACLE_SID=ORCL; export ORACLE_SID ORACLE_TERM=386x; export ORACLE_TERM CLASSPATH=$ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip export CLASSPATH PATH=/compat/linux/bin:/compat/linux/sbin:/compat/linux/usr/bin:/compat/linux/usr/sbin:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/local/bin:$ORACLE_HOME/bin export PATH Installing Oracle Due to a slight inconsistency in the Linux emulator, you need to create a directory named .oracle in /var/tmp before you start the installer. Either make it world writable or let it be owner by the oracle user. You should be able to install Oracle without any problems. If you have problems, check your Oracle distribution and/or configuration first! After you have installed Oracle, apply the patches described in the next two subsections. A frequent problem is that the TCP protocol adapter is not installed right. As a consequence, you cannot start any TCP listeners. The following actions help solve this problem: &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib &prompt.root; make -f ins_network.mk ntcontab.o &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/lib &prompt.root; ar r libnetwork.a ntcontab.o &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib &prompt.root; make -f ins_network.mk install Don't forget to run root.sh again! Patching root.sh When installing Oracle, some actions, which need to be performed as root, are recorded in a shell script called root.sh. root.sh is written in the orainst directory. Apply the following patch to root.sh, to have it use to proper location of chown or alternatively run the script under a Linux native shell. *** orainst/root.sh.orig Tue Oct 6 21:57:33 1998 --- orainst/root.sh Mon Dec 28 15:58:53 1998 *************** *** 31,37 **** # This is the default value for CHOWN # It will redefined later in this script for those ports # which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h ! CHOWN=/bin/chown # # Define variables to be used in this script --- 31,37 ---- # This is the default value for CHOWN # It will redefined later in this script for those ports # which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h ! CHOWN=/usr/sbin/chown # # Define variables to be used in this script When you don't install Oracle from CD, you can path the source for root.sh. It is called rthd.sh and is located in the orainst directory in the source tree. Patching genclntsh The script genclntsh is used to create a single shared client library. It is used when building the demos. Apply the following patch to comment out the definition of PATH: *** bin/genclntsh.orig Wed Sep 30 07:37:19 1998 --- bin/genclntsh Tue Dec 22 15:36:49 1998 *************** *** 32,38 **** # # Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands #PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH ! PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH # # each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst --- 32,38 ---- # # Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands #PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH ! #PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH # # each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst Running Oracle When you have followed the instructions, you should be able to run Oracle as if it was run on Linux itself. Advanced Topics If you are curious as to how the Linux binary compatibility works, this is the section you want to read. Most of what follows is based heavily on an email written to &a.chat; by Terry Lambert tlambert@primenet.com (Message ID: <199906020108.SAA07001@usr09.primenet.com>). How Does It Work? - FreeBSD has an abstraction called an “execution class - loader”. This is a wedge into the &man.execve.2; system + FreeBSD has an abstraction called an execution class + loader. This is a wedge into the &man.execve.2; system call. What happens is that FreeBSD has a list of loaders, instead of a single loader with a fallback to the #! loader for running any shell interpreters or shell scripts. Historically, the only loader on the UNIX platform examined the magic number (generally the first 4 or 8 bytes of the file) to see if it was a binary known to the system, and if so, invoked the binary loader. If it was not the binary type for the system, the &man.execve.2; call returned a failure, and the shell attempted to start executing it as shell commands. - The assumption was a default of “whatever the current - shell is”. + The assumption was a default of whatever the current + shell is. Later, a hack was made for &man.sh.1; to examine the first two characters, and if they were :\n, then it invoked the &man.csh.1; shell instead (we believe SCO first made this hack). What FreeBSD does now is go through a list of loaders, with a generic #! loader that knows about interpreters as the characters which follow to the next whitespace next to last, followed by a fallback to /bin/sh. For the Linux ABI support, FreeBSD sees the magic number as an ELF binary (it makes no distinction between FreeBSD, Solaris, Linux, or any other OS which has an ELF image type, at this point). The ELF loader looks for a specialized brand, which is a comment section in the ELF image, and which is not present on SVR4/Solaris ELF binaries. For Linux binaries to function, they must be branded as type Linux; from &man.brandelf.1;: &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux file When this is done, the ELF loader will see the Linux brand on the file. When the ELF loader sees the Linux brand, the loader replaces a pointer in the proc structure. All system calls are indexed through this pointer (in a traditional UNIX system, this would be the sysent[] structure array, containing the system calls). In addition, the process flagged for special handling of the trap vector for the signal trampoline code, and sever other (minor) fix-ups that are handled by the Linux kernel module. The Linux system call vector contains, among other things, a list of sysent[] entries whose addresses reside in the kernel module. When a system call is called by the Linux binary, the trap code dereferences the system call function pointer off the proc structure, and gets the Linux, not the FreeBSD, system call entry points. In addition, the Linux mode dynamically reroots lookups; this is, in effect, what the union option to FS mounts (not the unionfs!) does. First, an attempt is made to lookup the file in the /compat/linux/original-path directory, then only if that fails, the lookup is done in the /original-path directory. This makes sure that binaries that require other binaries can run (e.g., the Linux toolchain can all run under Linux ABI support). It also means that the Linux binaries can load and exec FreeBSD binaries, if there are no corresponding Linux binaries present, and that you could place a &man.uname.1; command in the /compat/linux directory tree to ensure that the Linux binaries could not tell they were not running on Linux. In effect, there is a Linux kernel in the FreeBSD kernel; the various underlying functions that implement all of the services provided by the kernel are identical to both the FreeBSD system call table entries, and the Linux system call table entries: file system operations, virtual memory operations, signal delivery, System V IPC, etc… The only difference is that FreeBSD binaries get the FreeBSD glue functions, and Linux binaries get the Linux glue functions (most older OS's only had their own glue functions: addresses of functions in a static global sysent[] structure array, instead of addresses of functions dereferenced off a dynamically initialized pointer in the proc structure of the process making the call). Which one is the native FreeBSD ABI? It does not matter. Basically the only difference is that (currently; this could easily be changed in a future release, and probably will be after this) the FreeBSD glue functions are statically linked into the kernel, and the Linux glue functions can be statically linked, or they can be accessed via a kernel module. Yeah, but is this really emulation? No. It is an ABI implementation, not an emulation. There is no emulator (or simulator, to cut off the next question) involved. - So why is it sometimes called “Linux emulation”? + So why is it sometimes called Linux emulation? To make it hard to sell FreeBSD! 8-). Really, it is because the historical implementation was done at a time when there was really no word other than that to describe what was going on; saying that FreeBSD ran Linux binaries was not true, if you did not compile the code in or load a module, and there needed to be a word to describe what was being loaded—hence - “the Linux emulator”. + the Linux emulator. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml index e9031664d9..b22ff63815 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml @@ -1,484 +1,484 @@ Electronic Mail Rewritten by &a.jim;, 02 December 1999. Original work done by &a.wlloyd;. Synopsis Electronic Mail, better known as email, is one of the most widely used forms of communication today. Millions of people use email every day, and chances are if you are reading this online, you fall into that category and probably even have more than one email address. Electronic Mail configuration is the subject of many System Administration books. If you plan on doing anything beyond setting up one mailhost for your network, you need industrial strength help. Some parts of email configuration are controlled in the Domain Name System (DNS). If you are going to run your own DNS server, be sure to read through the files in /etc/namedb and man -k named. Using Electronic Mail There are five major parts involved in an email exchange. They are: the user program, the server daemon, DNS, a pop or IMAP daemon, and of course, the mailhost itself. The User Program This includes command line programs such as mutt, pine, elm, and mail, and GUI programs such as balsa, xfmail to name a few, and something - more “sophisticated” like a WWW browser. These + more sophisticated like a WWW browser. These programs simply pass off the email transactions to the local “mailhost”, either by + linkend="mail-host">mailhost, either by calling one of the server daemons available or delivering it over TCP. Mailhost Server Daemon This is usually sendmail (by default with FreeBSD) or one of the other mail server daemons such as qmail, postfix, or exim. There are others, but those are the most widely used. The server daemon usually has two functions—it looks after receiving incoming mail and delivers outgoing mail. It does not allow you to connect to it via POP or IMAP to read your mail. You need an additional daemon for that. Be aware that some older versions of sendmail have some serious security problems, however as long as you run a current version of it you should not have any problems. As always, it is a good idea to stay up-to-date with any software you run. Email and DNS The Domain Name System (DNS) and its daemon named play a large role in the delivery of email. In order to deliver mail from your site to another, the server daemon will look up the site in the DNS to determine the host that will receive mail for the destination. It works the same way when you have mail sent to you. The DNS contains the database mapping hostname to an IP address, and a hostname to mailhost. The IP address is specified in an A record. The MX (Mail eXchanger) record specifies the mailhost that will receive mail for you. If you do not have an MX record for your hostname, the mail will be delivered directly to your host. Receiving Mail Receiving mail for your domain is done by the mail host. It will collect mail sent to you and store it for reading or pickup. In order to pick the stored mail up, you will need to connect to the mail host. This is done by either using POP or IMAP. If you want to read mail directly on the mail host, then a POP or IMAP server is not needed. If you want to run a POP or IMAP server, there are two things you need to do: Get a POP or IMAP daemon from the Ports Collection and install it on your system. Modify /etc/inetd.conf to load the POP or IMAP server. The Mail Host The mail host is the name given to a server that is responsible for delivering and receiving mail for your host, and possibly your network. Troubleshooting Here are some frequently asked questions and answers. These have been migrated from the FAQ. Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site? You will probably find that the host is actually in a different domain; for example, if you are in foo.bar.edu and you wish to reach a host called mumble in the bar.edu domain, you will have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just mumble. Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers. However the current version of BIND that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than the domain you are in. So an unqualified host mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched for in the root domain. This is different from the previous behavior, where the search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. Have a look at RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a security hole. As a good workaround, you can place the line: search foo.bar.edu bar.edu instead of the previous: domain foo.bar.edu into your /etc/resolv.conf. However, make sure that the search order does not go beyond the - “boundary between local and public administration”, + boundary between local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls it. Sendmail says mail loops back to myself This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows: -* I am getting “Local configuration error” messages, such as: +* I am getting Local configuration error messages, such as: 553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself 554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error How can I solve this problem? You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net) by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw -(if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add “Cw domain.net” +(if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add Cw domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cf. The sendmail FAQ is in /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail and is recommended reading if you want to do any - “tweaking” of your mail setup. + tweaking of your mail setup. How can I do email with a dialup PPP host? You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a lan, to the Internet. The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the lan. The PPP connection is non-dedicated. There are at least two ways to do this. The other is to use UUCP. The key is to get a Internet site to provide secondary MX service for your domain. For example: bigco.com. MX 10 bigco.com. MX 20 smalliap.com. Only one host should be specified as the final recipient (add Cw bigco.com in /etc/sendmail.cf on bigco.com). When the senders' sendmail is trying to deliver the mail it will try to connect to you over the modem link. It will most likely time out because you are not online. sendmail will automatically deliver it to the secondary MX site, i.e., your Internet provider. The secondary MX site will try every - (sendmail_flags = “-bd -q15m” in - /etc/rc.conf ) 15 minutes to connect to + (sendmail_flags = -bd -q15m in + /etc/rc.conf) 15 minutes to connect to your host to deliver the mail to the primary MX site. You might want to use something like this as a login script. #!/bin/sh # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppbigco ( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) & /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppbigco If you are going to create a separate login script for a user you could use sendmail -qRbigco.com instead in the script above. This will force all mail in your queue for bigco.com to be processed immediately. A further refinement of the situation is as follows. Message stolen from the &a.isp;. > we provide the secondary mx for a customer. The customer connects to > our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to > his primary mx (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains > arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the > moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is > gone to the primary mx. > > Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails > now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course. -In the “privacy flags” section of sendmail.cf, there is a +In the privacy flags section of sendmail.cf, there is a definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error. OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for -“hosts”, so you need to get your customer to name their mail -machine “customer.com” as well as -“hostname.customer.com” in the DNS. Just put an A record in -the DNS for “customer.com”. +hosts, so you need to get your customer to name their mail +machine customer.com as well as +hostname.customer.com in the DNS. Just put an A record in +the DNS for customer.com. Advanced Topics The following section covers more involved topics such as mail configuration and setting up mail for your entire domain. Basic Configuration Out of the box, you should be able send email to external hosts as long as you have set up /etc/resolv.conf or are running your own name server. If you would like to have mail for your host delivered to that specific host, there are two methods: Run your own name server and have your own domain. For example, FreeBSD.org Get mail delivered directly to your host. This is done by delivering mail directly to the current DNS name for your machine. For example, example.FreeBSD.org. Regardless of which of the above you choose, in order to have mail delivered directly to your host, you must have a permanent (static) IP address (no dynamic PPP dial-up). If you are behind a firewall, it must pass SMTP traffic on to you. If you want to receive mail at your host itself, you need to be sure of one of two things: Make sure that the MX record in your DNS points to your host's IP address. Make sure there is no MX entry in your DNS for your host. Either of the above will allow you to receive mail directly at your host. Try this: &prompt.root; hostname example.FreeBSD.org &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX If that is what you see, mail directly to yourlogin@example.FreeBSD.org should work without problems. If instead you see something like this: &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by hub.FreeBSD.org All mail sent to your host (example.FreeBSD.org will end up being collected on hub under the same username instead of being sent directly to your host. The above information is handled by your DNS server. The DNS record that carries mail routing information is the Mail eXchange entry. If no MX record exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by way of its IP address. The MX entry for freefall.FreeBSD.org at one time looked like this: freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.com As you can see, freefall had many MX entries. The lowest MX number is the host that ends up receiving the mail in the end while the others will queue mail temporarily if freefall is busy or down. Alternate MX sites should have separate Internet connections from your own in order to be the most useful. Your ISP or other friendly site should have no problem providing this service for you. Mail for your Domain - In order to set up a “mailhost” (a.k.a., mail + In order to set up a mailhost (a.k.a., mail server) you need to have any mail sent to various workstations - directed to it. Basically, you want to “hijack” any + directed to it. Basically, you want to hijack any mail for your domain (in this case *.FreeBSD.org) and divert it to your mail server so your users can check their mail via POP or directly on the server. To make life easiest, a user account with the same username should exist on both machines. Use adduser to do this. The mailhost you will be using must be the designated mail exchange for each workstation on the network. This is done in your DNS configuration like so: example.FreeBSD.org A 204.216.27.XX ; Workstation MX 10 hub.FreeBSD.org ; Mailhost This will redirect mail for the workstation to the mailhost no matter where the A record points. The mail is sent to the MX host. You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS server. If you are not, or cannot, run your own DNS server, talk to your ISP or whoever does your DNS for you. If you're doing virtual email hosting, the following information will come in handy. For the sake of an example, we will assume you have a customer with their own domain, in this case customer1.org and you want all the mail for customer1.org sent to your mailhost, which is named mail.myhost.com. The entry in your DNS should look like this: customer1.org MX 10 mail.myhost.com You do not need an A record if you only want to handle email for the domain. Be aware that this means pinging customer1.org will not work unless an A record exists for it. The last thing that you must do is tell sendmail on your mailhost what domains and/or hostnames it should be accepting mail for. There are a few different ways this can be done. Either of the following will work: Add the hosts to your /etc/sendmail.cw file if you are using the FEATURE(use_cw_file). If you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher, the file is /etc/mail/local-host-names. Add a Cwyour.host.com line to your /etc/sendmail.cf or /etc/mail/sendmail.cf if you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/policies/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/policies/chapter.sgml index 3835571dd6..8e3cb1d5d1 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/policies/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/policies/chapter.sgml @@ -1,398 +1,398 @@ Source Tree Guidelines and Policies Contributed by &a.phk;. This chapter documents various guidelines and policies in force for the FreeBSD source tree. <makevar>MAINTAINER</makevar> on Makefiles June 1996. If a particular portion of the FreeBSD distribution is being maintained by a person or group of persons, they can communicate this fact to the world by adding a MAINTAINER= email-addresses line to the Makefiles covering this portion of the source tree. The semantics of this are as follows: The maintainer owns and is responsible for that code. This means that he is responsible for fixing bugs and answer problem reports pertaining to that piece of the code, and in the case of contributed software, for tracking new versions, as appropriate. Changes to directories which have a maintainer defined shall be sent to the maintainer for review before being committed. Only if the maintainer does not respond for an unacceptable period of time, to several emails, will it be acceptable to commit changes without review by the maintainer. However, it is suggested that you try and have the changes reviewed by someone else if at all possible. It is of course not acceptable to add a person or group as maintainer unless they agree to assume this duty. On the other hand it doesn't have to be a committer and it can easily be a group of people. Contributed Software Contributed by &a.phk; and &a.obrien;. June 1996. Some parts of the FreeBSD distribution consist of software that is actively being maintained outside the FreeBSD project. For historical reasons, we call this contributed software. Some examples are perl, gcc and patch. Over the last couple of years, various methods have been used in dealing with this type of software and all have some number of advantages and drawbacks. No clear winner has emerged. Since this is the case, after some debate one of these methods has - been selected as the “official” method and will be required + been selected as the official method and will be required for future imports of software of this kind. Furthermore, it is strongly suggested that existing contributed software converge on this model over time, as it has significant advantages over the old method, including the ability to easily obtain diffs relative to the - “official” versions of the source by everyone (even without + official versions of the source by everyone (even without cvs access). This will make it significantly easier to return changes to the primary developers of the contributed software. Ultimately, however, it comes down to the people actually doing the work. If using this model is particularly unsuited to the package being dealt with, exceptions to these rules may be granted only with the approval of the core team and with the general consensus of the other developers. The ability to maintain the package in the future will be a key issue in the decisions. Because of some unfortunate design limitations with the RCS file format and CVS's use of vendor branches, minor, trivial and/or cosmetic changes are strongly discouraged on - files that are still tracking the vendor branch. “Spelling - fixes” are explicitly included here under the - “cosmetic” category and are to be avoided for files with + files that are still tracking the vendor branch. Spelling + fixes are explicitly included here under the + cosmetic category and are to be avoided for files with revision 1.1.x.x. The repository bloat impact from a single character change can be rather dramatic. The Tcl embedded programming language will be used as example of how this model works: src/contrib/tcl contains the source as distributed by the maintainers of this package. Parts that are entirely not applicable for FreeBSD can be removed. In the case of Tcl, the mac, win and compat subdirectories were eliminated before the import src/lib/libtcl contains only a "bmake style" Makefile that uses the standard bsd.lib.mk makefile rules to produce the library and install the documentation. src/usr.bin/tclsh contains only a bmake style Makefile which will produce and install the tclsh program and its associated man-pages using the standard bsd.prog.mk rules. src/tools/tools/tcl_bmake contains a couple of shell-scripts that can be of help when the tcl software needs updating. These are not part of the built or installed software. The important thing here is that the src/contrib/tcl directory is created according to the rules: It is supposed to contain the sources as distributed (on a proper CVS vendor-branch and without RCS keyword expansion) with as few FreeBSD-specific changes as possible. The 'easy-import' tool on freefall will assist in doing the import, but if there are any doubts on how to go about it, it is imperative that you ask first and not blunder - ahead and hope it “works out”. CVS is not forgiving of + ahead and hope it works out. CVS is not forgiving of import accidents and a fair amount of effort is required to back out major mistakes. Because of the previously mentioned design limitations with CVS's - vendor branches, it is required that “official” patches from + vendor branches, it is required that official patches from the vendor be applied to the original distributed sources and the result re-imported onto the vendor branch again. Official patches should never be patched into the FreeBSD checked out version and "committed", as this destroys the vendor branch coherency and makes importing future versions rather difficult as there will be conflicts. Since many packages contain files that are meant for compatibility with other architectures and environments that FreeBSD, it is permissible to remove parts of the distribution tree that are of no interest to FreeBSD in order to save space. Files containing copyright notices and release-note kind of information applicable to the remaining files shall not be removed. If it seems easier, the bmake Makefiles can be produced from the dist tree automatically by some utility, something which would hopefully make it even easier to upgrade to a new version. If this is done, be sure to check in such utilities (as necessary) in the src/tools directory along with the port itself so that it is available to future maintainers. In the src/contrib/tcl level directory, a file called FREEBSD-upgrade should be added and it should states things like: Which files have been left out Where the original distribution was obtained from and/or the official master site. Where to send patches back to the original authors Perhaps an overview of the FreeBSD-specific changes that have been made. However, please do not import FREEBSD-upgrade with the contributed source. Rather you should cvs add FREEBSD-upgrade ; cvs ci after the initial import. Example wording from src/contrib/cpio is below: This directory contains virgin sources of the original distribution files on a "vendor" branch. Do not, under any circumstances, attempt to upgrade the files in this directory via patches and a cvs commit. New versions or official-patch versions must be imported. Please remember to import with "-ko" to prevent CVS from corrupting any vendor RCS Ids. For the import of GNU cpio 2.4.2, the following files were removed: INSTALL cpio.info mkdir.c Makefile.in cpio.texi mkinstalldirs To upgrade to a newer version of cpio, when it is available: 1. Unpack the new version into an empty directory. [Do not make ANY changes to the files.] 2. Remove the files listed above and any others that don't apply to FreeBSD. 3. Use the command: cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU cpio v<version>' \ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_<version> For example, to do the import of version 2.4.2, I typed: cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU v2.4.2' \ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_2_4_2 4. Follow the instructions printed out in step 3 to resolve any conflicts between local FreeBSD changes and the newer version. Do not, under any circumstances, deviate from this procedure. To make local changes to cpio, simply patch and commit to the main branch (aka HEAD). Never make local changes on the GNU branch. All local changes should be submitted to "cpio@gnu.ai.mit.edu" for inclusion in the next vendor release. obrien@FreeBSD.org - 30 March 1997 Encumbered files It might occasionally be necessary to include an encumbered file in the FreeBSD source tree. For example, if a device requires a small piece of binary code to be loaded to it before the device will operate, and we do not have the source to that code, then the binary file is said to be encumbered. The following policies apply to including encumbered files in the FreeBSD source tree. Any file which is interpreted or executed by the system CPU(s) and not in source format is encumbered. Any file with a license more restrictive than BSD or GNU is encumbered. A file which contains downloadable binary data for use by the hardware is not encumbered, unless (1) or (2) apply to it. It must be stored in an architecture neutral ASCII format (file2c or uuencoding is recommended). Any encumbered file requires specific approval from the Core team before it is added to the CVS repository. Encumbered files go in src/contrib or src/sys/contrib. The entire module should be kept together. There is no point in splitting it, unless there is code-sharing with non-encumbered code. Object files are named arch/filename.o.uu>. Kernel files; Should always be referenced in conf/files.* (for build simplicity). Should always be in LINT, but the Core team decides per case if it should be commented out or not. The Core team can, of course, change their minds later on. The Release Engineer decides whether or not it goes in to the release. User-land files; The Core team decides if the code should be part of make world. The Release Engineer decides if it goes in to the release. Shared Libraries Contributed by &a.asami;, &a.peter;, and &a.obrien; 9 December 1996. If you are adding shared library support to a port or other piece of software that doesn't have one, the version numbers should follow these rules. Generally, the resulting numbers will have nothing to do with the release version of the software. The three principles of shared library building are: Start from 1.0 If there is a change that is backwards compatible, bump minor number (note that ELF systems ignore the minor number) If there is an incompatible change, bump major number For instance, added functions and bugfixes result in the minor version number being bumped, while deleted functions, changed function call syntax etc. will force the major version number to change. Stick to version numbers of the form major.minor (x.y). Our a.out dynamic linker does not handle version numbers of the form x.y.z well. Any version number after the y (ie. the third digit) is totally ignored when comparing shared lib version numbers to decide which library to link with. Given two shared - libraries that differ only in the “micro” revision, + libraries that differ only in the micro revision, ld.so will link with the higher one. Ie: if you link with libfoo.so.3.3.3, the linker only records 3.3 in the headers, and will link with anything starting with libfoo.so.3.(anything >= 3).(highest available). ld.so will always use the highest - “minor” revision. Ie: it will use + minor revision. Ie: it will use libc.so.2.2 in preference to libc.so.2.0, even if the program was initially linked with libc.so.2.0. In addition, our ELF dynamic linker does not handle minor version numbers at all. However, one should still specify a major and minor version number as our Makefiles "do the right thing" based on the type of system. For non-port libraries, it is also our policy to change the shared library version number only once between releases. In addition, it is our policy to change the major shared library version number only once between major OS releases. Ie: X.0 to (X+1).0. When you make a change to a system library that requires the version number to be bumped, check the Makefile's commit logs. It is the responsibility of the committer to ensure that the first such change since the release will result in the shared library version number in the Makefile to be updated, and any subsequent changes will not. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml index 4495528aad..0baaa3dd97 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4981 +1,4981 @@ Installing Applications: The Ports collection Rewritten by &a.jim;, 22 November 1999. Original work by various people. Synopsis The FreeBSD Ports collection allows you to compile and install a very wide range of applications with a minimum amount of effort. In general, it is a group of skeletons which contain a minimal set of items needed to make an application compile and install cleanly on FreeBSD. Even with all the hype about open standards, getting a program to compile on various UNIX platforms can be a tricky task. Occasionally, you might be lucky enough to find that the program you want compiles cleanly on your system, install everything into all the right directories, and run flawlessly - “out-of-the-box”, but this behavior is somewhat rare. + out-of-the-box, but this behavior is somewhat rare. Most of the time, you find yourself needing to make modifications in order to get the program to work. This is where the FreeBSD Ports collection comes to the rescue. The general idea behind the Ports collection is to eliminate all of the messy steps involved with making things work properly so that the installation is simple and very painless. With the Ports collection, all of the hard work has already been done for you, and you are able to install any of the Ports collection ports by simply typing make install. Using the Ports Collection The following sections provide basic instructions on using the ports collection to install or remove programs from your system. Installing Ports The first thing that should be explained when it comes to the Ports collection is what is actually meant - by a “skeleton”. In a nutshell, a port skeleton is a + by a skeleton. In a nutshell, a port skeleton is a minimal set of files that are needed for a program to compile and install cleanly on FreeBSD. Each port skeleton includes: A Makefile. The Makefile contains various statements that specify how the application should be compiled and where it should be installed on your system A files directory. The files directory contains a file named md5. This file is named after the MD5 algorithm used to determine ports checksums. A checksum is a number generated by adding up all the data in the file you want to check. If any characters change, the checksum will differ from the original and an error message will be displayed so you are able to investigate the changes. The files directory can also contain other files that are required by the port but do not belong elsewhere in the directory structure. A patches directory. This directory contains patches to make the program compile and install on your FreeBSD system. Patches are basically small files that specify changes to particular files. They are in plain text - format, and basically say “Remove line 10” or - “Change line 26 to this ...”. Patches are also - known as “diffs” because they are generated by the + format, and basically say Remove line 10 or + Change line 26 to this .... Patches are also + known as diffs because they are generated by the diff program. A pkg directory. This directory normally contains three files. Occasionally, there will be more than three, but it depends on the port. Most only require three. The files are: COMMENT. This is a one-line description of the program. DESCR. This is a more detailed, often multiple-line, description of the program. PLIST. This is a list of all the files that will be installed by the port. It also tells the ports system what files to remove upon deinstallation. Now that you have enough background information to know what the Ports collection is used for, you are ready to install your first port. There are two ways this can be done, and each is explained below. Before we get into that however, you will need to choose a port to install. There are a few ways to do this, with the easiest method being the ports listing on the FreeBSD web site. You can browse through the ports listed there or use the search function on the site. Each port also includes a description so you can read a bit about each port before deciding to install it. Another method is to use the whereis command. To use whereis, simply type - “whereis <program you want to - install>” at the prompt, and if it is found on + whereis <program you want to + install> at the prompt, and if it is found on your system, you will be told where it is, like so: &prompt.root; whereis xchat xchat: /usr/ports/irc/xchat &prompt.root; This tells us that xchat (an irc client) can be found in the /usr/ports/irc/xchat directory. Yet another way of finding a particular port is by using the Ports collection's built-in search mechanism. To use the search feature, you will need to be in the /usr/ports directory. Once in that directory, run make search key=program-name - where “program-name” is the name of the program you + where program-name is the name of the program you want to find. For example, if you were looking for xchat: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make search key=xchat Port: xchat-1.3.8 Path: /usr/ports/irc/xchat Info: An X11 IRC client using the GTK+ toolkit, and optionally, GNOME Maint: jim@FreeBSD.org Index: irc B-deps: XFree86-3.3.5 bzip2-0.9.5d gettext-0.10.35 giflib-4.1.0 glib-1.2.6 gmake-3.77 gtk-1.2.6 imlib-1.9.8 jpeg-6b png-1.0.3 tiff-3.5.1 R-deps: XFree86-3.3.5 gettext-0.10.35 giflib-4.1.0 glib-1.2.6 gtk-1.2.6 imlib-1.9.8 jpeg-6b png-1.0.3 tiff-3.5.1 The part of the output you want to pay particular attention - to is the “Path:” line, since that tells you where to + to is the Path: line, since that tells you where to find it. The other information provided is not needed in order to install the port directly, so it will not be covered here. You must be the root user to install ports. Now that you have found a port you would like to install, you are ready to do the actual installation. Installing ports from a CDROM As you may have guessed from the title, everything described in this section assumes you have a FreeBSD CDROM set. If you do not, you can order one from the FreeBSD Mall. Assuming that your FreeBSD CDROM is in the drive and is mounted on /cdrom (and the mount point must be /cdrom), you are ready to install the port. To begin, change directories to the directory where the port you want to install lives: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/irc/xchat Once inside the xchat directory, you will see the port skeleton. The next step is to compile (also called build) the port. This is done by simply typing make at the prompt. Once you have done so, you should see something like this: &prompt.root; make >> xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2 doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from file:/cdrom/ports/distfiles/. ===> Extracting for xchat-1.3.8 >> Checksum OK for xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2. ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: bzip2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: gmake - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ===> Patching for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Configuring for xchat-1.3.8 ... [configure output snipped] ... ===> Building for xchat-1.3.8 ... [compilation snipped] ... &prompt.root; Take notice that once the compile is complete you are returned to your prompt. The next step is to install the port. In order to install it, you simply need to tack one word onto the make command, and that word is install: &prompt.root; make install ===> Installing for xchat-1.3.8 ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ... [install routines snipped] ... ===> Generating temporary packing list ===> Installing xchat docs in /usr/X11R6/share/doc/xchat ===> Registering installation for xchat-1.3.8 &prompt.root; Once you are returned to your prompt, you should be able to run the application you just installed. You can save an extra step by just running make install instead of make and make install as two separate steps. Please be aware that the licenses of a few ports do not allow for inclusion on the CDROM. This could be for various reasons, including things such as as registration form needs to be filled out before downloading, if redistribution is not allowed, and so on. If you wish to install a port not included on the CDROM, you will need to be online in order to do so (see the next section). Installing ports from the Internet As with the last section, this section makes an assumption that you have a working Internet connection. If you do not, you will need to do the CDROM installation. Installing a port from the Internet is done exactly the same way as it would be if you were installing from a CDROM. The only difference between the two is that the program's source code is downloaded from the Internet instead of pulled from the CDROM. The steps involved are identical: &prompt.root; make install >> xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2 doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from http://xchat.org/files/v1.3/. Receiving xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2 (305543 bytes): 100% 305543 bytes transferred in 2.9 seconds (102.81 Kbytes/s) ===> Extracting for xchat-1.3.8 >> Checksum OK for xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2. ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: bzip2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: gmake - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ===> Patching for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Configuring for xchat-1.3.8 ... [configure output snipped] ... ===> Building for xchat-1.3.8 ... [compilation snipped] ... ===> Installing for xchat-1.3.8 ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ... [install routines snipped] ... ===> Generating temporary packing list ===> Installing xchat docs in /usr/X11R6/share/doc/xchat ===> Registering installation for xchat-1.3.8 &prompt.root; As you can see, the only difference is the line that tells you where the system is fetching the port from. That about does it for installing ports onto your system. In the section you will learn how to remove a port from your system. Removing Installed Ports Now that you know how to install ports, you are probably wondering how to remove them, just in case you install one and later on you decide that you installed the wrong port. The next few paragraphs will cover just that. Now we will remove our previous example (which was xchat for those of you not paying attention). As with installing ports, the first thing you must do is change to the port directory, which if you remember was /usr/ports/irc/xchat. After you change directories, you are ready to uninstall xchat. This is done with the make deinstall command (makes sense right?): &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/irc/xchat &prompt.root; make deinstall ===> Deinstalling for xchat-1.3.8 &prompt.root; That was easy enough. You have now managed to remove xchat from your system. If you would like to reinstall it, you can do so by running make reinstall from the /usr/ports/irc/xchat directory. Troubleshooting The following sections cover some of the more frequently asked questions about the Ports collection and some basic troubleshooting techniques, and what do to if a port is broken. Some Questions and Answers I thought this was going to be a discussion about modems??! Ah, you must be thinking of the serial ports on the back - of your computer. We are using “port” here to - mean the result of “porting” a program from one + of your computer. We are using port here to + mean the result of porting a program from one version of UNIX to another. I thought you were supposed to use packages to install extra programs? Yes, that is usually the quickest and easiest way of doing it. So why bother with ports then? Several reasons: The licensing conditions of some software distributions forbid binary distribution. They must be distributed as source code. Some people do not trust binary distributions. At least with source code, you can (in theory) read through it and look for potential problems yourself. If you have local patches, you will need the source in order to apply them. You might have opinions on how a program should be compiled that differ from the person who did the package—some people have strong views on what optimization settings should be used, whether to build debug versions and then strip them or not, and so on. Packages are normally built with quite conservative settings. If a port has a compilation option to use code for a specific processor, or a particular add-on board you can enable this yourself in the port, without the people making the package having to produce many, many different packaged versions. The most obvious exception to this rule is paper sizes. If a package can be provided with default support for different paper sizes we will often provide multiple packages, one per paper size. Some people like having code around, so they can read it if they get bored, hack it, borrow from it (license permitting, of course), and so on. If you ain't got the source, it ain't software! ;-) What is a patch? A patch is a small file that specifies how to go from one version of a file to another. It contains plain text, - and basically says things like “delete line 23”, - “add these two lines after line 468”, or - “change line 197 to this”. They are also known + and basically says things like delete line 23, + add these two lines after line 468, or + change line 197 to this. They are also known as diffs because they are generated by the diff program. What is all this about tarballs? It is a file ending in .tar, or with variations such as .tar.gz, .tar.Z, .tar.bz2, and even .tgz. Basically, it is a directory tree that has been archived into a single file (.tar) and optionally compressed (.gz). This technique was originally used for Tape ARchives (hence the name tar), but it is a widely used way of distributing program source code around the Internet. You can see what files are in them, or even extract them yourself by using the standard UNIX tar program, which comes with the base FreeBSD system, like this: &prompt.user; tar tvzf foobar.tar.gz &prompt.user; tar xzvf foobar.tar.gz &prompt.user; tar tvf foobar.tar &prompt.user; tar xvf foobar.tar And a checksum? It is a number generated by adding up all the data in the file you want to check. If any of the characters change, the checksum will no longer be equal to the total, so a simple comparison will allow you to spot the difference. I did what you said for compiling ports from a CDROM and it worked great until I tried to install the kermit port. &prompt.root; make install >> cku190.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from ftp://kermit.columbia.edu/kermit/archives/. Why can it not be found? Have I got a dud CDROM? As was explained in the compiling ports from CDROM section, some ports cannot be put on the CDROM set due to licensing restrictions. Kermit is an example of that. The licensing terms for kermit do not allow us to put the tarball for it on the CDROM, so you will have to fetch it by hand—sorry! The reason why you got all those error messages was because you were not connected to the Internet at the time. Once you have downloaded it from any of the MASTER_SITES (listed in the Makefile), you can restart the install process. I did that, but when I tried to put it into /usr/ports/distfiles I got some error about not having permission. The ports mechanism looks for the tarball in /usr/ports/distfiles, but you will not be able to copy anything there because it is symlinked to the CDROM, which is read-only. You can tell it to look somewhere else by doing: &prompt.root; make DISTDIR=/where/you/put/it install Does the ports scheme only work if you have everything in /usr/ports? My system administrator says I must put everything under /u/people/guests/wurzburger, but it does not seem to work. You can use the PORTSDIR and PREFIX variables to tell the ports mechanism to use different directories. For instance, &prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports install will compile the port in /u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports and install everything under /usr/local. &prompt.root; make PREFIX=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/local install will compile it in /usr/ports and install it in /u/people/guests/wurzburger/local. And of course, &prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=../ports PREFIX=../local install will combine the two (it is too long to write fully on the page, but it should give you the general idea). If you do not fancy typing all that in every time you install a port, it is a good idea to put these variables into your environment. Read the man page for your shell for instructions on doing so. I do not have a FreeBSD CDROM, but I would like to have all the tarballs handy on my system so I do not have to wait for a download every time I install a port. Is there any way to get them all at once? To get every single tarball for the Ports collection, do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make fetch For all the tarballs for a single ports directory, do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory &prompt.root; make fetch and for just one port—well, I think you have guessed already. I know it is probably faster to fetch the tarballs from one of the FreeBSD mirror sites close by. Is there any way to tell the port to fetch them from servers other than the ones listed in the MASTER_SITES? Yes. If you know, for example, that ftp.FreeBSD.org is much closer to you than the sites listed in MASTER_SITES, do as follows: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory &prompt.root; make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE= \ ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/ fetch I want to know what files make is going to need before it tries to pull them down. make fetch-list will display a list of the files needed for a port. Is there any way to stop the port from compiling? I want to do some hacking on the source before I install it, but it is a bit tiresome to watch it and hit control-C every time. Doing make extract will stop it after it has fetched and extracted the source code. I am trying to make my own port and I want to be able to stop it compiling until I have had a chance to see if my patches worked properly. Is there something like make extract, but for patches? Yep, make patch is what you want. You will probably find the PATCH_DEBUG option useful as well. And by the way, thank you for your efforts! I have heard that some compiler options can cause bugs. Is this true? How can I make sure that I compile ports with the right settings? Yes, with version 2.6.3 of gcc (the version shipped with FreeBSD 2.1.0 and 2.1.5), the option could result in buggy code unless you used the option as well. (Most of the ports do not use ). You should be able to specify the compiler options used by something like: &prompt.root; make CFLAGS='-O2 -fno-strength-reduce' install or by editing /etc/make.conf, but unfortunately not all ports respect this. The surest way is to do make configure, then go into the source directory and inspect the Makefiles by hand, but this can get tedious if the source has lots of sub-directories, each with their own Makefiles. The default FreeBSD compiler options are quite conservative, so if you have not changed them you should not have any problems. There are so many ports it is hard to find the one I want. Is there a list anywhere of what ports are available? Look in the INDEX file in /usr/ports. If you would like to search the ports collection for a keyword, you can do that too. For example, you can find ports relevant to the LISP programming language using: &prompt.user; cd /usr/ports &prompt.user; make search key=lisp I went to install the foo port but the system suddenly stopped compiling it and starting compiling the bar port. What is going on? The foo port needs something that is supplied with bar — for instance, if foo uses graphics, bar might have a library with useful graphics processing routines. Or bar might be a tool that is needed to compile the foo port. I installed the grizzle program from the ports and frankly it is a complete waste of disk space. I want to delete it but I do not know where it put all the files. Any clues? No problem, just do: &prompt.root; pkg_delete grizzle-6.5 Alternatively, you can do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/somewhere/grizzle &prompt.root; make deinstall Hang on a minute, you have to know the version number to use that command. You do not seriously expect me to remember that, do you?? Not at all, you can find it out by doing: &prompt.root; pkg_info -a | grep grizzle Information for grizzle-6.5: grizzle-6.5 - the combined piano tutorial, LOGO interpreter and shoot 'em up arcade game. Talking of disk space, the ports directory seems to be taking up an awful lot of room. Is it safe to go in there and delete things? Yes, if you have installed the program and are fairly certain you will not need the source again, there is no point in keeping it hanging around. The best way to do this is: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make clean which will go through all the ports subdirectories and delete everything except the skeletons for each port. I tried that and it still left all those tarballs or whatever you called them in the distfiles directory. Can I delete those as well? Yes, if you are sure you have finished with them, those can go as well. They can be removed manually, or by using make distclean. I like having lots and lots of programs to play with. Is there any way of installing all the ports in one go? Just do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make install Be careful, as some ports may install files with the same name. If you install two graphics ports and they both install /usr/local/bin/plot then you will obviously have problems. OK, I tried that, but I thought it would take a very long time so I went to bed and left it to get on with it. When I looked at the computer this morning, it had only done three and a half ports. Did something go wrong? No, the problem is that some of the ports need to ask - you questions that we cannot answer for you (eg “Do - you want to print on A4 or US letter sized paper?”) + you questions that we cannot answer for you (eg Do + you want to print on A4 or US letter sized paper?) and they need to have someone on hand to answer them. I really do not want to spend all day staring at the monitor. Any better ideas? OK, do this before you go to bed/work/the local park: &prompt.root cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make -DBATCH install This will install every port that does not require user input. Then, when you come back, do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make -DIS_INTERACTIVE install to finish the job. At work, we are using frobble, which is in your Ports collection, but we have altered it quite a bit to get it to do what we need. Is there any way of making our own packages, so we can distribute it more easily around our sites? No problem, assuming you know how to make patches for your changes: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/somewhere/frobble &prompt.root; make extract &prompt.root; cd work/frobble-2.8 [Apply your patches] &prompt.root; cd ../.. &prompt.root; make package This ports stuff is really clever. I am desperate to find out how you did it. What is the secret? Nothing secret about it at all, just look at the bsd.port.mk and bsd.port.subdir.mk files in your makefiles directory. (Readers with an aversion to intricate shell-scripts are advised not to follow this link...) Help! This port is broken! If you come across a port that doesn't work for you, there are a few things you can do, including: - Fix it! The “how to make a - port” section should help you do this. + Fix it! The how to make a + port section should help you do this. Gripe—by email only! Send email to the maintainer of the port first. Type make maintainer or read the Makefile to find the maintainter's email address. Remember to include the name and version of the port (send the $FreeBSD: line from the Makefile) and the output leading up to the error when you email the maintainer. If you do not get a response from the maintainer, you can use send-pr to submit a bug report. Forget about it. This is the easiest route—very - few ports can be classified as “essential”. There's + few ports can be classified as essential. There's also a good chance any problems will be fixed in the next version when the port is updated. Grab the package from an ftp site near you. The - “master” package collection is on master package collection is on ftp.FreeBSD.org in the packages directory, but be sure to check your local mirror first! These are more likely to work than trying to compile from source and are a lot faster as well. Use the &man.pkg.add.1; program to install the package on your system. Advanced Topics The documentation that was here has been moved to its own Porter's Handbook for ease of reference. Please go there if you wish to create and submit your own ports. Advanced Topics Making a port yourself So, now you are interested in making your own port or upgrading an existing one? Great! What follows are some guidelines for creating a new port for FreeBSD. If you want to upgrade an existing port, you should read this and then read . When this document is not sufficiently detailed, you should refer to /usr/ports/Mk/bsd.port.mk, which all port Makefiles include. Even if you do not hack Makefiles daily, it is well commented, and you will still gain much knowledge from it. Additionally, you may send specific questions to &a.ports;. Only a fraction of the variables (VAR) that can be overridden are mentioned in this document. Most (if not all) are documented at the start of bsd.port.mk. This file uses a non-standard tab setting. Emacs and Vim should recognize the setting on loading the file. Both vi and ex can be set to use the correct value by typing :set tabstop=4 once the file has been loaded. Quick Porting This section tells you how to do a quick port. In many cases, it is not enough, but we will see. First, get the original tarball and put it into DISTDIR, which defaults to /usr/ports/distfiles. The following assumes that the software compiled out-of-the-box, i.e., there was absolutely no change required for the port to work on your FreeBSD box. If you needed to change something, you will have to refer to the next section too. Writing the <filename>Makefile</filename> The minimal Makefile would look something like this: # New ports collection makefile for: oneko # Date created: 5 December 1994 # Whom: asami # # $FreeBSD$ # PORTNAME= oneko PORTVERSION= 1.1b CATEGORIES= games MASTER_SITES= ftp://ftp.cs.columbia.edu/archives/X11R5/contrib/ MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.org MAN1= oneko.1 MANCOMPRESSED= yes USE_IMAKE= yes .include <bsd.port.mk> See if you can figure it out. Do not worry about the contents of the $FreeBSD$ line, it will be filled in automatically by CVS when the port is imported to our main ports tree. You can find a more detailed example in the sample Makefile section. Writing the description files There are three description files that are required for any port, whether they actually package or not. They are COMMENT, DESCR, and PLIST, and reside in the pkg subdirectory. <filename>COMMENT</filename> This is the one-line description of the port. Please do not include the package name (or version number of the software) in the comment. The comment should begin with a capital, and end without a period. Here is an example: A cat chasing a mouse all over the screen <filename>DESCR</filename> This is a longer description of the port. One to a few paragraphs concisely explaining what the port does is sufficient. This is not a manual or an in-depth description on how to use or compile the port! Please be careful if you are copying from the README or manpage; too often they are not a concise description of the port or are in an awkward format (e.g., manpages have justified spacing). If the ported software has an official WWW homepage, you should list it here. Prefix one of the websites with WWW: so that automated tools will work correctly. It is recommended that you sign your name at the end of this file, as in: This is a port of oneko, in which a cat chases a poor mouse all over the screen. : (etc.) WWW: http://www.oneko.org/ - Satoshi asami@cs.berkeley.edu <filename>PLIST</filename> This file lists all the files installed by the port. It is - also called the “packing list” because the package is + also called the packing list because the package is generated by packing the files listed here. The pathnames are relative to the installation prefix (usually /usr/local or /usr/X11R6). If you are using the MANn variables (as you should be), do not list any manpages here. Here is a small example: bin/oneko lib/X11/app-defaults/Oneko lib/X11/oneko/cat1.xpm lib/X11/oneko/cat2.xpm lib/X11/oneko/mouse.xpm @dirrm lib/X11/oneko Refer to the &man.pkg.create.1; man page for details on the packing list. You should list all the files, but not the name directories, in the list. Also, if the port creates directories for itself during installation, make sure to add @dirrm lines as necessary to remove them when the port is deleted. It is recommended that you keep all the filenames in this file sorted alphabetically. It will make verifying the changes when you upgrade the port much easier. Creating a packing list manually can be a very tedious task. If the port installs a large numbers of files, creating the packing list automatically might save time. Creating the checksum file Just type make makesum. The ports make rules will automatically generate the file files/md5. Testing the port You should make sure that the port rules do exactly what you want them to do, including packaging up the port. These are the important points you need to verify. PLIST does not contain anything not installed by your port PLIST contains everything that is installed by your port Your port can be installed multiple times using the reinstall target Your port cleans up after itself upon deinstall Recommended test ordering make install make package make deinstall pkg_add package-name make deinstall make reinstall make package Make sure that there are not any warnings issued in any of the package and deinstall stages. After step 3, check to see if all the new directories are correctly deleted. Also, try using the software after step 4, to ensure that it works correctly when installed from a package. Checking your port with <command>portlint</command> Please use portlint to see if your port conforms to our guidelines. The portlint program is part of the ports collection. In particular, you may want to check if the Makefile is in the right shape and the package is named appropriately. Submitting the port First, make sure you have read the DOs and DON'Ts section. Now that you are happy with your port, the only thing remaining is to put it in the main FreeBSD ports tree and make everybody else happy about it too. We do not need your work directory or the pkgname.tgz package, so delete them now. Next, simply include the output of shar `find port_dir` in a bug report and send it with the &man.send-pr.1; program (see Bug Reports and General Commentary for more information about &man.send-pr.1;. If the uncompressed port is larger than 20KB, you should compress it into a tarfile and use &man.uuencode.1; before including it in the bug report (uuencoded tarfiles are acceptable even if the bug report is smaller than 20KB but are not preferred). Be sure to classify the bug report as category ports and class change-request. (Do not mark the report confidential!) One more time, do not include the original source distfile, the work directory, or the package you built with make package. In the past, we asked you to upload new port submissions in our ftp site (ftp.FreeBSD.org). This is no longer recommended as read access is turned off on that incoming/ directory of that site due to the large amount of pirated software showing up there. We will look at your port, get back to you if necessary, and put it in the tree. Your name will also appear in the list of - “Additional FreeBSD contributors” on the FreeBSD + Additional FreeBSD contributors on the FreeBSD Handbook and other files. Isn't that great?!? :-) Slow Porting Ok, so it was not that simple, and the port required some modifications to get it to work. In this section, we will explain, step by step, how to modify it to get it to work with the ports paradigm. How things work First, this is the sequence of events which occurs when the user first types make in your port's directory. You may find that having bsd.port.mk in another window while you read this really helps to understand it. But do not worry if you do not really understand what bsd.port.mk is doing, not many people do... :-> The fetch target is run. The fetch target is responsible for making sure that the tarball exists locally in DISTDIR. If fetch cannot find the required files in DISTDIR it will look up the URL MASTER_SITES, which is set in the Makefile, as well as our main ftp site at ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/, where we put sanctioned distfiles as backup. It will then attempt to fetch the named distribution file with FETCH, assuming that the requesting site has direct access to the Internet. If that succeeds, it will save the file in DISTDIR for future use and proceed. The extract target is run. It looks for your port's distribution file (typically a gzip'd tarball) in DISTDIR and unpacks it into a temporary subdirectory specified by WRKDIR (defaults to work). The patch target is run. First, any patches defined in PATCHFILES are applied. Second, if any patches are found in PATCHDIR (defaults to the patches subdirectory), they are applied at this time in alphabetical order. The configure target is run. This can do any one of many different things. If it exists, scripts/configure is run. If HAS_CONFIGURE or GNU_CONFIGURE is set, WRKSRC/configure is run. If USE_IMAKE is set, XMKMF (default: xmkmf -a) is run. The build target is run. This is responsible for descending into the port's private working directory (WRKSRC) and building it. If USE_GMAKE is set, GNU make will be used, otherwise the system make will be used. The above are the default actions. In addition, you can define targets pre-something or post-something, or put scripts with those names, in the scripts subdirectory, and they will be run before or after the default actions are done. For example, if you have a post-extract target defined in your Makefile, and a file pre-build in the scripts subdirectory, the post-extract target will be called after the regular extraction actions, and the pre-build script will be executed before the default build rules are done. It is recommended that you use Makefile targets if the actions are simple enough, because it will be easier for someone to figure out what kind of non-default action the port requires. The default actions are done by the bsd.port.mk targets do-something. For example, the commands to extract a port are in the target do-extract. If you are not happy with the default target, you can fix it by redefining the do-something target in your Makefile. - The “main” targets (e.g., + The main targets (e.g., extract, configure, etc.) do nothing more than make sure all the stages up to that one are completed and call the real targets or scripts, and they are not intended to be changed. If you want to fix the extraction, fix do-extract, but never ever touch extract! Now that you understand what goes on when the user types make, let us go through the recommended steps to create the perfect port. Getting the original sources Get the original sources (normally) as a compressed tarball (foo.tar.gz or foo.tar.Z) and copy it into DISTDIR. Always use mainstream sources when and where you can. If you cannot find a ftp/http site that is well-connected to the net, or can only find sites that have irritatingly non-standard formats, you might want to put a copy on a reliable ftp or http server that you control (e.g., your home page). Make sure you set MASTER_SITES to reflect your choice. If you cannot find somewhere convenient and reliable to put the distfile (if you are a FreeBSD committer, you can just put it in your public_html/ directory on - freefall), we can “house” it ourselves + freefall), we can house it ourselves by putting it on ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/LOCAL_PORTS/ as the last resort. Please refer to this location as MASTER_SITE_LOCAL. Send mail to the &a.ports; if you are not sure what to do. If your port's distfile changes all the time for no good reason, consider putting the distfile in your home page and listing it as the first MASTER_SITES. This will prevent users from getting checksum mismatch errors, and also reduce the workload of maintainers of our ftp site. Also, if there is only one master site for the port, it is recommended that you house a backup at your site and list it as the second MASTER_SITES. If your port requires some additional `patches' that are available on the Internet, fetch them too and put them in DISTDIR. Do not worry if they come from a site other than where you got the main source tarball, we have a way to handle these situations (see the description of PATCHFILES below). Modifying the port Unpack a copy of the tarball in a private directory and make whatever changes are necessary to get the port to compile properly under the current version of FreeBSD. Keep careful track of everything you do, as you will be automating the process shortly. Everything, including the deletion, addition or modification of files should be doable using an automated script or patch file when your port is finished. If your port requires significant user interaction/customization to compile or install, you should take a look at one of Larry Wall's classic Configure scripts and perhaps do something similar yourself. The goal of the new ports collection is - to make each port as “plug-and-play” as possible for the + to make each port as plug-and-play as possible for the end-user while using a minimum of disk space. Unless explicitly stated, patch files, scripts, and other files you have created and contributed to the FreeBSD ports collection are assumed to be covered by the standard BSD copyright conditions. Patching In the preparation of the port, files that have been added or changed can be picked up with a recursive diff for later feeding to patch. Each set of patches you wish to apply should be collected into a file named patch-xx where xx denotes the sequence in which the patches will be applied — these are done in alphabetical order, thus aa first, ab second and so on. These files should be stored in PATCHDIR, from where they will be automatically applied. All patches should be relative to WRKSRC (generally the directory your port's tarball unpacks itself into, that being where the build is done). To make fixes and upgrades easier, you should avoid having more than one patch fix the same file (e.g., patch-aa and patch-ab both changing WRKSRC/foobar.c). Configuring Include any additional customization commands to your configure script and save it in the scripts subdirectory. As mentioned above, you can also do this as Makefile targets and/or scripts with the name pre-configure or post-configure. Handling user input If your port requires user input to build, configure or install, then set IS_INTERACTIVE in your Makefile. This - will allow “overnight builds” to skip your port if the + will allow overnight builds to skip your port if the user sets the variable BATCH in his environment (and if the user sets the variable INTERACTIVE, then only those ports requiring interaction are built). It is also recommended that if there are reasonable default answers to the questions, you check the PACKAGE_BUILDING variable and turn off the interactive script when it is set. This will allow us to build the packages for CD-ROMs and ftp. Configuring the Makefile Configuring the Makefile is pretty simple, and again we suggest that you look at existing examples before starting. Also, there is a sample Makefile in this handbook, so take a look and please follow the ordering of variables and sections in that template to make your port easier for others to read. Now, consider the following problems in sequence as you design your new Makefile: The original source Does it live in DISTDIR as a standard gzip'd tarball named something like foozolix-1.2.tar.gz? If so, you can go on to the next step. If not, you should look at overriding any of the DISTNAME, EXTRACT_CMD, EXTRACT_BEFORE_ARGS, EXTRACT_AFTER_ARGS, EXTRACT_SUFX, or DISTFILES variables, depending on how alien a format your port's distribution file is. (The most common case is EXTRACT_SUFX=.tar.Z, when the tarball is condensed by regular compress, not gzip.) In the worst case, you can simply create your own do-extract target to override the default, though this should be rarely, if ever, necessary. <makevar>PORTNAME</makevar> and <makevar>PORTVERSION</makevar> You should set PORTNAME to be the base name of your port, and PORTVERSION to the version number of the port. <makevar>PKGNAMEPREFIX</makevar> and <makevar>PKGNAMESUFFIX</makevar> Two optional variables, PKGNAMEPREFIX and PKGNAMESUFFIX, are combined with PORTNAME and PORTVERSION to form PKGNAME as ${PKGNAMEPREFIX}${PORTNAME}${PKGNAMESUFFIX}-${PORTVERSION}. Make sure this conforms to our guidelines for a good package name. In particular, you are not allowed to use a hyphen (-) in PORTVERSION. Also, if the package name has the language- or the compiled.specifics part, use PKGNAMEPREFIX and PKGNAMESUFFIX, respectively. Do not make them part of PORTNAME. <makevar>DISTNAME</makevar> DISTNAME is the name of the port as called by the authors of the software. DISTNAME defaults to ${PORTNAME}-${PORTVERSION}, so override it if necessary. DISTNAME is only used in two places. First, the distribution file list (DISTFILES) defaults to ${DISTNAME}${EXTRACT_SUFX}. Second, the distribution file is expected to extract into a subdirectory named WRKSRC, which defaults to work/${DISTNAME}. Note that PKGNAMEPREFIX and PKGNAMESUFFIX do not affect DISTNAME. <makevar>CATEGORIES</makevar> When a package is created, it is put under /usr/ports/packages/All and links are made from one or more subdirectories of /usr/ports/packages. The names of these subdirectories are specified by the variable CATEGORIES. It is intended to make life easier for the user when he is wading through the pile of packages on the ftp site or the CD-ROM. Please take a look at the existing categories and pick the ones that are suitable for your port. This list also determines where in the ports tree the port is imported. If you put more than one category here, it is assumed that the port files will be put in the subdirectory with the name in the first category. See the categories section for more discussion about how to pick the right categories. If your port truly belongs to something that is different from all the existing ones, you can even create a new category name. In that case, please send mail to the &a.ports; to propose a new category. There is no error checking for category names. make package will happily create a new directory if you mistype the category name, so be careful! <makevar>MASTER_SITES</makevar> Record the directory part of the ftp/http-URL pointing at the original tarball in MASTER_SITES. Do not forget the trailing slash (/)! The make macros will try to use this specification for grabbing the distribution file with FETCH if they cannot find it already on the system. It is recommended that you put multiple sites on this list, preferably from different continents. This will safeguard against wide-area network problems, and we are even planning to add support for automatically determining the closest master site and fetching from there! If the original tarball is part of one of the following popular archives: X-contrib, GNU, Perl CPAN, TeX CTAN, or Linux Sunsite, you refer to those sites in an easy compact form using MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB, MASTER_SITE_GNU, MASTER_SITE_PERL_CPAN, MASTER_SITE_TEX_CTAN, and MASTER_SITE_SUNSITE. Simply set MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR to the path with in the archive. Here is an example: MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications The user can also set the MASTER_SITE_* variables in /etc/make.conf to override our choices, and use their favorite mirrors of these popular archives instead. <makevar>PATCHFILES</makevar> If your port requires some additional patches that are available by ftp or http, set PATCHFILES to the names of the files and PATCH_SITES to the URL of the directory that contains them (the format is the same as MASTER_SITES). If the patch is not relative to the top of the source tree (i.e., WRKSRC) because it contains some extra pathnames, set PATCH_DIST_STRIP accordingly. For instance, if all the pathnames in the patch have an extra foozolix-1.0/ in front of the filenames, then set PATCH_DIST_STRIP=-p1. Do not worry if the patches are compressed, they will be decompressed automatically if the filenames end with .gz or .Z. If the patch is distributed with some other files, such as documentation, in a gzip'd tarball, you cannot just use PATCHFILES. If that is the case, add the name and the location of the patch tarball to DISTFILES and MASTER_SITES. Then, from the pre-patch target, apply the patch either by running the patch command from there, or copying the patch file into the PATCHDIR directory and calling it patch-xx. Note the tarball will have been extracted alongside the regular source by then, so there is no need to explicitly extract it if it is a regular gzip'd or compress'd tarball. If you do the latter, take extra care not to overwrite something that already exists in that directory. Also do not forget to add a command to remove the copied patch in the pre-clean target. <makevar>MAINTAINER</makevar> Set your mail-address here. Please. :-) For detailed description of the responsibility of maintainers, refer to MAINTAINER on Makefiles section. Dependencies Many ports depend on other ports. There are five variables that you can use to ensure that all the required bits will be on the user's machine. There are also some pre-supported dependency variables for common cases, plus a few more to control the behaviour of dependencies. <makevar>LIB_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies the shared libraries this port depends on. It is a list of lib:dir:target tuples where lib is the name of the shared library, and dir is the directory in which to find it in case it is not available, and target is the target to call in that directory. For example, LIB_DEPENDS= jpeg.9:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/jpeg:install will check for a shared jpeg library with major version 9, and descend into the graphics/jpeg subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. The target part can be omitted if it is equal to DEPENDS_TARGET (which defaults to install). The lib part is an argument given to ldconfig -r | grep -wF. There shall be no regular expressions in this variable. The dependency is checked twice, once from within the extract target and then from within the install target. Also, the name of the dependency is put in to the package so that pkg_add will automatically install it if it is not on the user's system. <makevar>RUN_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies executables or files this port depends on during run-time. It is a list of path:dir:target tuples where path is the name of the executable or file, and dir is the directory in which to find it in case it is not available, and target is the target to call in that directory. If path starts with a slash (/), it is treated as a file and its existence is tested with test -e; otherwise, it is assumed to be an executable, and which -s is used to determine if the program exists in the user's search path. For example, RUN_DEPENDS= ${PREFIX}/etc/innd:${PORTSDIR}/news/inn \ wish8.0:${PORTSDIR}/x11-toolkits/tk80 will check if the file or directory /usr/local/etc/innd exists, and build and install it from the news/inn subdirectory of the ports tree if it is not found. It will also see if an executable called wish8.0 is in your search path, and descend into the x11-toolkits/tk80 subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. In this case, innd is actually an executable; if an executable is in a place that is not expected to be in a normal user's search path, you should use the full pathname. The dependency is checked from within the install target. Also, the name of the dependency is put in to the package so that pkg_add will automatically install it if it is not on the user's system. The target part can be omitted if it is the same DEPENDS_TARGET. <makevar>BUILD_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies executables or files this port requires to build. Like RUN_DEPENDS, it is a list of path:dir:target tuples. For example, BUILD_DEPENDS= unzip:${PORTSDIR}/archivers/unzip will check for an executable called unzip, and descend into the archivers/unzip subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. - “build” here means everything from extracting to + build here means everything from extracting to compilation. The dependency is checked from within the extract target. The target part can be omitted if it is the same as DEPENDS_TARGET <makevar>FETCH_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies executables or files this port requires to fetch. Like the previous two, it is a list of path:dir:target tuples. For example, FETCH_DEPENDS= ncftp2:${PORTSDIR}/net/ncftp2 will check for an executable called ncftp2, and descend into the net/ncftp2 subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. The dependency is checked from within the fetch target. The target part can be omitted if it is the same as DEPENDS_TARGET. <makevar>DEPENDS</makevar> If there is a dependency that does not fall into either of the above four categories, or your port requires having the source of the other port extracted in addition to having it installed, then use this variable. This is a list of dir:target, as there is nothing to check, unlike the previous four. The target part can be omitted if it is the same as DEPENDS_TARGET. Common dependency variables Define USE_XLIB=yes if your port requires the X Window System to be installed (it is implied by USE_IMAKE). Define USE_GMAKE=yes if your port requires GNU make instead of BSD make. Define USE_AUTOCONF=yes if your port requires GNU autoconf to be run. Define USE_QT=yes if your port uses the latest qt toolkit. Use USE_PERL5=yes if your port requires version 5 of the perl language. (The last is especially important since some versions of FreeBSD have perl5 as part of the base system while others do not.) Notes on dependencies As mentioned above, the default target to call when a dependency is required is DEPENDS_TARGET. It defaults to install. This is a user variable; it is never defined in a port's Makefile. If your port needs a special way to handle a dependency, use the :target part of the *_DEPENDS variables instead of redefining DEPENDS_TARGET. When you type make clean, its dependencies are automatically cleaned too. If you do not wish this to happen, define the variable NOCLEANDEPENDS in your environment. To depend on another port unconditionally, it is customary to use the string nonexistent as the first field of BUILD_DEPENDS or RUN_DEPENDS. Use this only when you need to the to get to the source of the other port. You can often save compilation time by specifying the target too. For instance BUILD_DEPENDS= /nonexistent:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/jpeg:extract will always descend to the JPEG port and extract it. Do not use DEPENDS unless there is no other way the behaviour you want can be accomplished. It will cause the other port to be always build (and installed, by default), and the dependency will go into the packages as well. If this is really what you need, I recommend you write it as BUILD_DEPENDS and RUN_DEPENDS instead—at least the intention will be clear. Building mechanisms If your package uses GNU make, set USE_GMAKE=yes. If your package uses configure, set HAS_CONFIGURE=yes. If your package uses GNU configure, set GNU_CONFIGURE=yes (this implies HAS_CONFIGURE). If you want to give some extra arguments to configure (the default argument list --prefix=${PREFIX} for GNU configure and empty for non-GNU configure), set those extra arguments in CONFIGURE_ARGS. If your package uses GNU autoconf, set USE_AUTOCONF=yes. This implies GNU_CONFIGURE, and will cause autoconf to be run before configure. If your package is an X application that creates Makefiles from Imakefiles using imake, then set USE_IMAKE=yes. This will cause the configure stage to automatically do an xmkmf -a. If the flag is a problem for your port, set XMKMF=xmkmf. If the port uses imake but does not understand the install.man target, NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES=yes should be set. In addition, the author of the original port should be shot. :-> If your port's source Makefile has something else than all as the main build target, set ALL_TARGET accordingly. Same goes for install and INSTALL_TARGET. Special considerations There are some more things you have to take into account when you create a port. This section explains the most common of those. <command>ldconfig</command> If your port installs a shared library, add a post-install target to your Makefile that runs ${LDCONFIG} -m on the directory where the new library is installed (usually PREFIX/lib) to register it into the shared library cache. Also, add a matching @exec /sbin/ldconfig -m and @unexec /sbin/ldconfig -R pair to your pkg/PLIST file so that a user who installed the package can start using the shared library immediately and deinstallation will not cause the system to still believe the library is there. These lines should immediately follow the line for the shared library itself, as in: lib/libtvl80.so.1 @exec /sbin/ldconfig -m %D/lib @unexec /sbin/ldconfig -R Never, ever, ever add a line that says ldconfig without any arguments to your Makefile or pkg/PLIST. This will reset the shared library cache to the contents of /usr/lib only, and will royally screw up the user's machine ("Help, xinit does not run anymore after I install this port!"). Anybody who does this will be shot and cut in 65,536 pieces by a rusty knife and have his liver chopped out by a bunch of crows and will eternally rot to death in the deepest bowels of hell (not necessarily in that order…) <makevar>MASTERDIR</makevar> If your port needs to build slightly different versions of packages by having a variable (for instance, resolution, or paper size) take different values, create one subdirectory per package to make it easier for users to see what to do, but try to share as many files as possible between ports. Typically you only need a very short Makefile in all but one of the directories if you use variables cleverly. In the sole Makefiles, you can use MASTERDIR to specify the directory where the rest of the files are. Also, use a variable as part of PKGNAMESUFFIX so the packages will have different names. This will be best demonstrated by an example. This is part of japanese/xdvi300/Makefile; PORTNAME= xdvi PORTVERSION= 17 PKGNAMEPREFIX= ja- PKGNAMESUFFIX= ${RESOLUTION} : # default RESOLUTION?= 300 .if ${RESOLUTION} != 118 && ${RESOLUTION} != 240 && \ ${RESOLUTION} != 300 && ${RESOLUTION} != 400 @${ECHO} "Error: invalid value for RESOLUTION: \"${RESOLUTION}\"" @${ECHO} "Possible values are: 118, 240, 300 (default) and 400." @${FALSE} .endif japanese/xdvi300 also has all the regular patches, package files, etc. If you type make there, it will take the default value for the resolution (300) and build the port normally. As for other resolutions, this is the entire xdvi118/Makefile: RESOLUTION= 118 MASTERDIR= ${.CURDIR}/../xdvi300 .include ${MASTERDIR}/Makefile (xdvi240/Makefile and xdvi400/Makefile are similar). The MASTERDIR definition tells bsd.port.mk that the regular set of subdirectories like PATCHDIR and PKGDIR are to be found under xdvi300. The RESOLUTION=118 line will override the RESOLUTION=300 line in xdvi300/Makefile and the port will be built with resolution set to 118. Shared library versions Please read our policy on shared library versioning to understand what to do with shared library versions in general. Do not blindly assume software authors know what they are doing; many of them do not. It is very important that these details are carefully considered, as we have quite a unique situation where we are trying to have dozens of potentially incompatible software pairs co-exist. Careless port imports have caused great trouble regarding shared libraries in the past (ever wondered why the port jpeg-6b has a shared library version of 9?). If in doubt, send a message to the &a.ports;. Most of the time, your job ends by determining the right shared library version and making appropriate patches to implement it. Manpages The MAN[1-9LN] variables will automatically add any manpages to pkg/PLIST (this means you must not list manpages in the PLIST—see generating PLIST for more). It also makes the install stage automatically compress or uncompress manpages depending on the setting of NOMANCOMPRESS in /etc/make.conf. If your port tries to install multiple names for manpages using symlinks or hardlinks, you must use the MLINKS variable to identify these. The link installed by your port will be destroyed and recreated by bsd.port.mk to make sure it points to the correct file. Any manpages listed in MLINKS must not be listed in the PLIST. To specify whether the manpages are compressed upon installation, use the MANCOMPRESSED variable. This variable can take three values, yes, no and maybe. yes means manpages are already installed compressed, no means they are not, and maybe means the software already respects the value of NOMANCOMPRESS so bsd.port.mk does not have to do anything special. MANCOMPRESSED is automatically set to yes if USE_IMAKE is set and NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES is not set, and to no otherwise. You do not have to explicitly define it unless the default is not suitable for your port. If your port anchors its man tree somewhere other than PREFIX, you can use the MANPREFIX to set it. Also, if only manpages in certain sections go in a non-standard place, such as some Perl modules ports, you can set individual man paths using MANsectPREFIX (where sect is one of 1-9, L or N). If your manpages go to language-specific subdirectories, set the name of the languages to MANLANG. The value of this variable defaults to "" (i.e., English only). Here is an example that puts it all together. MAN1= foo.1 MAN3= bar.3 MAN4= baz.4 MLINKS= foo.1 alt-name.8 MANLANG= "" ja MAN3PREFIX= ${PREFIX}/share/foobar MANCOMPRESSED= yes This states that six files are installed by this port; ${PREFIX}/man/man1/foo.1.gz ${PREFIX}/man/ja/man1/foo.1.gz ${PREFIX}/share/foobar/man/man3/bar.3.gz ${PREFIX}/share/foobar/man/ja/man3/bar.3.gz ${PREFIX}/man/man4/baz.4.gz ${PREFIX}/man/ja/man4/baz.4.gz Additionally ${PREFIX}/man/man8/alt-name.8.gz may or may not be installed by your port. Regardless, a symlink will be made to join the foo(1) manpage and alt-name(8) manpage. Ports that require Motif There are many programs that require a Motif library (available from several commercial vendors, while there is a free clone reported to be able to run many applications in x11-toolkits/lesstif) to compile. Since it is a popular toolkit and their licenses usually permit redistribution of statically linked binaries, we have made special provisions for handling ports that require Motif in a way that we can easily compile binaries linked either dynamically (for people who are compiling from the port) or statically (for people who distribute packages). <makevar>REQUIRES_MOTIF</makevar> If your port requires Motif, define this variable in the Makefile. This will prevent people who do not own a copy of Motif from even attempting to build it. <makevar>MOTIFLIB</makevar> This variable will be set by bsd.port.mk to be the appropriate reference to the Motif library. Please patch the source to use this wherever the Motif library is referenced in the Makefile or Imakefile. There are two common cases: If the port refers to the Motif library as -lXm in its Makefile or Imakefile, simply substitute ${MOTIFLIB} for it. If the port uses XmClientLibs in its Imakefile, change it to ${MOTIFLIB} ${XTOOLLIB} ${XLIB}. Note that MOTIFLIB (usually) expands to -L/usr/X11R6/lib -lXm or /usr/X11R6/lib/libXm.a, so there is no need to add -L or -l in front. X11 fonts If your port installs fonts for the X Window system, put them in X11BASE/lib/X11/fonts/local. This directory is new to XFree86 release 3.3.3. If it does not exist, please create it, and print out a message urging the user to update their XFree86 to 3.3.3 or newer, or at least add this directory to the font path in /etc/XF86Config. Info files The new version of texinfo (included in 2.2.2-RELEASE and onwards) contains a utility called install-info to add and delete entries to the dir file. If your port installs any info documents, please follow these instructions so your port/package will correctly update the user's PREFIX/info/dir file. (Sorry for the length of this section, but is it imperative to weave all the info files together. If done correctly, it will produce a beautiful listing, so please bear with me! First, this is what you (as a porter) need to know &prompt.user; install-info --help install-info [OPTION]... [INFO-FILE [DIR-FILE]] Install INFO-FILE in the Info directory file DIR-FILE. Options: --delete Delete existing entries in INFO-FILE; don't insert any new entries. : --entry=TEXT Insert TEXT as an Info directory entry. : --section=SEC Put this file's entries in section SEC of the directory. : This program will not actually install info files; it merely inserts or deletes entries in the dir file. Here's a seven-step procedure to convert ports to use install-info. I will use editors/emacs as an example. Look at the texinfo sources and make a patch to insert @dircategory and @direntry statements to files that do not have them. This is part of my patch: --- ./man/vip.texi.org Fri Jun 16 15:31:11 1995 +++ ./man/vip.texi Tue May 20 01:28:33 1997 @@ -2,6 +2,10 @@ @setfilename ../info/vip @settitle VIP +@dircategory The Emacs editor and associated tools +@direntry +* VIP: (vip). A VI-emulation for Emacs. +@end direntry @iftex @finalout : The format should be self-explanatory. Many authors leave a dir file in the source tree that contains all the entries you need, so look around before you try to write your own. Also, make sure you look into related ports and make the section names and entry indentations consistent (we recommend that all entry text start at the 4th tab stop). Note that you can put only one info entry per file because of a bug in install-info --delete that deletes only the first entry if you specify multiple entries in the @direntry section. You can give the dir entries to install-info as arguments ( and ) instead of patching the texinfo sources. I do not think this is a good idea for ports because you need to duplicate the same information in three places (Makefile and @exec/@unexec of PLIST; see below). However, if you have a Japanese (or other multibyte encoding) info files, you will have to use the extra arguments to install-info because makeinfo cannot handle those texinfo sources. (See Makefile and PLIST of japanese/skk for examples on how to do this). Go back to the port directory and do a make clean; make and verify that the info files are regenerated from the texinfo sources. Since the texinfo sources are newer than the info files, they should be rebuilt when you type make; but many Makefiles do not include correct dependencies for info files. In emacs' case, I had to patch the main Makefile.in so it will descend into the man subdirectory to rebuild the info pages. --- ./Makefile.in.org Mon Aug 19 21:12:19 1996 +++ ./Makefile.in Tue Apr 15 00:15:28 1997 @@ -184,7 +184,7 @@ # Subdirectories to make recursively. `lisp' is not included # because the compiled lisp files are part of the distribution # and you cannot remake them without installing Emacs first. -SUBDIR = lib-src src +SUBDIR = lib-src src man # The makefiles of the directories in $SUBDIR. SUBDIR_MAKEFILES = lib-src/Makefile man/Makefile src/Makefile oldXMenu/Makefile lwlib/Makefile --- ./man/Makefile.in.org Thu Jun 27 15:27:19 1996 +++ ./man/Makefile.in Tue Apr 15 00:29:52 1997 @@ -66,6 +66,7 @@ ${srcdir}/gnu1.texi \ ${srcdir}/glossary.texi +all: info info: $(INFO_TARGETS) dvi: $(DVI_TARGETS) The second hunk was necessary because the default target in the man subdir is called info, while the main Makefile wants to call all. I also deleted the installation of the info info file because we already have one with the same name in /usr/share/info (that patch is not shown here). If there is a place in the Makefile that is installing the dir file, delete it. Your port may not be doing it. Also, remove any commands that are otherwise mucking around with the dir file. --- ./Makefile.in.org Mon Aug 19 21:12:19 1996 +++ ./Makefile.in Mon Apr 14 23:38:07 1997 @@ -368,14 +368,8 @@ if [ `(cd ${srcdir}/info && /bin/pwd)` != `(cd ${infodir} && /bin/pwd)` ]; \ then \ (cd ${infodir}; \ - if [ -f dir ]; then \ - if [ ! -f dir.old ]; then mv -f dir dir.old; \ - else mv -f dir dir.bak; fi; \ - fi; \ cd ${srcdir}/info ; \ - (cd $${thisdir}; ${INSTALL_DATA} ${srcdir}/info/dir ${infodir}/dir); \ - (cd $${thisdir}; chmod a+r ${infodir}/dir); \ for f in ccmode* cl* dired-x* ediff* emacs* forms* gnus* info* message* mh-e* sc* vip*; do \ (cd $${thisdir}; \ ${INSTALL_DATA} ${srcdir}/info/$$f ${infodir}/$$f; \ chmod a+r ${infodir}/$$f); \ (This step is only necessary if you are modifying an existing port.) Take a look at pkg/PLIST and delete anything that is trying to patch up info/dir. They may be in pkg/INSTALL or some other file, so search extensively. Index: pkg/PLIST =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/pkg/PLIST,v retrieving revision 1.15 diff -u -r1.15 PLIST --- PLIST 1997/03/04 08:04:00 1.15 +++ PLIST 1997/04/15 06:32:12 @@ -15,9 +15,6 @@ man/man1/emacs.1.gz man/man1/etags.1.gz man/man1/ctags.1.gz -@unexec cp %D/info/dir %D/info/dir.bak -info/dir -@unexec cp %D/info/dir.bak %D/info/dir info/cl info/cl-1 info/cl-2 Add a post-install target to the Makefile to call install-info with the installed info files. (It is no longer necessary to create the dir file yourself; install-info automatically creates this file if it does not exist.) Index: Makefile =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/Makefile,v retrieving revision 1.26 diff -u -r1.26 Makefile --- Makefile 1996/11/19 13:14:40 1.26 +++ Makefile 1997/05/20 10:25:09 1.28 @@ -20,5 +20,8 @@ post-install: .for file in emacs-19.34 emacsclient etags ctags b2m strip ${PREFIX}/bin/${file} .endfor +.for info in emacs vip viper forms gnus mh-e cl sc dired-x ediff ccmode + install-info ${PREFIX}/info/${info} ${PREFIX}/info/dir +.endfor .include <bsd.port.mk> Edit PLIST and add equivalent @exec statements and also @unexec for pkg_delete. Index: pkg/PLIST =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/pkg/PLIST,v retrieving revision 1.15 diff -u -r1.15 PLIST --- PLIST 1997/03/04 08:04:00 1.15 +++ PLIST 1997/05/20 10:25:12 1.17 @@ -16,7 +14,14 @@ man/man1/etags.1.gz man/man1/ctags.1.gz +@unexec install-info --delete %D/info/emacs %D/info/dir : +@unexec install-info --delete %D/info/ccmode %D/info/dir info/cl info/cl-1 @@ -87,6 +94,18 @@ info/viper-3 info/viper-4 +@exec install-info %D/info/emacs %D/info/dir : +@exec install-info %D/info/ccmode %D/info/dir libexec/emacs/19.34/i386--freebsd/cvtmail libexec/emacs/19.34/i386--freebsd/digest-doc The @unexec install-info --delete commands have to be listed before the info files themselves so they can read the files. Also, the @exec install-info commands have to be after the info files and the @exec command that creates the the dir file. Test and admire your work. :-). Check the dir file before and after each step. The <filename>pkg/</filename> subdirectory There are some tricks we have not mentioned yet about the pkg/ subdirectory that come in handy sometimes. <filename>MESSAGE</filename> If you need to display a message to the installer, you may place the message in pkg/MESSAGE. This capability is often useful to display additional installation steps to be taken after a pkg_add or to display licensing information. The pkg/MESSAGE file does not need to be added to pkg/PLIST. Also, it will not get automatically printed if the user is using the port, not the package, so you should probably display it from the post-install target yourself. <filename>INSTALL</filename> If your port needs to execute commands when the binary package is installed with pkg_add you can do this via the pkg/INSTALL script. This script will automatically be added to the package, and will be run twice by pkg_add. The first time will as INSTALL ${PKGNAME} PRE-INSTALL and the second time as INSTALL ${PKGNAME} POST-INSTALL. $2 can be tested to determine which mode the script is being run in. The PKG_PREFIX environmental variable will be set to the package installation directory. See &man.pkg.add.1; for additional information. This script is not run automatically if you install the port with make install. If you are depending on it being run, you will have to explicitly call it from your port's Makefile. <filename>REQ</filename> If your port needs to determine if it should install or not, you - can create a pkg/REQ “requirements” + can create a pkg/REQ requirements script. It will be invoked automatically at installation/deinstallation time to determine whether or not installation/deinstallation should proceed. Changing <filename>PLIST</filename> based on make variables Some ports, particularly the p5- ports, need to change their PLIST depending on what options they are configured with (or version of perl, in the case of p5- ports). To make this easy, any instances in the PLIST of %%OSREL%%, %%PERL_VER%%, and %%PERL_VERSION%% will be substituted for appropriately. The value of %%OSREL%% is the numeric revision of the operating system (e.g., 2.2.7). %%PERL_VERSION%% is the full version number of perl (e.g., 5.00502) and %%PERL_VER%% is the perl version number minus the patchlevel (e.g., 5.005). If you need to make other substitutions, you can set the PLIST_SUB variable with a list of VAR=VALUE pairs and instances of %%VAR%%' will be substituted with VALUE in the PLIST. For instance, if you have a port that installs many files in a version-specific subdirectory, you can put something like OCTAVE_VERSION= 2.0.13 PLIST_SUB= OCTAVE_VERSION=${OCTAVE_VERSION} in the Makefile and use %%OCTAVE_VERSION%% wherever the version shows up in PLIST. That way, when you upgrade the port, you will not have to change dozens (or in some cases, hundreds) of lines in the PLIST. This substitution (as well as addition of any man pages) will be done between the do-install and post-install targets, by reading from PLIST and writing to TMPPLIST (default: WRKDIR/.PLIST.mktmp). So if your port builds PLIST on the fly, do so in or before do-install. Also, if your port needs to edit the resulting file, do so in post-install to a file named TMPPLIST. Changing the names of files in the <filename>pkg</filename> subdirectory All the filenames in the pkg subdirectory are defined using variables so you can change them in your Makefile if need be. This is especially useful when you are sharing the same pkg subdirectory among several ports or have to write to one of the above files (see writing to places other than WRKDIR for why it is a bad idea to write directly in to the pkg subdirectory). Here is a list of variable names and their default values. Variable Default value COMMENT ${PKGDIR}/DESCR DESCR ${PKGDIR}/DESCR PLIST ${PKGDIR}/PLIST PKGINSTALL ${PKGDIR}/INSTALL PKGDEINSTALL ${PKGDIR}/DEINSTALL PKGREQ ${PKGDIR}/REQ PKGMESSAGE ${PKGDIR}/MESSAGE Please change these variables rather than overriding PKG_ARGS. If you change PKG_ARGS, those files will not correctly be installed in /var/db/pkg upon install from a port. Licensing Problems Some software packages have restrictive licenses or can be in violation to the law (PKP's patent on public key crypto, ITAR (export of crypto software) to name just two of them). What we can do with them varies a lot, depending on the exact wordings of the respective licenses. It is your responsibility as a porter to read the licensing terms of the software and make sure that the FreeBSD project will not be held accountable of violating them by redistributing the source or compiled binaries either via ftp or CD-ROM. If in doubt, please contact the &a.ports;. There are two variables you can set in the Makefile to handle the situations that arise frequently: - If the port has a “do not sell for profit” type of + If the port has a do not sell for profit type of license, set the variable NO_CDROM to a string describing the reason why. We will make sure such ports will not go into the CD-ROM come release time. The distfile and package will still be available via ftp. If the resulting package needs to be built uniquely for each site, or the resulting binary package cannot be distributed due to licensing; set the variable NO_PACKAGE to a string describing the reason why. We will make sure such packages will not go on the ftp site, nor into the CD-ROM come release time. The distfile will still be included on both however. If the port has legal restrictions on who can use it (e.g., - crypto stuff) or has a “no commercial use” license, + crypto stuff) or has a no commercial use license, set the variable RESTRICTED to be the string describing the reason why. For such ports, the distfiles/packages will not be available even from our ftp sites. The GNU General Public License (GPL), both version 1 and 2, should not be a problem for ports. If you are a committer, make sure you update the ports/LEGAL file too. Upgrading When you notice that a port is out of date compared to the latest version from the original authors, first make sure you have the latest port. You can find them in the ports/ports-current directory of the ftp mirror sites. You may also use CVSup to keep your whole ports collection up-to-date, as described in . The next step is to send a mail to the maintainer, if one is listed in the port's Makefile. That person may already be working on an upgrade, or have a reason to not upgrade the port right now (because of, for example, stability problems of the new version). If the maintainer asks you to do the upgrade or there is not any such person to begin with, please make the upgrade and send the recursive diff (either unified or context diff is fine, but port committers appear to prefer unified diff more) of the new and old ports directories to us (e.g., if your modified port directory is called superedit and the original as in our tree is superedit.bak, then send us the result of diff -ruN superedit.bak superedit). Please examine the output to make sure all the changes make sense. The best way to send us the diff is by including it to &man.send-pr.1; (category ports). Please mention any added or deleted files in the message, as they have to be explicitly specified to CVS when doing a commit. If the diff is more than about 20KB, please compress and uuencode it; otherwise, just include it in as is in the PR. Once again, please use &man.diff.1; and not &man.shar.1; to send updates to existing ports! <anchor id="porting-dads">Dos and Don'ts Here is a list of common dos and don'ts that you encounter during the porting process.You should check your own port against this list, but you can also check ports in the PR database that others have submitted. Submit any comments on ports you check as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Checking ports in the PR database will both make it faster for us to commit them, and prove that you know what you are doing. Strip Binaries Do strip binaries. If the original source already strips the binaries, fine; otherwise you should add a post-install rule to to it yourself. Here is an example; post-install: strip ${PREFIX}/bin/xdl Use the &man.file.1; command on the installed executable to check whether the binary is stripped or not. If it does not say not stripped, it is stripped. INSTALL_* macros Do use the macros provided in bsd.port.mk to ensure correct modes and ownership of files in your own *-install targets. They are: INSTALL_PROGRAM is a command to install binary executables. INSTALL_SCRIPT is a command to install executable scripts. INSTALL_DATA is a command to install sharable data. INSTALL_MAN is a command to install manpages and other documentation (it does not compress anything). These are basically the install command with all the appropriate flags. See below for an example on how to use them. <makevar>WRKDIR</makevar> Do not write anything to files outside WRKDIR. WRKDIR is the only place that is guaranteed to be writable during the port build (see compiling ports from CDROM for an example of building ports from a read-only tree). If you need to modify some file in PKGDIR, do so by redefining a variable, not by writing over it. <makevar>WRKDIRPREFIX</makevar> Make sure your port honors WRKDIRPREFIX. Most ports do not have to worry about this. In particular, if you are referring to a WRKDIR of another port, note that the correct location is WRKDIRPREFIXPORTSDIR/subdir/name/work not PORTSDIR/subdir/name/work or .CURDIR/../../subdir/name/work or some such. Also, if you are defining WRKDIR yourself, make sure you prepend ${WRKDIRPREFIX}${.CURDIR} in the front. Differentiating operating systems and OS versions You may come across code that needs modifications or conditional compilation based upon what version of UNIX it is running under. If you need to make such changes to the code for conditional compilation, make sure you make the changes as general as possible so that we can back-port code to FreeBSD 1.x systems and cross-port to other BSD systems such as 4.4BSD from CSRG, BSD/386, 386BSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. The preferred way to tell 4.3BSD/Reno (1990) and newer versions of the BSD code apart is by using the BSD macro defined in <sys/param.h>. Hopefully that file is already included; if not, add the code: #if (defined(__unix__) || defined(unix)) && !defined(USG) #include <sys/param.h> #endif to the proper place in the .c file. We believe that every system that defines these two symbols has sys/param.h. If you find a system that does not, we would like to know. Please send mail to the &a.ports;. Another way is to use the GNU Autoconf style of doing this: #ifdef HAVE_SYS_PARAM_H #include <sys/param.h> #endif Do not forget to add -DHAVE_SYS_PARAM_H to the CFLAGS in the Makefile for this method. Once you have sys/param.h included, you may use: #if (defined(BSD) && (BSD >= 199103)) to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.3 Net2 code base or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 1.x, 4.3/Reno, NetBSD 0.9, 386BSD, BSD/386 1.1 and below). Use: #if (defined(BSD) && (BSD >= 199306)) to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.4 code base or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 2.x, 4.4, NetBSD 1.0, BSD/386 2.0 or above). The value of the BSD macro is 199506 for the 4.4BSD-Lite2 code base. This is stated for informational purposes only. It should not be used to distinguish between versions of FreeBSD based only on 4.4-Lite vs. versions that have merged in changes from 4.4-Lite2. The __FreeBSD__ macro should be used instead. Use sparingly: __FreeBSD__ is defined in all versions of FreeBSD. Use it if the change you are making only affects FreeBSD. Porting gotchas like the use of sys_errlist[] vs strerror() are Berkeleyisms, not FreeBSD changes. In FreeBSD 2.x, __FreeBSD__ is defined to be 2. In earlier versions, it is 1. Later versions will bump it to match their major version number. If you need to tell the difference between a FreeBSD 1.x system and a FreeBSD 2.x or 3.x system, usually the right answer is to use the BSD macros described above. If there actually is a FreeBSD specific change (such as special shared library options when using ld) then it is OK to use __FreeBSD__ and #if __FreeBSD__ > 1 to detect a FreeBSD 2.x and later system. If you need more granularity in detecting FreeBSD systems since 2.0-RELEASE you can use the following: #if __FreeBSD__ >= 2 #include <osreldate.h> # if __FreeBSD_version >= 199504 /* 2.0.5+ release specific code here */ # endif #endif Release __FreeBSD_version 2.0-RELEASE 119411 2.1-CURRENT 199501, 199503 2.0.5-RELEASE 199504 2.2-CURRENT before 2.1 199508 2.1.0-RELEASE 199511 2.2-CURRENT before 2.1.5 199512 2.1.5-RELEASE 199607 2.2-CURRENT before 2.1.6 199608 2.1.6-RELEASE 199612 2.1.7-RELEASE 199612 2.2-RELEASE 220000 2.2.1-RELEASE 220000 (no change) 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.1-RELEASE 220000 (no change) 2.2-STABLE after texinfo-3.9 221001 2.2-STABLE after top 221002 2.2.2-RELEASE 222000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.2-RELEASE 222001 2.2.5-RELEASE 225000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.5-RELEASE 225001 2.2-STABLE after ldconfig -R merge 225002 2.2.6-RELEASE 226000 2.2.7-RELEASE 227000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.7-RELEASE 227001 2.2-STABLE after semctl(2) change 227002 2.2.8-RELEASE 228000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.8-RELEASE 228001 3.0-CURRENT before mount(2) change 300000 3.0-CURRENT after mount(2) change 300001 3.0-CURRENT after semctl(2) change 300002 3.0-CURRENT after ioctl arg changes 300003 3.0-CURRENT after ELF conversion 300004 3.0-RELEASE 300005 3.0-CURRENT after 3.0-RELEASE 300006 3.0-STABLE after 3/4 branch 300007 3.1-RELEASE 310000 3.1-STABLE after 3.1-RELEASE 310001 3.1-STABLE after C++ constructor/destructor order change 310002 3.2-RELEASE 320000 3.2-STABLE 320001 3.2-STABLE after binary-incompatible IPFW and socket changes 320002 3.3-RELEASE 330000 3.3-STABLE 330001 3.3-STABLE after adding mkstemps() to libc 330002 3.4-RELEASE 340000 3.4-STABLE 340001 4.0-CURRENT after 3.4 branch 400000 4.0-CURRENT after change in dynamic linker handling 400001 4.0-CURRENT after C++ constructor/destructor order change 400002 4.0-CURRENT after functioning dladdr(3) 400003 4.0-CURRENT after __deregister_frame_info dynamic linker bug fix (also 4.0-CURRENT after EGCS 1.1.2 integration) 400004 4.0-CURRENT after suser(9) API change (also 4.0-CURRENT after newbus) 400005 4.0-CURRENT after cdevsw registration change 400006 4.0-CURRENT after the addition of so_cred for socket level credentials 400007 4.0-CURRENT after the addition of a poll syscall wrapper to libc_r 400008 4.0-CURRENT after the change of the kernel's dev_t type to struct specinfo pointer 400009 4.0-CURRENT after fixing a hole in jail(2) 400010 4.0-CURRENT after the sigset_t datatype change 400011 4.0-CURRENT after the cutover to the GCC 2.95.2 compiler 400012 4.0-CURRENT after adding pluggable linux-mode ioctl handlers 400013 4.0-CURRENT after importing OpenSSL 400014 4.0-CURRENT after the C++ ABI change in GCC 2.95.2 from -fvtable-thunks to -fno-vtable-thunks by default 400015 4.0-CURRENT after importing OpenSSH 400016 4.0-RELEASE 400017 4.0-STABLE after 4.0-RELEASE 400018 4.0-STABLE after merging libxpg4 code into libc. 400020 5.0-CURRENT 500000 5.0-CURRENT after adding addition ELF header fields, and changing our ELF binary branding method. 500001 5.0-CURRENT after kld metadata changes. 500002 5.0-CURRENT after buf/bio changes. 500003 5.0-CURRENT after binutils upgrade. 500004 5.0-CURRENT after merging libxpg4 code into libc. 500005 Note that 2.2-STABLE sometimes identifies itself as - “2.2.5-STABLE” after the 2.2.5-RELEASE. The pattern + 2.2.5-STABLE after the 2.2.5-RELEASE. The pattern used to be year followed by the month, but we decided to change it to a more straightforward major/minor system starting from 2.2. This is because the parallel development on several branches made it infeasible to classify the releases simply by their real release dates. If you are making a port now, you do not have to worry about old -CURRENTs; they are listed here just for your reference. In the hundreds of ports that have been done, there have only been one or two cases where __FreeBSD__ should have been used. Just because an earlier port screwed up and used it in the wrong place does not mean you should do so too. Writing something after <filename>bsd.port.mk</filename> Do not write anything after the .include <bsd.port.mk> line. It usually can be avoided by including bsd.port.pre.mk somewhere in the middle of your Makefile and bsd.port.post.mk at the end. You need to include either the pre.mk/post.mk pair or bsd.port.mk only; do not mix these two. bsd.port.pre.mk only defines a few variables, which can be used in tests in the Makefile, bsd.port.post.mk defines the rest. Here are some important variables defined in bsd.port.pre.mk (this is not the complete list, please read bsd.port.mk for the complete list). Variable Description ARCH The architecture as returned by uname -m (e.g., i386) OPSYS The operating system type, as returned by uname -s (e.g., FreeBSD) OSREL The release version of the operating system (e.g., 2.1.5 or 2.2.7) OSVERSION The numeric version of the operating system, same as __FreeBSD_version. PORTOBJFORMAT The object format of the system (aout or elf) LOCALBASE - The base of the “local” tree (e.g., + The base of the local tree (e.g., /usr/local/) X11BASE - The base of the “X11” tree (e.g., + The base of the X11 tree (e.g., /usr/X11R6) PREFIX Where the port installs itself (see more on PREFIX). If you have to define the variables USE_IMAKE, USE_X_PREFIX, or MASTERDIR, do so before including bsd.port.pre.mk. Here are some examples of things you can write after bsd.port.pre.mk: # no need to compile lang/perl5 if perl5 is already in system .if ${OSVERSION} > 300003 BROKEN= perl is in system .endif # only one shlib version number for ELF .if ${PORTOBJFORMAT} == "elf" TCL_LIB_FILE= ${TCL_LIB}.${SHLIB_MAJOR} .else TCL_LIB_FILE= ${TCL_LIB}.${SHLIB_MAJOR}.${SHLIB_MINOR} .endif # software already makes link for ELF, but not for a.out post-install: .if ${PORTOBJFORMAT} == "aout" ${LN} -sf liblinpack.so.1.0 ${PREFIX}/lib/liblinpack.so .endif Install additional documentation If your software has some documentation other than the standard man and info pages that you think is useful for the user, install it under PREFIX/share/doc. This can be done, like the previous item, in the post-install target. Create a new directory for your port. The directory name should reflect what the port is. This usually means PORTNAME. However, if you think the user might want different versions of the port to be installed at the same time, you can use the whole PKGNAME. Make the installation dependent to the variable NOPORTDOCS so that users can disable it in /etc/make.conf, like this: post-install: .if !defined(NOPORTDOCS) ${MKDIR} ${PREFIX}/share/doc/xv ${INSTALL_MAN} ${WRKSRC}/docs/xvdocs.ps ${PREFIX}/share/doc/xv .endif Do not forget to add them to pkg/PLIST too! (Do not worry about NOPORTDOCS here; there is currently no way for the packages to read variables from /etc/make.conf.) Also you can use the pkg/MESSAGE file to display messages upon installation. See the using pkg/MESSAGE section for details. MESSAGE does not need to be added to pkg/PLIST). <makevar>DIST_SUBDIR</makevar> Do not let your port clutter /usr/ports/distfiles. If your port requires a lot of files to be fetched, or contains a file that has a name that might conflict with other ports (e.g., Makefile), set DIST_SUBDIR to the name of the port (${PORTNAME} or ${PKGNAMEPREFIX}${PORTNAME} should work fine). This will change DISTDIR from the default /usr/ports/distfiles to /usr/ports/distfiles/DIST_SUBDIR, and in effect puts everything that is required for your port into that subdirectory. It will also look at the subdirectory with the same name on the backup master site at ftp.FreeBSD.org. (Setting DISTDIR explicitly in your Makefile will not accomplish this, so please use DIST_SUBDIR.) This does not affect the MASTER_SITES you define in your Makefile. Package information Do include package information, i.e. COMMENT, DESCR, and PLIST, in pkg. Note that these files are not used only for packaging anymore, and are mandatory now, even if NO_PACKAGE is set. RCS strings Do not put RCS strings in patches. CVS will mangle them when we put the files into the ports tree, and when we check them out again, they will come out different and the patch will fail. RCS strings are surrounded by dollar ($) signs, and typically start with $Id or $RCS. Recursive diff Using the recurse () option to diff to generate patches is fine, but please take a look at the resulting patches to make sure you do not have any unnecessary junk in there. In particular, diffs between two backup files, Makefiles when the port uses Imake or GNU configure, etc., are unnecessary and should be deleted. If you had to edit configure.in and run autoconf to regenerate configure, do not take the diffs of configure (it often grows to a few thousand lines!); define USE_AUTOCONF=yes and take the diffs of configure.in. Also, if you had to delete a file, then you can do it in the post-extract target rather than as part of the patch. Once you are happy with the resulting diff, please split it up into one source file per patch file. <makevar>PREFIX</makevar> Do try to make your port install relative to PREFIX. (The value of this variable will be set to LOCALBASE (default /usr/local), unless USE_X_PREFIX or USE_IMAKE is set, in which case it will be X11BASE (default /usr/X11R6).) Not hard-coding /usr/local or /usr/X11R6 anywhere in the source will make the port much more flexible and able to cater to the needs of other sites. For X ports that use imake, this is automatic; otherwise, this can often be done by simply replacing the occurrences of /usr/local (or /usr/X11R6 for X ports that do not use imake) in the various scripts/Makefiles in the port to read PREFIX, as this variable is automatically passed down to every stage of the build and install processes. Do not set USE_X_PREFIX unless your port truly require it (i.e., it links against X libs or it needs to reference files in X11BASE). The variable PREFIX can be reassigned in your Makefile or in the user's environment. However, it is strongly discouraged for individual ports to set this variable explicitly in the Makefiles. Also, refer to programs/files from other ports with the variables mentioned above, not explicit pathnames. For instance, if your port requires a macro PAGER to be the full pathname of less, use the compiler flag: -DPAGER=\"${PREFIX}/bin/less\" or -DPAGER=\"${LOCALBASE}/bin/less\" if this is an X port, instead of -DPAGER=\"/usr/local/bin/less\". This way it will have a better chance of working if the system administrator has moved the whole `/usr/local' tree somewhere else. Subdirectories Try to let the port put things in the right subdirectories of PREFIX. Some ports lump everything and put it in the subdirectory with the port's name, which is incorrect. Also, many ports put everything except binaries, header files and manual pages in the a subdirectory of lib, which does not bode well with the BSD paradigm. Many of the files should be moved to one of the following: etc (setup/configuration files), libexec (executables started internally), sbin (executables for superusers/managers), info (documentation for info browser) or share (architecture independent files). See man &man.hier.7; for details, the rules governing /usr pretty much apply to /usr/local too. The exception are ports - dealing with USENET “news”. They may use + dealing with USENET news. They may use PREFIX/news as a destination for their files. Cleaning up empty directories Do make your ports clean up after themselves when they are deinstalled. This is usually accomplished by adding @dirrm lines for all directories that are specifically created by the port. You need to delete subdirectories before you can delete parent directories. : lib/X11/oneko/pixmaps/cat.xpm lib/X11/oneko/sounds/cat.au : @dirrm lib/X11/oneko/pixmaps @dirrm lib/X11/oneko/sounds @dirrm lib/X11/oneko However, sometimes @dirrm will give you errors because other ports also share the same subdirectory. You can call rmdir from @unexec to remove only empty directories without warning. @unexec rmdir %D/share/doc/gimp 2>/dev/null || true This will neither print any error messages nor cause pkg_delete to exit abnormally even if PREFIX/share/doc/gimp is not empty due to other ports installing some files in there. UIDs If your port requires a certain user to be on the installed system, let the pkg/INSTALL script call pw to create it automatically. Look at net/cvsup-mirror for an example. If your port must use the same user/group ID number when it is installed a binary package as when it was compiled, then you must choose a free UID from 50 to 99 and register it below. Look at japanese/Wnn for an example. Make sure you do not use a UID already used by the system or other ports. This is the current list of UIDs between 50 and 99. majordom:*:54:54:Majordomo Pseudo User:/usr/local/majordomo:/nonexistent cyrus:*:60:60:the cyrus mail server:/nonexistent:/nonexistent gnats:*:61:1:GNATS database owner:/usr/local/share/gnats/gnats-db:/bin/sh uucp:*:66:66:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico xten:*:67:67:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/nonexistent pop:*:68:6:Post Office Owner (popper):/nonexistent:/nonexistent wnn:*:69:7:Wnn:/nonexistent:/nonexistent ifmail:*:70:66:Ifmail user:/nonexistent:/nonexistent pgsql:*:70:70:PostgreSQL pseudo-user:/usr/local/pgsql:/bin/sh ircd:*:72:72:IRCd hybrid:/nonexistent:/nonexistent alias:*:81:81:QMail user:/var/qmail/alias:/nonexistent qmaill:*:83:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmaild:*:82:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailq:*:85:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmails:*:87:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailp:*:84:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailr:*:86:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent msql:*:87:87:mSQL-2 pseudo-user:/var/db/msqldb:/bin/sh mysql:*:88:88:MySQL Daemon:/var/db/mysql:/sbin/nologin Please include a notice when you submit a port (or an upgrade) that reserves a new UID or GID in this range. This allows us to keep the list of reserved IDs up to date. Do things rationally The Makefile should do things simply and reasonably. If you can make it a couple of lines shorter or more readable, then do so. Examples include using a make .if construct instead of a shell if construct, not redefining do-extract if you can redefine EXTRACT* instead, and using GNU_CONFIGURE instead of CONFIGURE_ARGS += --prefix=${PREFIX}. Respect <makevar>CFLAGS</makevar> The port should respect the CFLAGS variable. If it does not, please add NO_PACKAGE=ignores cflags to the Makefile. Configuration files If your port requires some configuration files in PREFIX/etc, do not just install them and list them in pkg/PLIST. That will cause pkg_delete to delete files carefully edited by the user and a new installation to wipe them out. Instead, install sample files with a suffix (filename.sample will work well) and print out a message pointing out that the user has to copy and edit the file before the software can be made to work. Portlint Do check your work with portlint before you submit or commit it. Feedback Do send applicable changes/patches to the original author/maintainer for inclusion in next release of the code. This will only make your job that much easier for the next release. Miscellanea The files pkg/DESCR, pkg/COMMENT, and pkg/PLIST should each be double-checked. If you are reviewing a port and feel they can be worded better, do so. Do not copy more copies of the GNU General Public License into our system, please. Please be careful to note any legal issues! Do not let us illegally distribute software! If you are stuck… Do look at existing examples and the bsd.port.mk file before asking us questions! ;-) Do ask us questions if you have any trouble! Do not just beat your head against a wall! :-) A Sample <filename>Makefile</filename> Here is a sample Makefile that you can use to create a new port. Make sure you remove all the extra comments (ones between brackets)! It is recommended that you follow this format (ordering of variables, empty lines between sections, etc.). This format is designed so that the most important information is easy to locate. We recommend that you use portlint to check the Makefile. [the header...just to make it easier for us to identify the ports.] # New ports collection makefile for: xdvi [the "version required" line is only needed when the PORTVERSION variable is not specific enough to describe the port.] # Version required: pl18 + japanization patches 18.1 and 18.2 [this is the date when the first version of this Makefile was created. Never change this when doing an update of the port.] # Date created: 26 May 1995 [this is the person who did the original port to FreeBSD, in particular, the person who wrote the first version of this Makefile. Remember, this should not be changed when upgrading the port later.] # Whom: Satoshi Asami <asami@FreeBSD.org> # # $FreeBSD$ [ ^^^^^^^^^ This will be automatically replaced with RCS ID string by CVS when it is committed to our repository. If upgrading a port, do not alter this line back to "$FreeBSD$". CVS deals with it automatically.] # [section to describe the port itself and the master site - PORTNAME and PORTVERSION are always first, followed by CATEGORIES, and then MASTER_SITES, which can be followed by MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR. PKGNAMEPREFIX and PKGNAMESUFFIX, if needed, will be after that. Then comes DISTNAME, EXTRACT_SUFX and/or DISTFILES, and then EXTRACT_ONLY, as necessary.] PORTNAME= xdvi PORTVERSION= 18.2 CATEGORIES= print [do not forget the trailing slash ("/")! if you are not using MASTER_SITE_* macros] MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications PKGNAMEPREFIX= ja- DISTNAME= xdvi-pl18 [set this if the source is not in the standard ".tar.gz" form] EXTRACT_SUFX= .tar.Z [section for distributed patches -- can be empty] PATCH_SITES= ftp://ftp.sra.co.jp/pub/X11/japanese/ PATCHFILES= xdvi-18.patch1.gz xdvi-18.patch2.gz [maintainer; *mandatory*! This is the person (preferably with commit privileges) whom a user can contact for questions and bug reports - this person should be the porter or someone who can forward questions to the original porter reasonably promptly. If you really do not want to have your address here, set it to "ports@FreeBSD.org".] MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.org [dependencies -- can be empty] RUN_DEPENDS= gs:${PORTSDIR}/print/ghostscript LIB_DEPENDS= Xpm.5:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/xpm [this section is for other standard bsd.port.mk variables that do not belong to any of the above] [If it asks questions during configure, build, install...] IS_INTERACTIVE= yes [If it extracts to a directory other than ${DISTNAME}...] WRKSRC= ${WRKDIR}/xdvi-new [If the distributed patches were not made relative to ${WRKSRC}, you may need to tweak this] PATCH_DIST_STRIP= -p1 [If it requires a "configure" script generated by GNU autoconf to be run] GNU_CONFIGURE= yes [If it requires GNU make, not /usr/bin/make, to build...] USE_GMAKE= yes [If it is an X application and requires "xmkmf -a" to be run...] USE_IMAKE= yes [et cetera.] [non-standard variables to be used in the rules below] MY_FAVORITE_RESPONSE= "yeah, right" [then the special rules, in the order they are called] pre-fetch: i go fetch something, yeah post-patch: i need to do something after patch, great pre-install: and then some more stuff before installing, wow [and then the epilogue] .include <bsd.port.mk> Automated package list creation First, make sure your port is almost complete, with only PLIST missing. Create an empty PLIST. &prompt.root; touch PLIST Next, create a new set of directories which your port can be installed, and install any dependencies. &prompt.root; mtree -U -f /etc/mtree/BSD.local.dist -d -e -p /var/tmp/port-name &prompt.root; make depends PREFIX=/var/tmp/port-name Store the directory structure in a new file. &prompt.root; (cd /var/tmp/port-name && find * -type d) > OLD-DIRS If your port honors PREFIX (which it should) you can then install the port and create the package list. &prompt.root; make install PREFIX=/var/tmp/port-name &prompt.root; (cd /var/tmp/port-name && find * \! -type d) > pkg/PLIST You must also add any newly created directories to the packing list. &prompt.root; (cd /var/tmp/port-name && find * -type d) | comm -13 OLD-DIRS - | sed -e 's#^#@dirrm #' >> pkg/PLIST Finally, you need to tidy up the packing list by hand. I lied when I said this was all automated. Manual pages should be listed in the port's Makefile under MANn, and not in the package list. User configuration files should be removed, or installed as filename.sample. The info/dir file should not be listed and appropriate install-info lines should be added as noted in the info files section. Any libraries installed by the port should be listed as specified in the ldconfig section. Package Names The following are the conventions you should follow in naming your packages. This is to have our package directory easy to scan, as there are already lots and lots of packages and users are going to turn away if they hurt their eyes! The package name should look like language_region-name-compiled.specifics-version.numbers. The package name is defined as ${PKGNAMEPREFIX}${PORTNAME}${PKGNAMESUFFIX}-${PORTVERSION}. Make sure to set the variables to conform to that format. FreeBSD strives to support the native language of its users. The language- part should be a two letter abbreviation of the natural language defined by ISO-639 if the port is specific to a certain language. Examples are ja for Japanese, ru for Russian, vi for Vietnamese, zh for Chinese, ko for Korean and de for German. If the port is specific to a certain region within the language area, add the two letter country code as well. Examples are en_US for US English and fr_CH for Swiss French. The language- part should be set in the PKGNAMEPREFIX variable. The name part should be all lowercase, except for a really large package (with lots of programs in it). Things like XFree86 (yes there really is a port of it, check it out) and ImageMagick fall into this category. Otherwise, convert the name (or at least the first letter) to lowercase. If the capital letters are important to the name (for example, with one-letter names like R or V) you may use capital letters at your discretion. There is a tradition of naming Perl 5 modules by prepending p5- and converting the double-colon separator to a hyphen; for example, the Data::Dumper module becomes p5-Data-Dumper. If the software in question has numbers, hyphens, or underscores in its name, you may include them as well (like kinput2). If the port can be built with different hardcoded defaults (usually part of the directory name in a family of ports), the -compiled.specifics part should state the compiled-in defaults (the hyphen is optional). Examples are papersize and font units. The compiled.specifics part should be set in the PKGNAMESUFFIX variable. The version string should follow a dash (-) and be a period-separated list of integers and single lowercase alphabetics. In particular, it is not pormissible to have another dash inside the version string. The only exception is the string pl (meaning `patchlevel'), which can be used only when there are no major and minor version numbers in the software. If the software version has strings like "alpha", "beta", or "pre", take the first letter and put it immediately after a period. If the version string continues after those names, the numbers should follow the single alphabet without an extra period between them. The idea is to make it easier to sort ports by looking at the version string. In particular, make sure version number components are always delimited by a period, and if the date is part of the string, use the yyyy.mm.dd format, not dd.mm.yyyy or the non-Y2K compliant yy.mm.dd format. Here are some (real) examples on how to convert the name as called by the software authors to a suitable package name: Distribution Name PKGNAMEPREFIX PORTNAME PKGNAMESUFFIX PORTVERSION Reason mule-2.2.2 mule 2.2.2 No changes required XFree86-3.3.6 XFree86 3.3.6 No changes required EmiClock-1.0.2 (empty) emiclock (empty) 1.0.2 No uppercase names for single programs rdist-1.3alpha (empty) rdist (empty) 1.3.a No strings like alpha allowed es-0.9-beta1 (empty) es-0.9 (empty) b1 No strings like beta allowed v3.3beta021.src (empty) tiff (empty) 3.3 What the heck was that anyway? tvtwm (empty) tvtwm (empty) pl11 Version string always required piewm (empty) piewm (empty) 1.0 Version string always required xvgr-2.10pl1 (empty) xvgr (empty) 2.10.1 pl allowed only when no major/minor version numbers gawk-2.15.6 ja- gawk (empty) 2.15.6 Japanese language version psutils-1.13 (empty) psutils -letter 1.13 Papersize hardcoded at package build time pkfonts (empty) pkfonts 300 1.0 Package for 300dpi fonts If there is absolutely no trace of version information in the original source and it is unlikely that the original author will ever release another version, just set the version string to 1.0 (like the piewm example above). Otherwise, ask the original author or use the date string (yyyy.mm.dd) as the version. Categories As you already know, ports are classified in several categories. But for this to work, it is important that porters and users understand what each category and how we decide what to put in each category. Current list of categories First, this is the current list of port categories. Those marked with an asterisk (*) are virtual categories—those that do not have a corresponding subdirectory in the ports tree. For non-virtual categories, you will find a one-line description in the pkg/COMMENT file in that subdirectory (e.g., archivers/pkg/COMMENT). Category Description afterstep* Ports to support the AfterStep window manager. archivers Archiving tools. astro Astronomical ports. audio Sound support. benchmarks Benchmarking utilities. biology Biology-related software. cad Computer aided design tools. chinese Chinese language support. comms Communication software. Mostly software to talk to your serial port. converters Character code converters. databases Databases. deskutils Things that used to be on the desktop before computers were invented. devel Development utilities. Do not put libraries here just because they are libraries—unless they truly do not belong anywhere else, they should not be in this category. editors General editors. Specialized editors go in the section for those tools (e.g., a mathematical-formula editor will go in math). elisp* Emacs-lisp ports. emulators Emulators for other operating systems. Terminal emulators do not belong here—X-based ones should go to x11 and text-based ones to either comms or misc, depending on the exact functionality. ftp FTP client and server utilities. If your port speaks both FTP and HTTP, put it in ftp with a secondary category of www. games Games. german German language support. gnome* Ports from the GNU Object Model Environment (GNOME) Project. graphics Graphics utilities. irc Internet Relay Chat utilities. ipv6* IPv6 related software. japanese Japanese language support. java Java language support. kde* Ports from the K Desktop Environment (KDE) Project. korean Korean language support. lang Programming languages. linux* Linux applications and support utilities. mail Mail software. math Numerical computation software and other utilities for mathematics. mbone MBone applications. misc Miscellaneous utilities—basically things that do not belong anywhere else. This is the only category that should not appear with any other non-virtual category. If you have misc with something else in your CATEGORIES line, that means you can safely delete misc and just put the port in that other subdirectory! net Miscellaneous networking software. news USENET news software. offix* Ports from the OffiX suite. palm Software support for the 3Com Palm(tm) series. perl5* Ports that require perl version 5 to run. plan9* Various programs from Plan9. print Printing software. Desktop publishing tools (previewers, etc.) belong here too. python* Software written in python. russian Russian language support. security Security utilities. shells Command line shells. sysutils System utilities. tcl76* Ports that use Tcl version 7.6 to run. tcl80* Ports that use Tcl version 8.0 to run. tcl81* Ports that use Tcl version 8.1 to run. tcl82* Ports that use Tcl version 8.2 to run. textproc Text processing utilities. It does not include desktop publishing tools, which go to print/. tk42* Ports that use Tk version 4.2 to run. tk80* Ports that use Tk version 8.0 to run. tk81* Ports that use Tk version 8.1 to run. tk82* Ports that use Tk version 8.2 to run. tkstep80* Ports that use TkSTEP version 8.0 to run. vietnamese Vietnamese language support. windowmaker* Ports to support the WindowMaker window manager www Software related to the World Wide Web. HTML language support belong here too. x11 The X window system and friends. This category is only for software that directly support the window system. Do not put regular X applications here. If your port is an X application, define USE_XLIB (implied by USE_IMAKE) and put it in appropriate categories. Also, many of them go into other x11-* categories (see below). x11-clocks X11 clocks. x11-fm X11 file managers. x11-fonts X11 fonts and font utilities. x11-servers X11 servers. x11-toolkits X11 toolkits. x11-wm X11 window managers. Choosing the right category As many of the categories overlap, you often have to choose which of the categories should be the primary category of your port. There are several rules that govern this issue. Here is the list of priorities, in decreasing order of precedence. Language specific categories always come first. For example, if your port installs Japanese X11 fonts, then your CATEGORIES line would read japanese x11-fonts. Specific categories win over less-specific ones. For instance, an HTML editor should be listed as www editors, not the other way around. Also, you do not need to list net when the port belongs to any of irc, mail, mbone, news, security, or www. x11 is used as a secondary category only when the primary category is a natural language. In particular, you should not put x11 in the category line for X applications. Emacs modes should be placed in the same ports category as the application supported by the mode, not in editors. For example, an Emacs mode to edit source files of some programming language should go into lang. If your port truly does not belong anywhere else, put it in misc. If you are not sure about the category, please put a comment to that effect in your send-pr submission so we can discuss it before we import it. If you are a committer, send a note &a.ports; so we can discuss it first—too often new ports are imported to a wrong category only to be moved right away. Changes to this document and the ports system If you maintain a lot of ports, you should consider following the &a.ports;. Important changes to the way ports work will be announced there. You can always find more detailed information on the latest changes by looking at the bsd.port.mk CVS log. That is It, Folks! Boy, this sure was a long tutorial, wasn't it? Thanks for following us to here, really. Now that you know how to do a port, have at it and convert everything in the world into ports! That is the easiest way to start contributing to the FreeBSD Project! :-) ]]> diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml index 85f0bda83e..487122c66c 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2616 +1,2616 @@ PPP and SLIP Restructured, reorganized, and updated by &a.jim;, 1 March 2000. Synopsis If you are connecting to the Internet via modem, or wish to provide dialup connections to the Internet for others using FreeBSD, you have the option of using PPP or SLIP. This chapter covers three varieties of PPP; user, kernel, and PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet). It also covers setting up a SLIP client and server. The first variety of PPP that will be covered is User PPP. User PPP was introduced into FreeBSD in 2.0.5-RELEASE as an addition to the already existing kernel implementation of PPP. You may be wondering what the main difference is between User PPP and kernel PPP. The answer is simple; user PPP does not run as a daemon, and can run as and when desired. No PPP interface needs to be compiled into ther kernel; it runs as a user process, and uses the tunnel device driver (tun) to get data into and out of the kernel. From here on out in this chapter, user ppp will simply be referred to as ppp unless a distinction needs to be made between it and and any other PPP software such as pppd. Unless otherwise stated, all of the commands explained in this section should be executed as root. Using User PPP Originally contributed by &a.brian;, with input from &a.nik;, &a.dirkvangulik;, and &a.pjc;. User PPP Assumptions This document assumes you have the following: An account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which you connect to using PPP. Further, you have a modem or other device connected to your system and configured correctly, which allows you to connect to your ISP. The dialup number(s) of your ISP. Your login name and password. This can be either a regular unix style login and password pair, or a PAP or CHAP login and password pair. The IP address(es) of one or more name servers. Normally, you will be given two IP addresses by your ISP to use for this. If they have not given you at least one, then you can use the enable dns command in your ppp.conf file to tell ppp to set the name servers for you. The following information may be supplied by your ISP, but is not completely necessary: The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as your default route. If you do not have this information, we can make one up and your ISP's PPP server will tell us the correct value when we connect. This IP number is referred to as HISADDR by ppp. The netmask you should use. If your ISP has not provided you with one, you can safely use 255.255.255.0. If your ISP provides you with a static IP address and hostname, you can enter it. Otherwise, we simply let the peer assign whatever IP address it sees fit. If you do not have any of the required information, contact your ISP and make sure they provide it to you. Preparing the Kernel As previously mentioned, ppp users the tun device. It is necessary to make sure that your kernel has support for this device compiled into it. To check, go to your kernel compile directory (/sys/i386/conf or /sys/pc98/conf) and examine your configuration file. It should have the following line somewhere in it: pseudo-device tun 1 If this line is not present, you will need to add it to the configuration file and recompile your kernel. The stock GENERIC kernel has this included, so if you have not installed a custom kernel or do not have a /sys directory, you do not have to change anything. If you do need to recompile your kernel, please refer to the kernel configuration section for more information. You can check how many tunnel devices your current kernel has by typing the following: &prompt.root; ifconfig -a tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 200.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.24 netmask 0xffffffff tun1: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 576 tun2: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 203.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.20 netmask 0xffffffff tun3: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 This case shows four tunnel devices, two of which are currently configured and being used. It should be noted that the RUNNING flag above indicates that the interface has been used at some point—it is not an error if your interface does not show up as RUNNING. If for some reason you have a kernel that does not have the tun device in it and cannot recompile the kernel, all is not lost. You should be able to dynamically load the code. Please refer to the appropriate &man.modload.8; and &man.lkm.4; man pages for further details. Check the <devicename>tun</devicename> device Under normal circumstances, most users will only require one tun device (/dev/tun0). If you have specified more than one on the pseudo-device line for tun in your kernel configuration file, then alter all references to tun0 below to reflect whichever device number you are using (e.g., tun2). The easiest way to make sure that the tun0 device is configured correctly, is to remake the device. This process is quite easy. To remake the device, do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun0 If you need 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need to create them. This can be done by executing the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun15 To confirm that the kernel is configured correctly, issue the follow command and compare the results: &prompt.root; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mut 1500 The RUNNING flag may not yet be set, in which case you will see: &prompt.root; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 Name Resolution Configuration The resolver is the part of the system that turns IP addresses into hostnames and vice versa. It can be configured to look for maps that describe IP to hostname mappings in one of two places. The first is a file called /etc/hosts. Read &man.hosts.5; for more information. The second is the Internet Domain Name Service (DNS), a distributed data base, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of this document. The resolver is a set of system calls that do the name mappings, but you have to tell them where to find their information. You do this by first editing the file /etc/host.conf. Do not call this file /etc/hosts.conf (note the extra s) as the results can be confusing. Edit <filename>/etc/host.conf</filename> This file should contain the following two lines (in this order): hosts bind These instruct the resolver to first look in the file /etc/hosts, and then to consult the DNS if the name was not found. Edit <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> This file should contain the IP addresses and names of machines on your network. At a bare minimum it should contain entries for the machine which will be running ppp. Assuming that your machine is called foo.bar.com with the IP address 10.0.0.1, /etc/hosts should contain: 127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com localhost 127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com. 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com. The first two lines define the alias localhost as a synonym for the current machine. Regardless of your own IP address, the IP address for this line should always be 127.0.0.1. The second two lines map the name foo.bar.com (and the shorthand foo) to the IP address 10.0.0.1. If your provider allocates you a static IP address and name, use them in place of the 10.0.0.1 entry. Edit <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> The /etc/resolv.conf file tells the resolver how to behave. If you are running your own DNS, you may leave this file empty. Normally, you will need to enter the following line(s): domain bar.com nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y The x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y addresses are those given to you by your ISP. Add as many nameserver lines as your ISP provides. The domain line defaults to your hostname's domain, and is probably unnecessary. Refer to the &man.resolv.conf.5; manual page for details of other possible entries in this file. If you are running PPP version 2 or greater, the enable dns command will tell PPP to request that your ISP confirms the nameserver values. If your ISP supplies different addresses (or if there are no nameserver lines in /etc/resolv.conf), PPP will rewrite the file with the ISP-supplied values. <application>PPP</application> Configuration Both ppp and pppd (the kernel level implementation of PPP) use the configuration files located in the /etc/ppp directory. The sample configuration files provided are a good reference, so do not delete them. Configuring ppp requires that you edit a number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address changes each time you connect to your ISP). PPP and Static IP Addresses You will need to create a configuration file called /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. It should look similar to the example below. Lines that end in a : start in the first column, all other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs. 1 default: 2 set device /dev/cuaa0 3 set speed 115200 4 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \"\" ATE1Q0 OK-AT-OK \\dATDT\\TTIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 5 provider: 6 set phone "(123) 456 7890" 7 set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: foo word: bar col: ppp" 8 set timeout 300 9 set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 255.255.255.0 0.0.0.0 10 add default HISADDR 11 enable dns Do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Line 1: Identifies the default entry. Commands in this entry are executed automatically when ppp is run. Line 2: Identifies the device to which the modem is connected. COM1 is /dev/cuaa0 and COM2 is /dev/cuaa1. Line 3: Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200 does not work (it should with any reasonably new modem), try 38400 instead. Line 4: The dial string. User PPP uses an expect-send syntax similar to the &man.chat.8; program. Refer to the manual page for information on the features of this language. Line 5: Identifies an entry for a provider called - “provider”. + provider. Line 6: Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple phone numbers may be specified using the colon (:) or pipe character (|)as a separator. The difference between the two separators is described in &man.ppp.8;. To summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers, use a colon. If you want to always attempt to dial the first number first and only use the other numbers if the first number fails, use the pipe character. Always quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown. Line 7: The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as the dial string. In this example, the string works for a service whose login session looks like this: J. Random Provider login: foo password: bar protocol: ppp You will need to alter this script to suit your own needs. When you write this script for the first time, - you should enable “chat” logging to ensure + you should enable chat logging to ensure that the conversation is going as expected. If you are using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login at this point, so your login string can be left blank. See PAP and CHAP authentication for further details. Line 8: Sets the default timeout (in seconds) for the connection. Here, the connection will be closed automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you never want to timeout, set this value to zero. Line 9: Sets the interface addresses. The string x.x.x.x should be replaced by the IP address that your provider has allocated to you. The string y.y.y.y should be replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If your ISP hasn't given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use - a “guessed” address, make sure that you + a guessed address, make sure that you create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the instructions for PPP and Dynamic IP addresses. If this line is omitted, ppp cannot run in or mode. Line 10: Adds a default route to your ISPs gateway. The special word HISADDR is replaced with the gateway address specified on line 9. It is important that this line appears after line 9, otherwise HISADDR will not yet be initialized. Line 11: This line tells PPP to ask your ISP to confirm that your nameserver addresses are correct. If your ISP supports this facility, PPP can then update /etc/resolv.conf with the correct nameserver entries. It is not necessary to add an entry to ppp.linkup when you have a static IP address as your routing table entries are already correct before you connect. You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after connection. This is explained later with the sendmail example. Example configuration files can be found in the /etc/ppp directory. PPP and Dynamic IP Addresses If your service provider does not assign static IP addresses, ppp can be configured to negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by - “guessing” an IP address and allowing + guessing an IP address and allowing ppp to set it up correctly using the IP Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The ppp.conf configuration is the same as PPP and Static IP Addresses, with the following change: 9 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.0 Again, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 9: The number after the / character is the number of bits of the address that ppp will insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example will always work. The last argument (0.0.0.0) tells PPP to negotiate using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1. Do not use 0.0.0.0 as the first argument to set ifaddr as it prevents PPP from setting up an initial route in mode. If you are running version 1.x of PPP, you will also need to create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. ppp.linkup is used after a connection has been established. At this point, ppp will know what IP addresses should really be used. The following entry will delete the existing bogus routes, and create correct ones: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR Line 1: On establishing a connection, ppp will look for an entry in ppp.linkup according to the following rules: First, try to match the same label as we used in ppp.conf. If that fails, look for an entry for the IP address of our gateway. This entry is a four-octet IP style label. If we still have not found an entry, look for the MYADDR entry. Line 2: This line tells ppp to delete all of the existing routes for the acquired tun interface (except the direct route entry). Line 3: This line tells ppp to add a default route that points to HISADDR. HISADDR will be replaced with the IP number of the gateway as negotiated in the IPCP. See the pmdemand entry in the files /etc/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a detailed example. - Version 2 of PPP introduces “sticky routes”. + Version 2 of PPP introduces sticky routes. Any add or delete lines that contain MYADDR or HISADDR will be remembered, and any time the actual values of MYADDR or HISADDR change, the routes will be reapplied. This removes the necessity of repeating these lines in ppp.linkup. Receiving Incoming Calls When you configure ppp to receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a LAN, you must decide if you wish to forward packets to the LAN. If you do, you should allocate the peer an IP number from your LAN's subnet, and use the command enable proxy in your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file. You should also confirm that the /etc/rc.conf file contains the following: gateway="YES" Which getty? Configuring FreeBSD for Dialup Services provides a good description on enabling dialup services using getty. An alternative to getty is mgetty, a smarter version of getty designed with dialup lines in mind. The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively talks to modems, meaning if port is turned off in /etc/ttys then your modem will not answer the phone. Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to your server. Refer to Mgetty and AutoPPP for more information on mgetty. <application>PPP</application> Permissions The ppp command must normally be run as user id 0. If however, you wish to allow ppp to run in server mode as a normal user by executing ppp as described below, that user must be given permission to run ppp by adding them to the network group in /etc/group. You will also need to give them access to one or more sections of the configuration file using the allow command: allow users fred mary If this command is used in the default section, it gives the specified users access to everything. PPP Shells for Dynamic-IP Users Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the following: #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT" exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic link called ppp-dialup to this script using the following commands: &prompt.root; ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup You should use this script as the shell for all of your dialup users. This is an example from /etc/password for a dialup PPP user with username pchilds (remember don't directly edit the password file, use vipw). pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Create a /home/ppp directory that is world readable containing the following 0 byte files: -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts which prevents /etc/motd from being displayed. PPP shells for Static-IP Users Create the ppp-shell file as above and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a symbolic link to ppp-shell. For example, if you have three dialup customers fred, sam, and mary, that you route class C networks for, you would type the following: &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary Each of these users dialup accounts should have their shell set to the symbolic link created above (i.e., mary's shell should be /etc/ppp/ppp-mary). Setting up ppp.conf for dynamic-IP users The /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should contain something along the lines of: default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 ttyd0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyd1: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy The indenting is important. The default: section is loaded for each session. For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys create an entry similar to the one for ttyd0: above. Each line should get a unique IP address from your pool of IP addresses for dynamic users. Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for static-IP users Along with the contents of the sample /etc/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users. We will continue with our fred, sam, and mary example. fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255 The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should also contain routing information for each static IP user if required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the client's ppp link. fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR More on <command>mgetty</command>, AutoPPP, and MS extensions <command>mgetty</command> and AutoPPP Configuring and compiling mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell. However, since the default login/password sequence does not occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or CHAP. This section assumes the user has successfully configured, compiled, and installed a version of mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or later). Make sure your /usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config file has the following in it: /AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup This will tell mgetty to run the ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP connections. Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the following (the file should be executable): #!/bin/sh exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys, create a corresponding entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will happily co-exist with the definitions we created above. pap: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40 enable proxy Each user logging in with this method will need to have a username/password in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or alternatively add the following option to authenticate users via PAP from /etc/password file. enable passwdauth If you wish to assign some users a static IP number, you can specify the number as the third argument in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See /etc/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for examples. MS extensions It is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand. To enable these extensions with PPP version 1.x, the following lines might be added to the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 And for PPP version 2 and above: accept dns set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 This will tell the clients the primary and secondary name server addresses, and a netbios nameserver host. In version 2 and above, if the set dns line is omitted, PPP will use the values found in /etc/resolv.conf. PAP and CHAP authentication Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP will not give a login: prompt when you connect, but will start talking PPP immediately. PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only. There's not much room for crackers to - “eavesdrop”. + eavesdrop. Referring back to the PPP and Static IP addresses or PPP and Dynamic IP addresses sections, the following alterations must be made: 7 set login … 12 set authname MyUserName 13 set authkey MyPassword As always, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 7: Your ISP will not normally require that you log into the server if you're using PAP or CHAP. You must - therefore disable your “set login” + therefore disable your set login string. Line 12: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You will need to insert the correct value for MyUserName. Line 13: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You will need to insert the correct value for MyPassword. You may want to add an additional line, such as: 15 accept PAP or 15 accept CHAP to make it obvious that this is the intention, but PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default. Changing your <command>ppp</command> configuration on the fly It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is running in the background, but only if a suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the following line to your configuration: set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177 This will tell PPP to listen to the specified unix-domain socket, asking clients for the specified password before allowing access. The %d in the name is replaced with the tun device number that is in use. Once a socket has been set up, the &man.pppctl.8; program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running program. Final system configuration You now have ppp configured, but there are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf file. Working from the top down in this file, make sure the hostname= line is set, e.g.: hostname="foo.bar.com" If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and name, it's probably best that you use this name as your host name. Look for the network_interfaces variable. If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand, make sure the tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it. network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0= The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be empty, and a file called /etc/start_if.tun0 should be created. This file should contain the line: ppp -auto mysystem This script is executed at network configuration time, starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use the switch. Refer to the manual page for further details. Set the router program to NO with following line in your /etc/rc.conf: router_enable="NO" It is important that the routed daemon is not started (it is started by default), as it routed tends to delete the default routing table entries created by ppp. It is probably worth your while ensuring that the sendmail_flags line does not include the option, otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may try: sendmail_flags="-bd" The downside of this is that you must force sendmail to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link is up by typing: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q You may wish to use the !bg command in ppp.linkup to do this automatically: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m If you don't like this, it is possible to set up a - “dfilter” to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the + dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details. Now the only thing left to do is reboot the machine. All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting, you can now either type: &prompt.root; ppp and then dial provider to start the PPP session, or, if you want ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and you have not created the start_if.tun0 script), type: &prompt.root; ppp -auto provider Summary To recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up ppp for the first time: Client side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The pmdemand example should suffice for most ISPs. If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Create a start_if.tun0 script if you require demand dialing. Server side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/passwd (using the &man.vipw.8; program). Create a profile in this users home directory that runs ppp -direct direct-server or similar. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The direct-server example should suffice. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Using Kernel PPP Parts originally contributed by &a.gena; and &a.rhuff;. Setting up Kernel PPP Before you start setting up PPP on your machine make sure that pppd is located in /usr/sbin and the directory /etc/ppp exists. pppd can work in two modes: - As a “client”, i.e., you want to connect your + As a client, i.e., you want to connect your machine to the outside world via a PPP serial connection or modem line. - as a “server”, i.e. your machine is located on + as a server, i.e. your machine is located on the network and used to connect other computers using PPP. In both cases you will need to set up an options file (/etc/ppp/options or ~/.ppprc if you have more than one user on your machine that uses PPP). You also will need some modem/serial software (preferably kermit) so you can dial and establish a connection with the remote host. Using <command>pppd</command> as a client I used the following /etc/ppp/options to connect to CISCO terminal server PPP line. crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during IPCP # negotiation , remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here :<remote_ip> # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your # default router To connect: Dial to the remote host using kermit (or some other modem program), and enter your user name and password (or whatever is needed to enable PPP on the remote host). Exit kermit (without hanging up the line). Enter the following: &prompt.root; /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Be sure to use the appropriate speed and device name. Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection fails, you can add the option to the /etc/ppp/options file and check messages on the console to track the problem. Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make all 3 stages automatically: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial pppd /dev/tty01 19200 /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is a kermit script that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote host (an example of such a script is attached to the end of this document). Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script to disconnect the PPP line: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill -TERM ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup /etc/ppp/ppptest Check to see if PPP is still running by executing /usr/etc/ppp/ppptest, which should look like this: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE} else echo 'No pppd running.' fi set -x netstat -n -I ppp0 ifconfig ppp0 To hang up the modem, execute /etc/ppp/kermit.hup, which should contain: set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 echo \13 exit Here is an alternate method using chat instead of kermit. The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a pppd connection. /etc/ppp/options: /dev/cuaa1 115200 crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script" noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during # IPCP negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain <your.domain> # put your domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be # your default router /etc/ppp/login.chat.script: The following should go on a single line. ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number> CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id> TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password> Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need to do is run pppd, like so: &prompt.root; pppd This sample is based primarily on information provided by: Trev Roydhouse <Trev.Roydhouse@f401.n711.z3.fidonet.org> and used with permission. Using <command>pppd</command> as a server /etc/ppp/options should contain something similar to the following: crtscts # Hardware flow control netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask ( not required ) 192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's of local and remote hosts # local ip must be different from one # you assigned to the ethernet ( or other ) # interface on your machine. # remote IP is ip address that will be # assigned to the remote machine domain ppp.foo.com # your domain passive # wait for LCP modem # modem line The following /etc/ppp/pppserv script will enable tell pppd to behave as a server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi # reset ppp interface ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete # enable autoanswer mode kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans # run ppp pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to stop the server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noans The following kermit script (/etc/ppp/kermit.ans) will enable/disable autoanswer mode on your modem. It should look like this: set line /dev/tty01 set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 inp 5 OK echo \13 out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable ; autoanswer mod inp 5 OK echo \13 exit A script named /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is used for dialing and authenticating on the remote host. You will need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and password in this script; you will also need to change the input statement depending on responses from your modem and remote host. ; ; put the com line attached to the modem here: ; set line /dev/tty01 ; ; put the modem speed here: ; set speed 19200 set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none set modem hayes set dial hangup off set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary, set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary, set input echo on set input timeout proceed set input case ignore def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter goto slhup :slcmd ; put the modem in command mode echo Put the modem in command mode. clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 output +++ ; hayes escape sequence input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK if success goto slhup output \13 pause 1 output at\13 input 1 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again :slhup ; hang up the phone clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 echo Hanging up the phone. output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook input 2 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode :sldial ; dial the number pause 1 echo Dialing. output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter :look clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer increment \%x ; Count the seconds input 1 {CONNECT } if success goto sllogin reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10} if success goto sldial reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10} if success goto slnodial reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 60 goto look else goto slhup :sllogin ; login assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter pause 1 echo Looking for login prompt. :slloop increment \%x ; Count the seconds clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer output \13 ; ; put your expected login prompt here: ; input 1 {Username: } if success goto sluid reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures :sluid ; ; put your userid here: ; output ppp-login\13 input 1 {Password: } ; ; put your password here: ; output ppp-password\13 input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.} echo quit :slnodial echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7 exit 1 ; local variables: ; mode: csh ; comment-start: "; " ; comment-start-skip: "; " ; end: Using PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE) Contributed by &a.jim; (from node.to) 10 Jan 2000. The following describes how to set up PPP over Ethernet, a.k.a, PPPoE. Prerequisites There are a few requirements that your system will need to meet in order for PPPoE to function properly. They are: Kernel source for FreeBSD 3.4 or later ppp from FreeBSD 3.4 or later Kernel Configuration You will need to set the following options in your kernel configuration file and then compile a new kernel. options NETGRAPH Optionally, you can add options NETGRAPH_PPPOE options NETGRAPH_SOCKET although if this functionality is not available at runtime, ppp will load the relevant modules on demand Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> Here is an example of a working ppp.conf: default: # or name_of_service_provider set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your ethernet device set mru 1492 set mtu 1492 set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish set dial set login set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 add default HISADDR nat enable yes # if you want to enable nat for your local net papchap: set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD Care should be taken when running PPPoE with the option. Running <application>PPP</application> As root, you can run: &prompt.root; ppp -ddial name_of_service_provider Starting <application>PPP</application> at Boot Add the following to your /etc/rc.conf file: ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="ddial" ppp_nat="YES" ppp_profile="default" # or your provider Using SLIP Originally contributed by &a.asami; and &a.ghelmer;, with input from &a.wilko; and &a.piero;. Setting up a SLIP Client The following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (i.e., your address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to do something much fancier. First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to. I have a symbolic link to /dev/modem from /dev/cuaa1, and only use the modem name in my configuration files. It can become quite cumbersome when you need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and .kermrc's all over the system! /dev/cuaa0 is COM1, cuaa1 is COM2, etc. Make sure you have the following in your kernel configuration file: pseudo-device sl 1 It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so this should not be a problem unless you have deleted it. Things you have to do only once Add your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like this: 127.0.0.1 localhost loghost 136.152.64.181 silvia.HIP.Berkeley.EDU silvia.HIP silvia 136.152.64.1 inr-3.Berkeley.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway 128.32.136.9 ns1.Berkeley.edu ns1 128.32.136.12 ns2.Berkeley.edu ns2 Make sure you have before in your /etc/host.conf. Otherwise, funny things may happen. Edit the /etc/rc.conf file. Set your hostname by editing the line that says: -hostname=“myname.my.domain” +hostname=myname.my.domain You should give it your full Internet hostname. Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by changing the line that says: network_interfaces="lo0" to: -network_interfaces=“lo0 sl0” +network_interfaces=lo0 sl0 Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a line: ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up" Designate the default router by changing the line: -defaultrouter=“NO” +defaultrouter=NO to: -defaultrouter=“slip-gateway” +defaultrouter=slip-gateway Make a file /etc/resolv.conf which contains: domain HIP.Berkeley.EDU nameserver 128.32.136.9 nameserver 128.32.136.12 As you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your environment. Set the password for root and toor (and any other accounts that do not have a password). Use passwd or &man.vipw.8;, do not edit the /etc/passwd or /etc/master.passwd files! Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the correct hostname. Making a SLIP connection Dial up, type slip at the prompt, enter your machine name and password. The things you need to enter depends on your environment. I use kermit, with a script like this: # kermit setup set modem hayes set line /dev/modem set speed 115200 set parity none set flow rts/cts set terminal bytesize 8 set file type binary # The next macro will dial up and login define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, - output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, - output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, - output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a Of course, you have to change the hostname and password to fit yours. After doing so, you can just type slip from the kermit prompt to get connected. Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the filesystem is generally a BAD idea. Do it at your own risk. Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by z) and as root, type: &prompt.root; slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modem If you are able to ping hosts on the other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not work, you might want to try instead of as an argument to slattach. How to shutdown the connection Do the following: &prompt.root; kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid` to kill slattach. Keep in mind you must be root to do the above. Then go back to kermit (fg if you suspended it) and exit from it (q). The slattach man page says you have to use ifconfig sl0 down to mark the interface down, but this does not seem to make any difference for me. (ifconfig sl0 reports the same thing.) Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier (mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit it again. It usually goes out on the second try. Troubleshooting If it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that people tripped over so far: Not using or in slattach (I have no idea why this can be fatal, but adding this flag solved the problem for at least one person). Using instead of (might be hard to see the difference on some fonts). Try ifconfig sl0 to see your interface status. I get: &prompt.root; ifconfig sl0 sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT> inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00 Also, netstat -r will give the - routing table, in case you get the “no route to - host” messages from ping. Mine looks like: + routing table, in case you get the no route to + host messages from ping. Mine looks like: &prompt.root; netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks: (root node) (root node) Route Tree for Protocol Family inet: (root node) => default inr-3.Berkeley.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - - localhost.Berkel localhost.Berkeley UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438 inr-3.Berkeley.E silvia.HIP.Berkele UH 1 0 sl0 - - silvia.HIP.Berke localhost.Berkeley UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438 (root node) This is after transferring a bunch of files, your numbers should be smaller). Setting up a SLIP Server This document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring your system to automatically startup connections upon login for remote SLIP clients. The author has written this document based on his experience; however, as your system and needs may be different, this document may not answer all of your questions, and the author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. Prerequisites This document is very technical in nature, so background knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either Craig Hunt's TCP/IP Network Administration published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number 0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP protocol. It is further assumed that you have already setup your modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available, browse the list of tutorials at http://www.FreeBSD.org/. You may also want to check the manual pages for &man.sio.4; for information on the serial port device driver and &man.ttys.5;, &man.gettytab.5;, &man.getty.8;, & &man.init.8; for information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins on modems, and perhaps &man.stty.1; for information on setting serial port parameters (such as clocal for directly-connected serial interfaces). Quick Overview In its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses /usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's shell. The sliplogin program browses the file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match, connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then runs the shell script /etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the SLIP interface. An Example of a SLIP Server Login For example, if a SLIP user ID were Shelmerg, Shelmerg's entry in /etc/master.passwd would look something like this (except it would be all on one line): Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin When Shelmerg logs in, sliplogin will search /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that reads: Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp sliplogin will find that matching line, hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface, and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login like this: /etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp If all goes well, /etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which sliplogin attached itself (slip interface 0,in the above example, which was the first parameter in the list given to slip.login) to set the local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address (sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP interface (0xfffffc00), and any additional flags (autocomp). If something goes wrong, sliplogin usually logs good informational messages via the daemon syslog facility, which usually goes into /var/log/messages (see the manual pages for &man.syslogd.8; and &man.syslog.conf.5; and perhaps check /etc/syslog.conf to see to which files syslogd is logging). OK, enough of the examples — let us dive into setting up the system. Kernel Configuration FreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP interfaces defined (sl0 and sl1); you can use netstat -i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your kernel. Sample output from netstat -i: Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll ed0 1500 <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133 ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133 lo0 65535 <Link> 79 0 79 0 0 lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0 sl0* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 sl1* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 The sl0 and sl1 interfaces shown in netstat -i's output indicate that there are two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after the sl0 and sl1 indicate - that the interfaces are “down”.) + that the interfaces are down.) However, FreeBSD's default kernels do not come configured to forward packets (ie, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see RFCs 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122 [Requirements for Internet Hosts — Communication Layers], and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]), so if you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file and change the setting of the gateway variable to . You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take effect. You will notice that near the end of the default kernel configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC) is a line that reads: pseudo-device sl 2 This is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is the maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating simultaneously. Please refer to Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for help in reconfiguring your kernel. Sliplogin Configuration As mentioned earlier, there are three files in the /etc/sliphome directory that are part of the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin (see &man.sliplogin.8; for the actual manual page for sliplogin): slip.hosts, which defines the SLIP users & their associated IP addresses; slip.login, which usually just configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally) slip.logout, which undoes slip.login's effects when the serial connection is terminated. <filename>slip.hosts</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains lines which have at least four items, separated by whitespace: SLIP user's login ID Local address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP link Remote address of the SLIP link Network mask The local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the domain name service, depending on your specifications in /etc/host.conf), and I believe the network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup into /etc/networks. On a sample system, /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like this: # # login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2 # (normal,compress,noicmp) # Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocomp At the end of the line is one or more of the options. — no header compression — compress headers — compress headers if the remote end allows it — disable ICMP packets - (so any “ping” packets will be dropped instead + (so any ping packets will be dropped instead of using up your bandwidth) Note that sliplogin under early releases of FreeBSD 2 ignored the options that FreeBSD 1.x recognized, so the options , , , and had no effect until support was added in FreeBSD 2.2 (unless your slip.login script included code to make use of the flags). Your choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP - subnet or if you are going to use “proxy ARP” on - your SLIP server (it is not “true” proxy ARP, but + subnet or if you are going to use proxy ARP on + your SLIP server (it is not true proxy ARP, but that is the terminology used in this document to describe it). If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the slips-prereqs section and/or consult your IP network manager. If you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will probably either need to configure a static route to the SLIP subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router, or install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to talk the appropriate routing protocols to your other routers to inform them about your SLIP server's route to the SLIP subnet. - Otherwise, if you will use the “proxy ARP” + Otherwise, if you will use the proxy ARP method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust your /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use &man.arp.8; to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP server's ARP table. <filename>slip.login</filename> Configuration The typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login file looks like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 This slip.login file merely ifconfig's the appropriate SLIP interface with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the SLIP interface. - If you have decided to use the “proxy ARP” + If you have decided to use the proxy ARP method (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login file will need to look something like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 # Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr /usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub The additional line in this slip.login, arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, creates an ARP entry in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address whenever a another IP node on the Ethernet asks to speak to the SLIP client's IP address. When using the example above, be sure to replace the Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of - your system's Ethernet card, or your “proxy ARP” + your system's Ethernet card, or your proxy ARP will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running netstat -i; the second line of the output should look something like: ed0 1500 <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116 This indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a — the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by netstat -i must be changed to colons and leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal number to convert the address into the form that &man.arp.8; desires; see the manual page on &man.arp.8; for complete information on usage. When you create /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the - “execute” bit (ie, chmod 755 + execute bit (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout) must be set, or sliplogin will be unable to execute it. <filename>slip.logout</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not - strictly needed (unless you are implementing “proxy - ARP”), but if you decide to create it, this is an + strictly needed (unless you are implementing proxy + ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic slip.logout script: #!/bin/sh - # # slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down - If you are using “proxy ARP”, you will want to + If you are using proxy ARP, you will want to have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the ARP entry for the SLIP client: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down # Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client /usr/sbin/arp -d $5 The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry - that the “proxy ARP” + that the proxy ARP slip.login added when the SLIP client logged in. It bears repeating: make sure /etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute bit set for after you create it (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout). Routing Considerations - If you are not using the “proxy ARP” method for + If you are not using the proxy ARP method for routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably either have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server, or you will probably need to install and configure gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server so that it will tell your routers via appropriate routing protocols about your SLIP subnet. Static Routes Adding static routes to your nearest default routers can be troublesome (or impossible, if you do not have authority to do so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your organization, some routers, such as Cisco and Proteon, may not only need to be configured with the static route to the SLIP subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to tell other routers about, so some expertise and troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get static-route-based routing to work. Running <command>gated</command> An alternative to the headaches of static routes is to install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols (RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP subnet. You can use gated from the ports collection or retrieve and build it yourself from the GateD anonymous ftp site; I believe the current version as of this writing is gated-R3_5Alpha_8.tar.Z, which includes - support for FreeBSD “out-of-the-box”. Complete + support for FreeBSD out-of-the-box. Complete information and documentation on gated is available on the Web starting at the Merit GateD Consortium. Compile and install it, and then write a /etc/gated.conf file to configure your gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a FreeBSD SLIP server: # # gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5 # Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface # # # tracing options # traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ; rip yes { interface sl noripout noripin ; interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ; traceoptions route ; } ; # # Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel: kernel { traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ; } ; # # Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP # export proto rip interface ed { proto direct { xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections } ; } ; # # Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces import proto rip interface ed { all ; } ; The above sample gated.conf file broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than the ed driver, you will need to change the references to the ed interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for debugging gated's activity; you can certainly turn off the tracing options if gated works OK for you. You will need to change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the net mask in the proto direct clause as well). When you get gated built and installed and create a configuration file for it, you will need to run gated in place of routed on your FreeBSD system; change the routed/gated startup parameters in /etc/netstart as appropriate for your system. Please see the manual page for gated for information on gated's command-line parameters. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml index 37d45e05a4..8400b1bf22 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4660 +1,4660 @@ Printing Contributed by &a.kelly;, 30 September 1995. Restructured and updated by &a.jim;, March 2000. Synopsis In order to use printers with FreeBSD, you will need to set them up to work with the Berkeley line printer spooling system, also known as the LPD spooling system. It is the standard printer control system in FreeBSD. This chapter introduces the LPD spooling system, often simply called LPD, and will guide you through it's configuration. If you are already familiar with LPD or another printer spooling system, you may wish to skip to section Setting up the spooling system. Introduction LPD controls everything about a host's printers. It is responsible for a number of things: It controls access to attached printers and printers attached to other hosts on the network. It enables users to submit files to be printed; these submissions are known as jobs. It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the same time by maintaining a queue for each printer. It can print header pages (also known as banner or burst pages) so users can easily find jobs they have printed in a stack of printouts. It takes care of communications parameters for printers connected on serial ports. It can send jobs over the network to another LPD spooler on another host. It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed for various printer languages or printer capabilities. It can account for printer usage. Through a configuration file (/etc/printcap), and by providing the special filter programs, you can enable the LPD system to do all or some subset of the above for a great variety of printer hardware. Why You Should Use the Spooler If you are the sole user of your system, you may be wondering why you should bother with the spooler when you do not need access control, header pages, or printer accounting. While it is possible to enable direct access to a printer, you should use the spooler anyway since: LPD prints jobs in the background; you do not have to wait for data to be copied to the printer. LPD can conveniently run a job to be printed through filters to add date/time headers or convert a special file format (such as a TeX DVI file) into a format the printer will understand. You will not have to do these steps manually. Many free and commercial programs that provide a print feature usually expect to talk to the spooler on your system. By setting up the spooling system, you will more easily support other software you may later add or already have. Basic Setup To use printers with the LPD spooling system, you will need to set up both your printer hardware and the LPD software. This document describes two levels of setup: See section Simple Printer Setup to learn how to connect a printer, tell LPD how to communicate with it, and print plain text files to the printer. See section Advanced Printer Setup to find out how to print a variety of special file formats, to print header pages, to print across a network, to control access to printers, and to do printer accounting. Simple Printer Setup This section tells how to configure printer hardware and the LPD software to use the printer. It teaches the basics: Section Hardware Setup gives some hints on connecting the printer to a port on your computer. Section Software Setup shows how to setup the LPD spooler configuration file (/etc/printcap). If you are setting up a printer that uses a network protocol to accept data to print instead of a serial or parallel interface, see Printers With Networked Data Stream Interaces. - Although this section is called “Simple Printer - Setup”, it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer + Although this section is called Simple Printer + Setup, it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer to work with your computer and the LPD spooler is the hardest part. The advanced options like header pages and accounting are fairly easy once you get the printer working. Hardware Setup This section tells about the various ways you can connect a printer to your PC. It talks about the kinds of ports and cables, and also the kernel configuration you may need to enable FreeBSD to speak to the printer. If you have already connected your printer and have successfully printed with it under another operating system, you can probably skip to section Software Setup. Ports and Cables Nearly all printers you can get for a PC today support one or both of the following interfaces: Serial interfaces use a serial port on your computer to send data to the printer. Serial interfaces are common in the computer industry and cables are readily available and also easy to construct. Serial interfaces sometimes need special cables and might require you to configure somewhat complex communications options. Parallel interfaces use a parallel port on your computer to send data to the printer. Parallel interfaces are common in the PC market. Cables are readily available but more difficult to construct by hand. There are usually no communications options with parallel interfaces, making their configuration exceedingly simple. Parallel interfaces are sometimes known as - “Centronics” interfaces, named after the + Centronics interfaces, named after the connector type on the printer. In general, serial interfaces are slower than parallel interfaces. Parallel interfaces usually offer just one-way communication (computer to printer) while serial gives you two-way. Many newer parallel ports can also receive data from the printer, but only few printers need to send data back to the computer. And FreeBSD does not support two-way parallel communication yet. Usually, the only time you need two-way communication with the printer is if the printer speaks PostScript. PostScript printers can be very verbose. In fact, PostScript jobs are actually programs sent to the printer; they need not produce paper at all and may return results directly to the computer. PostScript also uses two-way communication to tell the computer about problems, such as errors in the PostScript program or paper jams. Your users may be appreciative of such information. Furthermore, the best way to do effective accounting with a PostScript printer requires two-way communication: you ask the printer for its page count (how many pages it has printed in its lifetime), then send the user's job, then ask again for its page count. Subtract the two values and you know how much paper to charge the user. Parallel Ports To hook up a printer using a parallel interface, connect the Centronics cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. Remember which parallel port you used on the computer. The first parallel port is /dev/lpt0 to FreeBSD; the second is /dev/lpt1, and so on. Serial Ports To hook up a printer using a serial interface, connect the proper serial cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. - If you are unsure what the “proper serial - cable” is, you may wish to try one of the following + If you are unsure what the proper serial + cable is, you may wish to try one of the following alternatives: A modem cable connects each pin of the connector on one end of the cable straight through to its corresponding pin of the connector on the other end. This type of cable is also known as a - “DTE-to-DCE” cable. + DTE-to-DCE cable. A null-modem cable connects some pins straight through, swaps others (send data to receive data, for example), and shorts some internally in each connector hood. This type of cable is also known as a - “DTE-to-DTE” cable. + DTE-to-DTE cable. A serial printer cable, required for some unusual printers, is like the null modem cable, but sends some signals to their counterparts instead of being internally shorted. You should also set up the communications parameters for the printer, usually through front-panel controls or DIP switches on the printer. Choose the highest bps (bits per second, sometimes baud rate) rate that both your computer and the printer can support. Choose 7 or 8 data bits; none, even, or odd parity; and 1 or 2 stop bits. Also choose a flow control protocol: either none, or XON/XOFF (also known as - “in-band” or “software”) flow control. + in-band or software) flow control. Remember these settings for the software configuration that follows. Software Setup This section describes the software setup necessary to print with the LPD spooling system in FreeBSD. Here is an outline of the steps involved: Configure your kernel, if necessary, for the port you are using for the printer; section Kernel Configuration tells you what you need to do. Set the communications mode for the parallel port, if you are using a parallel port; section Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port gives details. Test if the operating system can send data to the printer. Section Checking Printer Communications gives some suggestions on how to do this. Set up LPD for the printer by modifying the file /etc/printcap. You will find out how to do this later in this chapter. Kernel Configuration The operating system kernel is compiled to work with a specific set of devices. The serial or parallel interface for your printer is a part of that set. Therefore, it might be necessary to add support for an additional serial or parallel port if your kernel is not already configured for one. To find out if the kernel you are currently using supports a serial interface, type: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep sioN Where N is the number of the serial port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following: sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A then the kernel supports the port. To find out if the kernel supports a parallel interface, type: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep lptN Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following lpt0 at 0x378-0x37f on isa then the kernel supports the port. You might have to reconfigure your kernel in order for the operating system to recognize and use the parallel or serial port you are using for the printer. To add support for a serial port, see the section on kernel configuration. To add support for a parallel port, see that section and the section that follows. Adding <filename>/dev</filename> Entries for the Ports Even though the kernel may support communication along a serial or parallel port, you will still need a software interface through which programs running on the system can send and receive data. That is what entries in the /dev directory are for. To add a /dev entry for a port: Become root with the &man.su.1; command. Enter the root password when prompted. Change to the /dev directory: &prompt.root; cd /dev Type: &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV port Where port is the device entry for the port you want to make. Use lpt0 for the first parallel port, lpt1 for the second, and so on; use ttyd0 for the first serial port, ttyd1 for the second, and so on. Type: &prompt.root; ls -l port to make sure the device entry got created. Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port When you are using the parallel interface, you can choose whether FreeBSD should use interrupt-driven or polled communication with the printer. The interrupt-driven method is the default with the GENERIC kernel. With this method, the operating system uses an IRQ line to determine when the printer is ready for data. The polled method directs the operating system to repeatedly ask the printer if it is ready for more data. When it responds ready, the kernel sends more data. The interrupt-driven method is somewhat faster but uses up a precious IRQ line. You should use whichever one works. You can set the communications mode in two ways: by configuring the kernel or by using the &man.lptcontrol.8; program. To set the communications mode by configuring the kernel: Edit your kernel configuration file. Look for or add an lpt0 entry. If you are setting up the second parallel port, use lpt1 instead. Use lpt2 for the third port, and so on. If you want interrupt-driven mode, add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty irq N vector lptintr Where N is the IRQ number for your computer's parallel port. If you want polled mode, do not add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty vector lptintr Save the file. Then configure, build, and install the kernel, then reboot. See kernel configuration for more details. To set the communications mode with &man.lptcontrol.8;: Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -i -u N to set interrupt-driven mode for lptN. Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -p -u N to set polled-mode for lptN. You could put these commands in your /etc/rc.local file to set the mode each time your system boots. See &man.lptcontrol.8; for more information. Checking Printer Communications Before proceeding to configure the spooling system, you should make sure the operating system can successfully send data to your printer. It is a lot easier to debug printer communication and the spooling system separately. To test the printer, we will send some text to it. For printers that can immediately print characters sent to them, the program &man.lptest.1; is perfect: it generates all 96 printable ASCII characters in 96 lines. For a PostScript (or other language-based) printer, we will need a more sophisticated test. A small PostScript program, such as the following, will suffice: %!PS 100 100 moveto 300 300 lineto stroke 310 310 moveto /Helvetica findfont 12 scalefont setfont (Is this thing working?) show showpage When this document refers to a printer language, it is assuming a language like PostScript, and not Hewlett Packard's PCL. Although PCL has great functionality, you can intermingle plain text with its escape sequences. PostScript cannot directly print plain text, and that is the kind of printer language for which we must make special accommodations. Checking a Parallel Printer This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer connected to a parallel port. To test a printer on a parallel port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: &prompt.root; lptest > /dev/lptN Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type: &prompt.root; cat > /dev/lptN Then, line by line, type the program carefully as you cannot edit a line once you have pressed RETURN or ENTER. When you have finished entering the program, press CONTROL+D, or whatever your end of file key is. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: &prompt.root; cat file > /dev/lptN Where file is the name of the file containing the program you want to send to the printer. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix such things later. Checking a Serial Printer This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer on a serial port. To test a printer on a serial port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Edit the file /etc/remote. Add the following entry: printer:dv=/dev/port:br#bps-rate:pa=parity Where port is the device entry for the serial port (ttyd0, ttyd1, etc.), bps-rate is the bits-per-second rate at which the printer communicates, and parity is the parity required by the printer (either even, odd, none, or zero). Here is a sample entry for a printer connected via a serial line to the third serial port at 19200 bps with no parity: printer:dv=/dev/ttyd2:br#19200:pa=none Connect to the printer with &man.tip.1;. Type: &prompt.root; tip printer If this step does not work, edit the file /etc/remote again and try using /dev/cuaaN instead of /dev/ttydN. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: ~$lptest If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type the program, line by line, very carefully as backspacing or other editing keys may be significant to the printer. You may also need to type a special end-of-file key for the printer so it knows it received the whole program. For PostScript printers, press CONTROL+D. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: ~>file Where file is the name of the file containing the program. After &man.tip.1; sends the file, press any required end-of-file key. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix that later. Enabling the Spooler: The <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> File At this point, your printer should be hooked up, your kernel configured to communicate with it (if necessary), and you have been able to send some simple data to the printer. Now, we are ready to configure LPD to control access to your printer. You configure LPD by editing the file /etc/printcap. The LPD spooling system reads this file each time the spooler is used, so updates to the file take immediate effect. The format of the &man.printcap.5; file is straightforward. Use your favorite text editor to make changes to /etc/printcap. The format is identical to other capability files like /usr/share/misc/termcap and /etc/remote. For complete information about the format, see the &man.cgetent.3;. The simple spooler configuration consists of the following steps: Pick a name (and a few convenient aliases) for the printer, and put them in the /etc/printcap file; see the Naming the Printer section for more information on naming. Turn off header pages (which are on by default) by inserting the sh capability; see the Suppressing Header Pages section for more information. Make a spooling directory, and specify its location with the sd capability; see the Making the Spooling Directory section for more information. Set the /dev entry to use for the printer, and note it in /etc/printcap with the lp capability; see the Identifying the Printer Device for more information. Also, if the printer is on a serial port, set up the communication parameters with the fs, fc, xs, and xc capabilities; which is discussed in the Configuring Spooler Communications Parameters section. Install a plain text input filter; see the Installing the Text Filter section for details. Test the setup by printing something with the &man.lpr.1; command. More details are available in the Trying It Out and Troubleshooting sections. Language-based printers, such as PostScript printers, cannot directly print plain text. The simple setup outlined above and described in the following sections assumes that if you are installing such a printer you will print only files that the printer can understand. Users often expect that they can print plain text to any of the printers installed on your system. Programs that interface to LPD to do their printing usually make the same assumption. If you are installing such a printer and want to be able to print jobs in the printer language and print plain text jobs, you are strongly urged to add an additional step to the simple setup outlined above: install an automatic plain-text-to-PostScript (or other printer language) conversion program. The section entitled Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells how to do this. Naming the Printer The first (easy) step is to pick a name for your printer It really does not matter whether you choose functional or whimsical names since you can also provide a number aliases for the printer. At least one of the printers specified in the /etc/printcap should have the alias lp. This is the default printer's name. If users do not have the PRINTER environment variable nor specify a printer name on the command line of any of the LPD commands, then lp will be the default printer they get to use. Also, it is common practice to make the last alias for a printer be a full description of the printer, including make and model. Once you have picked a name and some common aliases, put them in the /etc/printcap file. The name of the printer should start in the leftmost column. Separate each alias with a vertical bar and put a colon after the last alias. In the following example, we start with a skeletal /etc/printcap that defines two printers (a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript laser printer): # # /etc/printcap for host rose # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4: In this example, the first printer is named rattan and has as aliases line, diablo, lp, and Diablo 630 Line Printer. Since it has the alias lp, it is also the default printer. The second is named bamboo, and has as aliases ps, PS, S, panasonic, and Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4. Suppressing Header Pages The LPD spooling system will by default print a header page for each job. The header page contains the user name who requested the job, the host from which the job came, and the name of the job, in nice large letters. Unfortunately, all this extra text gets in the way of debugging the simple printer setup, so we will suppress header pages. To suppress header pages, add the sh capability to the entry for the printer in /etc/printcap. Here is an example /etc/printcap with sh added: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - no header pages anywhere # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh: Note how we used the correct format: the first line starts in the leftmost column, and subsequent lines are indented with a single TAB. Every line in an entry except the last ends in a backslash character. Making the Spooling Directory The next step in the simple spooler setup is to make a spooling directory, a directory where print jobs reside until they are printed, and where a number of other spooler support files live. Because of the variable nature of spooling directories, it is customary to put these directories under /var/spool. It is not necessary to backup the contents of spooling directories, either. Recreating them is as simple as running &man.mkdir.1;. It is also customary to make the directory with a name that is identical to the name of the printer, as shown below: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/printer-name However, if you have a lot of printers on your network, you might want to put the spooling directories under a single directory that you reserve just for printing with LPD. We will do this for our two example printers rattan and bamboo: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/bamboo If you are concerned about the privacy of jobs that users print, you might want to protect the spooling directory so it is not publicly accessible. Spooling directories should be owned and be readable, writable, and searchable by user daemon and group daemon, and no one else. We will do this for our example printers: &prompt.root; chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Finally, you need to tell LPD about these directories using the /etc/printcap file. You specify the pathname of the spooling directory with the sd capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added spooling directories # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Note that the name of the printer starts in the first column but all other entries describing the printer should be indented with a tab and each line escaped with a backslash. If you do not specify a spooling directory with sd, the spooling system will use /var/spool/lpd as a default. Identifying the Printer Device In the Adding /dev Entries for the Ports section, we identified which entry in the /dev directory FreeBSD will use to communicate with the printer. Now, we tell LPD that information. When the spooling system has a job to print, it will open the specified device on behalf of the filter program (which is responsible for passing data to the printer). List the /dev entry pathname in the /etc/printcap file using the lp capability. In our running example, let us assume that rattan is on the first parallel port, and bamboo is on a sixth serial port; here are the additions to /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - identified what devices to use # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5: If you do not specify the lp capability for a printer in your /etc/printcap file, LPD uses /dev/lp as a default. /dev/lp currently does not exist in FreeBSD. If the printer you are installing is connected to a parallel port, skip to the section entitled, Installing the Text Filter. Otherwise, be sure to follow the instructions in the next section. Configuring Spooler Communication Parameters For printers on serial ports, LPD can set up the bps rate, parity, and other serial communication parameters on behalf of the filter program that sends data to the printer. This is advantageous since: It lets you try different communication parameters by simply editing the /etc/printcap file; you do not have to recompile the filter program. It enables the spooling system to use the same filter program for multiple printers which may have different serial communication settings. The following /etc/printcap capabilities control serial communication parameters of the device listed in the lp capability: br#bps-rate Sets the communications speed of the device to bps-rate, where bps-rate can be 50, 75, 110, 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, or 38400 bits-per-second. fc#clear-bits Clears the flag bits clear-bits in the sgttyb structure after opening the device. fs#set-bits Sets the flag bits set-bits in the sgttyb structure. xc#clear-bits Clears local mode bits clear-bits after opening the device. xs#set-bits Sets local mode bits set-bits. For more information on the bits for the fc, fs, xc, and xs capabilities, see the file /usr/include/sys/ioctl_compat.h. When LPD opens the device specified by the lp capability, it reads the flag bits in the sgttyb structure; it clears any bits in the fc capability, then sets bits in the fs capability, then applies the resultant setting. It does the same for the local mode bits as well. Let us add to our example printer on the sixth serial port. We will set the bps rate to 38400. For the flag bits, we will set the TANDEM, ANYP, LITOUT, FLUSHO, and PASS8 flags. For the local mode bits, we will set the LITOUT and PASS8 flags: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000c1:xs#0x820: Installing the Text Filter We are now ready to tell LPD what text filter to use to send jobs to the printer. A text filter, also known as an input filter, is a program that LPD runs when it has a job to print. When LPD runs the text filter for a printer, it sets the filter's standard input to the job to print, and its standard output to the printer device specified with the lp capability. The filter is expected to read the job from standard input, perform any necessary translation for the printer, and write the results to standard output, which will get printed. For more information on the text filter, see the Filters section. For our simple printer setup, the text filter can be a small shell script that just executes /bin/cat to send the job to the printer. FreeBSD comes with another filter called lpf that handles backspacing and underlining for printers that might not deal with such character streams well. And, of course, you can use any other filter program you want. The filter lpf is described in detail in section entitled lpf: a Text Filter. First, let us make the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple be a simple text filter. Put the following text into that file with your favorite text editor: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. /bin/cat && exit 0 exit 2 Make the file executable: &prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/if-simple And then tell LPD to use it by specifying it with the if capability in /etc/printcap. We will add it to the two printers we have so far in the example /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added text filter # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: Turn on LPD &man.lpd.8; is run from /etc/rc, controlled by the lpd_enable variable. This variable defaults to NO. If you have not done so already, add the line: lpd_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf, and then either restart your machine, or just run &man.lpd.8;. &prompt.root; lpd Trying It Out You have reached the end of the simple LPD setup. Unfortunately, congratulations are not quite yet in order, since we still have to test the setup and correct any problems. To test the setup, try printing something. To print with the LPD system, you use the command &man.lpr.1;, which submits a job for printing. You can combine &man.lpr.1; with the &man.lptest.1; program, introduced in section Checking Printer Communications to generate some test text. To test the simple LPD setup: Type: &prompt.root; lptest 20 5 | lpr -Pprinter-name Where printer-name is a the name of a printer (or an alias) specified in /etc/printcap. To test the default printer, type &man.lpr.1; without any argument. Again, if you are testing a printer that expects PostScript, send a PostScript program in that language instead of using &man.lptest.1;. You can do so by putting the program in a file and typing lpr file. For a PostScript printer, you should get the results of the program. If you are using &man.lptest.1;, then your results should look like the following: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 $%&'()*+,-./01234567 %&'()*+,-./012345678 To further test the printer, try downloading larger programs (for language-based printers) or running &man.lptest.1; with different arguments. For example, lptest 80 60 will produce 60 lines of 80 characters each. If the printer did not work, see the Troubleshooting section. Advanced Printer Setup This section describes filters for printing specially formatted files, header pages, printing across networks, and restricting and accounting for printer usage. Filters Although LPD handles network protocols, queuing, access control, and other aspects of printing, most of the real work happens in the filters. Filters are programs that communicate with the printer and handle its device dependencies and special requirements. In the simple printer setup, we installed a plain text filter—an extremely simple one that should work with most printers (section Installing the Text Filter). However, in order to take advantage of format conversion, printer accounting, specific printer quirks, and so on, you should understand how filters work. It will ultimately be the filter's responsibility to handle these aspects. And the bad news is that most of the time you have to provide filters yourself. The good news is that many are generally available; when they are not, they are usually easy to write. Also, FreeBSD comes with one, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, that works with many printers that can print plain text. (It handles backspacing and tabs in the file, and does accounting, but that is about all it does.) There are also several filters and filter components in the FreeBSD ports collection. Here is what you will find in this section: Section How Filters Work, tries to give an overview of a filter's role in the printing process. You should read this section to get an - understanding of what is happening “under the hood” + understanding of what is happening under the hood when LPD uses filters. This knowledge could help you anticipate and debug problems you might encounter as you install more and more filters on each of your printers. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default. This presents a problem for PostScript (or other language-based printers) which cannot directly print plain text. Section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells you what you should do to overcome this problem. I recommend reading this section if you have a PostScript printer. PostScript is a popular output format for many programs. Even some people (myself included) write PostScript code directly. But PostScript printers are expensive. Section Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers tells how you can further modify a printer's text filter to accept and print PostScript data on a non-PostScript printer. I recommend reading this section if you do not have a PostScript printer. Section Conversion Filters tells about a way you can automate the conversion of specific file formats, such as graphic or typesetting data, into formats your printer can understand. After reading this section, you should be able to set up your printers such that users can type lpr -t to print troff data, or lpr -d to print TeX DVI data, or lpr -v to print raster image data, and so forth. I recommend reading this section. Section Output Filters tells all about a not often used feature of LPD: output filters. Unless you are printing header pages (see Header Pages), you can probably skip that section altogether. Section lpf: a Text Filter describes lpf, a fairly complete if simple text filter for line printers (and laser printers that act like line printers) that comes with FreeBSD. If you need a quick way to get printer accounting working for plain text, or if you have a printer which emits smoke when it sees backspace characters, you should definitely consider lpf. How Filters Work As mentioned before, a filter is an executable program started by LPD to handle the device-dependent part of communicating with the printer. When LPD wants to print a file in a job, it starts a filter program. It sets the filter's standard input to the file to print, its standard output to the printer, and its standard error to the error logging file (specified in the lf capability in /etc/printcap, or /dev/console by default). Which filter LPD starts and the filter's arguments depend on what is listed in the /etc/printcap file and what arguments the user specified for the job on the &man.lpr.1; command line. For example, if the user typed lpr -t, LPD would start the troff filter, listed in the tf capability for the destination printer. If the user wanted to print plain text, it would start the if filter (this is mostly true: see Output Filters for details). There are three kinds of filters you can specify in /etc/printcap: The text filter, confusingly called the input filter in LPD documentation, handles regular text printing. Think of it as the default filter. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default, and it is the text filter's job to make sure backspaces, tabs, or other special characters do not confuse the printer. If you are in an environment where you have to account for printer usage, the text filter must also account for pages printed, usually by counting the number of lines printed and comparing that to the number of lines per page the printer supports. The text filter is started with the following argument list: filter-name -c -wwidth -llength -iindent -n login -h host acct-file where appears if the job's submitted with lpr -l width is the value from the pw (page width) capability specified in /etc/printcap, default 132 length is the value from the pl (page length) capability, default 66 indent is the amount of the indentation from lpr -i, default 0 login is the account name of the user printing the file host is the host name from which the job was submitted acct-file is the name of the accounting file from the af capability. A conversion filter converts a specific file format into one the printer can render onto paper. For example, ditroff typesetting data cannot be directly printed, but you can install a conversion filter for ditroff files to convert the ditroff data into a form the printer can digest and print. Section Conversion Filters tells all about them. Conversion filters also need to do accounting, if you need printer accounting. Conversion filters are started with the following arguments: filter-name -xpixel-width -ypixel-height -n login -h host acct-file where pixel-width is the value from the px capability (default 0) and pixel-height is the value from the py capability (default 0). The output filter is used only if there is no text filter, or if header pages are enabled. In my experience, output filters are rarely used. Section Output Filters describe them. There are only two arguments to an output filter: filter-name -wwidth -llength which are identical to the text filters and arguments. Filters should also exit with the following exit status: exit 0 If the filter printed the file successfully. exit 1 If the filter failed to print the file but wants LPD to try to print the file again. LPD will restart a filter if it exits with this status. exit 2 If the filter failed to print the file and does not want LPD to try again. LPD will throw out the file. The text filter that comes with the FreeBSD release, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, takes advantage of the page width and length arguments to determine when to send a form feed and how to account for printer usage. It uses the login, host, and accounting file arguments to make the accounting entries. If you are shopping for filters, see if they are LPD-compatible. If they are, they must support the argument lists described above. If you plan on writing filters for general use, then have them support the same argument lists and exit codes. Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers If you are the only user of your computer and PostScript (or other language-based) printer, and you promise to never send plain text to your printer and to never use features of various programs that will want to send plain text to your printer, then you do not need to worry about this section at all. But, if you would like to send both PostScript and plain text jobs to the printer, then you are urged to augment your printer setup. To do so, we have the text filter detect if the arriving job is plain text or PostScript. All PostScript jobs must start with %! (for other printer languages, see your printer documentation). If those are the first two characters in the job, we have PostScript, and can pass the rest of the job directly. If those are not the first two characters in the file, then the filter will convert the text into PostScript and print the result. How do we do this? If you have got a serial printer, a great way to do it is to install lprps. lprps is a PostScript printer filter which performs two-way communication with the printer. It updates the printer's status file with verbose information from the printer, so users and administrators can see exactly what the state of the printer is (such as toner low or paper jam). But more importantly, it includes a program called psif which detects whether the incoming job is plain text and calls textps (another program that comes with lprps) to convert it to PostScript. It then uses lprps to send the job to the printer. lprps is part of the FreeBSD ports collection (see The Ports Collection). You can fetch, build and install it yourself, of course. After installing lprps, just specify the pathname to the psif program that is part of lprps. If you installed lprps from the ports collection, use the following in the serial PostScript printer's entry in /etc/printcap: :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif: You should also specify the rw capability; that tells LPD to open the printer in read-write mode. If you have a parallel PostScript printer (and therefore cannot use two-way communication with the printer, which lprps needs), you can use the following shell script as the text filter: #!/bin/sh # # psif - Print PostScript or plain text on a PostScript printer # Script version; NOT the version that comes with lprps # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psif # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # PostScript job, print it. # echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 else # # Plain text, convert it, then print it. # ( echo "$first_line"; cat ) | /usr/local/bin/textps && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 fi In the above script, textps is a program we installed separately to convert plain text to PostScript. You can use any text-to-PostScript program you wish. The FreeBSD ports collection (see The Ports Collection) includes a full featured text-to-PostScript program called a2ps that you might want to investigate. Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers PostScript is the de facto standard for high quality typesetting and printing. PostScript is, however, an expensive standard. Thankfully, Alladin Enterprises has a free PostScript work-alike called Ghostscript that runs with FreeBSD. Ghostscript can read most PostScript files and can render their pages onto a variety of devices, including many brands of non-PostScript printers. By installing Ghostscript and using a special text filter for your printer, you can make your non-PostScript printer act like a real PostScript printer. Ghostscript should be in the FreeBSD ports collection, if you would like to install it from there. You can fetch, build, and install it quite easily yourself, as well. To simulate PostScript, we have the text filter detect if it is printing a PostScript file. If it is not, then the filter will pass the file directly to the printer; otherwise, it will use Ghostscript to first convert the file into a format the printer will understand. Here is an example: the following script is a text filter for Hewlett Packard DeskJet 500 printers. For other printers, substitute the argument to the gs (Ghostscript) command. (Type gs -h to get a list of devices the current installation of Ghostscript supports.) #!/bin/sh # # ifhp - Print Ghostscript-simulated PostScript on a DeskJet 500 # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Treat LF as CR+LF: # printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 # # Read first two characters of the file # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # It is PostScript; use Ghostscript to scan-convert and print it. # # Note that PostScript files are actually interpreted programs, # and those programs are allowed to write to stdout, which will # mess up the printed output. So, we redirect stdout to stderr # and then make descriptor 3 go to stdout, and have Ghostscript # write its output there. Exercise for the clever reader: # capture the stderr output from Ghostscript and mail it back to # the user originating the print job. # exec 3>&1 1>&2 /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 \ -sOutputFile=/dev/fd/3 - && exit 0 # /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 -sOutputFile=- - \ && exit 0 else # # Plain text or HP/PCL, so just print it directly; print a form # at the end to eject the last page. # echo $first_line && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 fi exit 2 Finally, you need to notify LPD of the filter via the if capability: :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: That is it. You can type lpr plain.text and lpr whatever.ps and both should print successfully. Conversion Filters After completing the simple setup described in Simple Printer Setup, the first thing you will probably want to do is install conversion filters for your favorite file formats (besides plain ASCII text). Why Install Conversion Filters? Conversion filters make printing various kinds of files easy. As an example, suppose we do a lot of work with the TeX typesetting system, and we have a PostScript printer. Every time we generate a DVI file from TeX, we cannot print it directly until we convert the DVI file into PostScript. The command sequence goes like this: &prompt.user; dvips seaweed-analysis.dvi &prompt.user; lpr seaweed-analysis.ps By installing a conversion filter for DVI files, we can skip the hand conversion step each time by having LPD do it for us. Now, each time we get a DVI file, we are just one step away from printing it: &prompt.user; lpr -d seaweed-analysis.dvi We got LPD to do the DVI file conversion for us by specifying the option. Section Formatting and Conversion Options lists the conversion options. For each of the conversion options you want a printer to support, install a conversion filter and specify its pathname in /etc/printcap. A conversion filter is like the text filter for the simple printer setup (see section Installing the Text Filter) except that instead of printing plain text, the filter converts the file into a format the printer can understand. Which Conversions Filters Should I Install? You should install the conversion filters you expect to use. If you print a lot of DVI data, then a DVI conversion filter is in order. If you have got plenty of troff to print out, then you probably want a troff filter. The following table summarizes the filters that LPD works with, their capability entries for the /etc/printcap file, and how to invoke them with the lpr command: File type /etc/printcap capability lpr option cifplot cf DVI df plot gf ditroff nf FORTRAN text rf troff rf raster vf plain text if none, , or In our example, using lpr -d means the printer needs a df capability in its entry in /etc/printcap. Despite what others might contend, formats like FORTRAN text and plot are probably obsolete. At your site, you can give new meanings to these or any of the formatting options just by installing custom filters. For example, suppose you would like to directly print Printerleaf files (files from the Interleaf desktop publishing program), but will never print plot files. You could install a Printerleaf conversion filter under the gf capability and then educate your users that - lpr -g mean “print Printerleaf - files.” + lpr -g mean print Printerleaf + files. Installing Conversion Filters Since conversion filters are programs you install outside of the base FreeBSD installation, they should probably go under /usr/local. The directory /usr/local/libexec is a popular location, since they are specialized programs that only LPD will run; regular users should not ever need to run them. To enable a conversion filter, specify its pathname under the appropriate capability for the destination printer in /etc/printcap. In our example, we will add the DVI conversion filter to the entry for the printer named bamboo. Here is the example /etc/printcap file again, with the new df capability for the printer bamboo. # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added df filter for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The DVI filter is a shell script named /usr/local/libexec/psdf. Here is that script: #!bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # exec /usr/local/bin/dvips -f | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" This script runs dvips in filter mode (the argument) on standard input, which is the job to print. It then starts the PostScript printer filter lprps (see section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers) with the arguments LPD passed to this script. lprps will use those arguments to account for the pages printed. More Conversion Filter Examples Since there is no fixed set of steps to install conversion filters, let me instead provide more examples. Use these as guidance to making your own filters. Use them directly, if appropriate. This example script is a raster (well, GIF file, actually) conversion filter for a Hewlett Packard LaserJet III-Si printer: #!/bin/sh # # hpvf - Convert GIF files into HP/PCL, then print # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpvf PATH=/usr/X11R6/bin:$PATH; export PATH giftopnm | ppmtopgm | pgmtopbm | pbmtolj -resolution 300 \ && exit 0 \ || exit 2 It works by converting the GIF file into a portable anymap, converting that into a portable graymap, converting that into a portable bitmap, and converting that into LaserJet/PCL-compatible data. Here is the /etc/printcap file with an entry for a printer using the above filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf: The following script is a conversion filter for troff data from the groff typesetting system for the PostScript printer named bamboo: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" The above script makes use of lprps again to handle the communication with the printer. If the printer were on a parallel port, we would use this script instead: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops That is it. Here is the entry we need to add to /etc/printcap to enable the filter: :tf=/usr/local/libexec/pstf: Here is an example that might make old hands at FORTRAN blush. It is a FORTRAN-text filter for any printer that can directly print plain text. We will install it for the printer teak: #!/bin/sh # # hprf - FORTRAN text filter for LaserJet 3si: # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hprf # printf "\033&k2G" && fpr && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 And we will add this line to the /etc/printcap for the printer teak to enable this filter: :rf=/usr/local/libexec/hprf: Here is one final, somewhat complex example. We will add a DVI filter to the LaserJet printer teak introduced earlier. First, the easy part: updating /etc/printcap with the location of the DVI filter: :df=/usr/local/libexec/hpdf: Now, for the hard part: making the filter. For that, we need a DVI-to-LaserJet/PCL conversion program. The FreeBSD ports collection (see The Ports Collection) has one: dvi2xx is the name of the package. Installing this package gives us the program we need, dvilj2p, which converts DVI into LaserJet IIp, LaserJet III, and LaserJet 2000 compatible codes. dvilj2p makes the filter hpdf quite complex since dvilj2p cannot read from standard input. It wants to work with a filename. What is worse, the filename has to end in .dvi so using /dev/fd/0 for standard input is problematic. We can get around that problem by linking (symbolically) a temporary file name (one that ends in .dvi) to /dev/fd/0, thereby forcing dvilj2p to read from standard input. The only other fly in the ointment is the fact that we cannot use /tmp for the temporary link. Symbolic links are owned by user and group bin. The filter runs as user daemon. And the /tmp directory has the sticky bit set. The filter can create the link, but it will not be able clean up when done and remove it since the link will belong to a different user. Instead, the filter will make the symbolic link in the current working directory, which is the spooling directory (specified by the sd capability in /etc/printcap). This is a perfect place for filters to do their work, especially since there is (sometimes) more free disk space in the spooling directory than under /tmp. Here, finally, is the filter: #!/bin/sh # # hpdf - Print DVI data on HP/PCL printer # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpdf PATH=/usr/local/bin:$PATH; export PATH # # Define a function to clean up our temporary files. These exist # in the current directory, which will be the spooling directory # for the printer. # cleanup() { rm -f hpdf$$.dvi } # # Define a function to handle fatal errors: print the given message # and exit 2. Exiting with 2 tells LPD to do not try to reprint the # job. # fatal() { echo "$@" 1>&2 cleanup exit 2 } # # If user removes the job, LPD will send SIGINT, so trap SIGINT # (and a few other signals) to clean up after ourselves. # trap cleanup 1 2 15 # # Make sure we are not colliding with any existing files. # cleanup # # Link the DVI input file to standard input (the file to print). # ln -s /dev/fd/0 hpdf$$.dvi || fatal "Cannot symlink /dev/fd/0" # # Make LF = CR+LF # printf "\033&k2G" || fatal "Cannot initialize printer" # # Convert and print. Return value from dvilj2p does not seem to be # reliable, so we ignore it. # dvilj2p -M1 -q -e- dfhp$$.dvi # # Clean up and exit # cleanup exit 0 Automated Conversion: An Alternative To Conversion Filters All these conversion filters accomplish a lot for your printing environment, but at the cost forcing the user to specify (on the &man.lpr.1; command line) which one to use. If your users are not particularly computer literate, having to specify a filter option will become annoying. What is worse, though, is that an incorrectly specified filter option may run a filter on the wrong type of file and cause your printer to spew out hundreds of sheets of paper. Rather than install conversion filters at all, you might want to try having the text filter (since it is the default filter) detect the type of file it has been asked to print and then automatically run the right conversion filter. Tools such as file can be of help here. Of course, it will be hard to determine the differences between some file types—and, of course, you can still provide conversion filters just for them. The FreeBSD ports collection has a text filter that performs automatic conversion called apsfilter. It can detect plain text, PostScript, and DVI files, run the proper conversions, and print. Output Filters The LPD spooling system supports one other type of filter that we have not yet explored: an output filter. An output filter is intended for printing plain text only, like the text filter, but with many simplifications. If you are using an output filter but no text filter, then: LPD starts an output filter once for the entire job instead of once for each file in the job. LPD does not make any provision to identify the start or the end of files within the job for the output filter. LPD does not pass the user's login or host to the filter, so it is not intended to do accounting. In fact, it gets only two arguments: filter-name -wwidth -llength Where width is from the pw capability and length is from the pl capability for the printer in question. Do not be seduced by an output filter's simplicity. If you would like each file in a job to start on a different page an output filter will not work. Use a text filter (also known as an input filter); see section Installing the Text Filter. Furthermore, an output filter is actually more complex in that it has to examine the byte stream being sent to it for special flag characters and must send signals to itself on behalf of LPD. However, an output filter is necessary if you want header pages and need to send escape sequences or other initialization strings to be able to print the header page. (But it is also futile if you want to charge header pages to the requesting user's account, since LPD does not give any user or host information to the output filter.) On a single printer, LPD allows both an output filter and text or other filters. In such cases, LPD will start the output filter to print the header page (see section Header Pages) only. LPD then expects the output filter to stop itself by sending two bytes to the filter: ASCII 031 followed by ASCII 001. When an output filter sees these two bytes (031, 001), it should stop by sending SIGSTOP to itself. When LPD's done running other filters, it will restart the output filter by sending SIGCONT to it. If there is an output filter but no text filter and LPD is working on a plain text job, LPD uses the output filter to do the job. As stated before, the output filter will print each file of the job in sequence with no intervening form feeds or other paper advancement, and this is probably not what you want. In almost all cases, you need a text filter. The program lpf, which we introduced earlier as a text filter, can also run as an output filter. If you need a quick-and-dirty output filter but do not want to write the byte detection and signal sending code, try lpf. You can also wrap lpf in a shell script to handle any initialization codes the printer might require. <command>lpf</command>: a Text Filter The program /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf that comes with FreeBSD binary distribution is a text filter (input filter) that can indent output (job submitted with lpr -i), allow literal characters to pass (job submitted with lpr -l), adjust the printing position for backspaces and tabs in the job, and account for pages printed. It can also act like an output filter. lpf is suitable for many printing environments. And although it has no capability to send initialization sequences to a printer, it is easy to write a shell script to do the needed initialization and then execute lpf. In order for lpf to do page accounting correctly, it needs correct values filled in for the pw and pl capabilities in the /etc/printcap file. It uses these values to determine how much text can fit on a page and how many pages were in a user's job. For more information on printer accounting, see Accounting for Printer Usage. Header Pages If you have lots of users, all of them using various printers, then you probably want to consider header pages as a necessary evil. Header pages, also known as banner or burst pages identify to whom jobs belong after they are printed. They are usually printed in large, bold letters, perhaps with decorative borders, so that in a stack of printouts they stand out from the real documents that comprise users' jobs. They enable users to locate their jobs quickly. The obvious drawback to a header page is that it is yet one more sheet that has to be printed for every job, their ephemeral usefulness lasting not more than a few minutes, ultimately finding themselves in a recycling bin or rubbish heap. (Note that header pages go with each job, not each file in a job, so the paper waste might not be that bad.) The LPD system can provide header pages automatically for your printouts if your printer can directly print plain text. If you have a PostScript printer, you will need an external program to generate the header page; see Header Pages on PostScript Printers. Enabling Header Pages In the Simple Printer Setup, we turned off header pages by specifying - sh (meaning “suppress header”) in the + sh (meaning suppress header) in the /etc/printcap file. To enable header pages for a printer, just remove the sh capability. Sounds too easy, right? You are right. You might have to provide an output filter to send initialization strings to the printer. Here is an example output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers: #!/bin/sh # # hpof - Output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpof printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf Specify the path to the output filter in the of capability. See Output Filters for more information. Here is an example /etc/printcap file for the printer teak that we introduced earlier; we enabled header pages and added the above output filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/hpof: Now, when users print jobs to teak, they get a header page with each job. If users want to spend time searching for their printouts, they can suppress header pages by submitting the job with lpr -h; see Header Page Options for more &man.lpr.1; options. LPD prints a form feed character after the header page. If your printer uses a different character or sequence of characters to eject a page, specify them with the ff capability in /etc/printcap. Controlling Header Pages By enabling header pages, LPD will produce a long header, a full page of large letters identifying the user, host, and job. Here is an example (kelly printed the job named outline from host rose): k ll ll k l l k l l k k eeee l l y y k k e e l l y y k k eeeeee l l y y kk k e l l y y k k e e l l y yy k k eeee lll lll yyy y y y y yyyy ll t l i t l oooo u u ttttt l ii n nnn eeee o o u u t l i nn n e e o o u u t l i n n eeeeee o o u u t l i n n e o o u uu t t l i n n e e oooo uuu u tt lll iii n n eeee r rrr oooo ssss eeee rr r o o s s e e r o o ss eeeeee r o o ss e r o o s s e e r oooo ssss eeee Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:04:58 1995 LPD appends a form feed after this text so the job starts on a new page (unless you have sf (suppress form feeds) in the destination printer's entry in /etc/printcap). If you prefer, LPD can make a short header; specify sb (short banner) in the /etc/printcap file. The header page will look like this: rose:kelly Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:07:51 1995 Also by default, LPD prints the header page first, then the job. To reverse that, specify hl (header last) in /etc/printcap. Accounting for Header Pages Using LPD's built-in header pages enforces a particular paradigm when it comes to printer accounting: header pages must be free of charge. Why? Because the output filter is the only external program that will have control when the header page is printed that could do accounting, and it is not provided with any user or host information or an accounting file, so it has no idea whom to charge for printer use. It is also not enough to just - “add one page” to the text filter or any of the + add one page to the text filter or any of the conversion filters (which do have user and host information) since users can suppress header pages with lpr -h. They could still be charged for header pages they did not print. Basically, lpr -h will be the preferred option of environmentally-minded users, but you cannot offer any incentive to use it. It is still not enough to have each of the filters generate their own header pages (thereby being able to charge for them). If users wanted the option of suppressing the header pages with lpr -h, they will still get them and be charged for them since LPD does not pass any knowledge of the option to any of the filters. So, what are your options? You can: Accept LPD's paradigm and make header pages free. Install an alternative to LPD, such as LPRng or PLP. Section Alternatives to the Standard Spooler tells more about other spooling software you can substitute for LPD. Write a smart output filter. Normally, an output filter is not meant to do anything more than initialize a printer or do some simple character conversion. It is suited for header pages and plain text jobs (when there is no text (input) filter). But, if there is a text filter for the plain text jobs, then LPD will start the output filter only for the header pages. And the output filter can parse the header page text that LPD generates to determine what user and host to charge for the header page. The only other problem with this method is that the output filter still does not know what accounting file to use (it is not passed the name of the file from the af capability), but if you have a well-known accounting file, you can hard-code that into the output filter. To facilitate the parsing step, use the sh (short header) capability in /etc/printcap. Then again, all that might be too much trouble, and users will certainly appreciate the more generous system administrator who makes header pages free. Header Pages on PostScript Printers As described above, LPD can generate a plain text header page suitable for many printers. Of course, PostScript cannot directly print plain text, so the header page feature of LPD is useless—or mostly so. One obvious way to get header pages is to have every conversion filter and the text filter generate the header page. The filters should should use the user and host arguments to generate a suitable header page. The drawback of this method is that users will always get a header page, even if they submit jobs with lpr -h. Let us explore this method. The following script takes three arguments (user login name, host name, and job name) and makes a simple PostScript header page: #!/bin/sh # # make-ps-header - make a PostScript header page on stdout # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header # # # These are PostScript units (72 to the inch). Modify for A4 or # whatever size paper you are using: # page_width=612 page_height=792 border=72 # # Check arguments # if [ $# -ne 3 ]; then echo "Usage: `basename $0` <user> <host> <job>" 1>&2 exit 1 fi # # Save these, mostly for readability in the PostScript, below. # user=$1 host=$2 job=$3 date=`date` # # Send the PostScript code to stdout. # exec cat <<EOF %!PS % % Make sure we do not interfere with user's job that will follow % save % % Make a thick, unpleasant border around the edge of the paper. % $border $border moveto $page_width $border 2 mul sub 0 rlineto 0 $page_height $border 2 mul sub rlineto currentscreen 3 -1 roll pop 100 3 1 roll setscreen $border 2 mul $page_width sub 0 rlineto closepath 0.8 setgray 10 setlinewidth stroke 0 setgray % % Display user's login name, nice and large and prominent % /Helvetica-Bold findfont 64 scalefont setfont $page_width ($user) stringwidth pop sub 2 div $page_height 200 sub moveto ($user) show % % Now show the boring particulars % /Helvetica findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ (Job:) (Host:) (Date:) ] { 200 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall /Helvetica-Bold findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ ($job) ($host) ($date) ] { 270 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall % % That is it % restore showpage EOF Now, each of the conversion filters and the text filter can call this script to first generate the header page, and then print the user's job. Here is the DVI conversion filter from earlier in this document, modified to make a header page: #!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # orig_args="$@" fail() { echo "$@" 1>&2 exit 2 } while getopts "x:y:n:h:" option; do case $option in x|y) ;; # Ignore n) login=$OPTARG ;; h) host=$OPTARG ;; *) echo "LPD started `basename $0` wrong." 1>&2 exit 2 ;; esac done [ "$login" ] || fail "No login name" [ "$host" ] || fail "No host name" ( /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header $login $host "DVI File" /usr/local/bin/dvips -f ) | eval /usr/local/libexec/lprps $orig_args Notice how the filter has to parse the argument list in order to determine the user and host name. The parsing for the other conversion filters is identical. The text filter takes a slightly different set of arguments, though (see section How Filters Work). As we have mentioned before, the above scheme, though fairly - simple, disables the “suppress header page” option (the + simple, disables the suppress header page option (the option) to lpr. If users wanted to save a tree (or a few pennies, if you charge for header pages), they would not be able to do so, since every filter's going to print a header page with every job. To allow users to shut off header pages on a per-job basis, you will need to use the trick introduced in section Accounting for Header Pages: write an output filter that parses the LPD-generated header page and produces a PostScript version. If the user submits the job with lpr -h, then LPD will not generate a header page, and neither will your output filter. Otherwise, your output filter will read the text from LPD and send the appropriate header page PostScript code to the printer. If you have a PostScript printer on a serial line, you can make use of lprps, which comes with an output filter, psof, which does the above. Note that psof does not charge for header pages. Networked Printing FreeBSD supports networked printing: sending jobs to remote printers. Networked printing generally refers to two different things: Accessing a printer attached to a remote host. You install a printer that has a conventional serial or parallel interface on one host. Then, you set up LPD to enable access to the printer from other hosts on the network. Section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts tells how to do this. Accessing a printer attached directly to a network. The printer has a network interface in addition (or in place of) a more conventional serial or parallel interface. Such a printer might work as follows: It might understand the LPD protocol and can even queue jobs from remote hosts. In this case, it acts just like a regular host running LPD. Follow the same procedure in section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts to set up such a printer. It might support a data stream network connection. In this - case, you “attach” the printer to one host on the + case, you attach the printer to one host on the network by making that host responsible for spooling jobs and sending them to the printer. Section Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces gives some suggestions on installing such printers. Printers Installed on Remote Hosts The LPD spooling system has built-in support for sending jobs to other hosts also running LPD (or are compatible with LPD). This feature enables you to install a printer on one host and make it accessible from other hosts. It also works with printers that have network interfaces that understand the LPD protocol. To enable this kind of remote printing, first install a printer on one host, the printer host, using the simple printer setup described in Simple Printer Setup. Do any advanced setup in Advanced Printer Setup that you need. Make sure to test the printer and see if it works with the features of LPD you have enabled. Also ensure that the local host has authorization to use the LPD service in the remote host (see Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers). If you are using a printer with a network interface that is compatible with LPD, then the printer host in the discussion below is the printer itself, and the printer name is the name you configured for the printer. See the documentation that accompanied your printer and/or printer-network interface. If you are using a Hewlett Packard Laserjet then the printer name text will automatically perform the LF to CRLF conversion for you, so you will not require the hpif script. Then, on the other hosts you want to have access to the printer, make an entry in their /etc/printcap files with the following: Name the entry anything you want. For simplicity, though, you probably want to use the same name and aliases as on the printer host. Leave the lp capability blank, explicitly (:lp=:). Make a spooling directory and specify its location in the sd capability. LPD will store jobs here before they get sent to the printer host. Place the name of the printer host in the rm capability. Place the printer name on the printer host in the rp capability. That is it. You do not need to list conversion filters, page dimensions, or anything else in the /etc/printcap file. Here is an example. The host rose has two printers, bamboo and rattan. We will enable users on the host orchid to print to those printers. Here is the /etc/printcap file for orchid (back from section Enabling Header Pages). It already had the entry for the printer teak; we have added entries for the two printers on the host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - added (remote) printers on rose # # # teak is local; it is connected directly to orchid: # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: # # rattan is connected to rose; send jobs for rattan to rose: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: # # bamboo is connected to rose as well: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Then, we just need to make spooling directories on orchid: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Now, users on orchid can print to rattan and bamboo. If, for example, a user on orchid typed &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d sushi-review.dvi the LPD system on orchid would copy the job to the spooling directory /var/spool/lpd/bamboo and note that it was a DVI job. As soon as the host rose has room in its bamboo spooling directory, the two LPDs would transfer the file to rose. The file would wait in rose's queue until it was finally printed. It would be converted from DVI to PostScript (since bamboo is a PostScript printer) on rose. Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces Often, when you buy a network interface card for a printer, you can get two versions: one which emulates a spooler (the more expensive version), or one which just lets you send data to it as if you were using a serial or parallel port (the cheaper version). This section tells how to use the cheaper version. For the more expensive one, see the previous section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts. The format of the /etc/printcap file lets you specify what serial or parallel interface to use, and (if you are using a serial interface), what baud rate, whether to use flow control, delays for tabs, conversion of newlines, and more. But there is no way to specify a connection to a printer that is listening on a TCP/IP or other network port. To send data to a networked printer, you need to develop a communications program that can be called by the text and conversion filters. Here is one such example: the script netprint takes all data on standard input and sends it to a network-attached printer. We specify the hostname of the printer as the first argument and the port number to which to connect as the second argument to netprint. Note that this supports one-way communication only (FreeBSD to printer); many network printers support two-way communication, and you might want to take advantage of that (to get printer status, perform accounting, etc.). #!/usr/bin/perl # # netprint - Text filter for printer attached to network # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/netprint # $#ARGV eq 1 || die "Usage: $0 <printer-hostname> <port-number>"; $printer_host = $ARGV[0]; $printer_port = $ARGV[1]; require 'sys/socket.ph'; ($ignore, $ignore, $protocol) = getprotobyname('tcp'); ($ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $address) = gethostbyname($printer_host); $sockaddr = pack('S n a4 x8', &AF_INET, $printer_port, $address); socket(PRINTER, &PF_INET, &SOCK_STREAM, $protocol) || die "Can't create TCP/IP stream socket: $!"; connect(PRINTER, $sockaddr) || die "Can't contact $printer_host: $!"; while (<STDIN>) { print PRINTER; } exit 0; We can then use this script in various filters. Suppose we had a Diablo 750-N line printer connected to the network. The printer accepts data to print on port number 5100. The host name of the printer is scrivener. Here is the text filter for the printer: #!/bin/sh # # diablo-if-net - Text filter for Diablo printer `scrivener' listening # on port 5100. Installed in /usr/local/libexec/diablo-if-net # exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf "$@" | /usr/local/libexec/netprint scrivener 5100 Restricting Printer Usage This section gives information on restricting printer usage. The LPD system lets you control who can access a printer, both locally or remotely, whether they can print multiple copies, how large their jobs can be, and how large the printer queues can get. Restricting Multiple Copies The LPD system makes it easy for users to print multiple copies of a file. Users can print jobs with lpr -#5 (for example) and get five copies of each file in the job. Whether this is a good thing is up to you. If you feel multiple copies cause unnecessary wear and tear on your printers, you can disable the option to &man.lpr.1; by adding the sc capability to the /etc/printcap file. When users submit jobs with the option, they will see: lpr: multiple copies are not allowed Note that if you have set up access to a printer remotely (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts), you need the sc capability on the remote /etc/printcap files as well, or else users will still be able to submit multiple-copy jobs by using another host. Here is an example. This is the /etc/printcap file for the host rose. The printer rattan is quite hearty, so we will allow multiple copies, but the laser printer bamboo's a bit more delicate, so we will disable multiple copies by adding the sc capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restrict multiple copies on bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Now, we also need to add the sc capability on the host orchid's /etc/printcap (and while we are at it, let us disable multiple copies for the printer teak): # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - no multiple copies for local # printer teak or remote printer bamboo teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:sc:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc: By using the sc capability, we prevent the use of lpr -#, but that still does not prevent users from running &man.lpr.1; multiple times, or from submitting the same file multiple times in one job like this: &prompt.user; lpr forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign There are many ways to prevent this abuse (including ignoring it) which you are free to explore. Restricting Access To Printers You can control who can print to what printers by using the UNIX group mechanism and the rg capability in /etc/printcap. Just place the users you want to have access to a printer in a certain group, and then name that group in the rg capability. Users outside the group (including root) will be greeted with lpr: Not a member of the restricted group if they try to print to the controlled printer. As with the sc (suppress multiple copies) capability, you need to specify rg on remote hosts that also have access to your printers, if you feel it is appropriate (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts). For example, we will let anyone access the printer rattan, but only those in group artists can use bamboo. Here is the familiar /etc/printcap for host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restricted group for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Let us leave the other example /etc/printcap file (for the host orchid) alone. Of course, anyone on orchid can print to bamboo. It might be the case that we only allow certain logins on orchid anyway, and want them to have access to the printer. Or not. There can be only one restricted group per printer. Controlling Sizes of Jobs Submitted If you have many users accessing the printers, you probably need to put an upper limit on the sizes of the files users can submit to print. After all, there is only so much free space on the filesystem that houses the spooling directories, and you also need to make sure there is room for the jobs of other users. LPD enables you to limit the maximum byte size a file in a job can be with the mx capability. The units are in BUFSIZ blocks, which are 1024 bytes. If you put a zero for this capability, there will be no limit on file size; however, if no mx capability is specified, then a default limit of 1000 blocks will be used. The limit applies to files in a job, and not the total job size. LPD will not refuse a file that is larger than the limit you place on a printer. Instead, it will queue as much of the file up to the limit, which will then get printed. The rest will be discarded. Whether this is correct behavior is up for debate. Let us add limits to our example printers rattan and bamboo. Since those artists' PostScript files tend to be large, we will limit them to five megabytes. We will put no limit on the plain text line printer: # # /etc/printcap for host rose # # # No limit on job size: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:mx#0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: # # Limit of five megabytes: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Again, the limits apply to the local users only. If you have set up access to your printers remotely, remote users will not get those limits. You will need to specify the mx capability in the remote /etc/printcap files as well. See section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts for more information on remote printing. There is another specialized way to limit job sizes from remote printers; see section Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers. Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers The LPD spooling system provides several ways to restrict print jobs submitted from remote hosts: Host restrictions You can control from which remote hosts a local LPD accepts requests with the files /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/hosts.lpd. LPD checks to see if an incoming request is from a host listed in either one of these files. If not, LPD refuses the request. The format of these files is simple: one host name per line. Note that the file /etc/hosts.equiv is also used by the &man.ruserok.3; protocol, and affects programs like &man.rsh.1; and &man.rcp.1;, so be careful. For example, here is the /etc/hosts.lpd file on the host rose: orchid violet madrigal.fishbaum.de This means rose will accept requests from the hosts orchid, violet, and madrigal.fishbaum.de. If any other host tries to access rose's LPD, LPD will refuse them. Size restrictions You can control how much free space there needs to remain on the filesystem where a spooling directory resides. Make a file called minfree in the spooling directory for the local printer. Insert in that file a number representing how many disk blocks (512 bytes) of free space there has to be for a remote job to be accepted. This lets you insure that remote users will not fill your filesystem. You can also use it to give a certain priority to local users: they will be able to queue jobs long after the free disk space has fallen below the amount specified in the minfree file. For example, let us add a minfree file for the printer bamboo. We examine /etc/printcap to find the spooling directory for this printer; here is bamboo's entry: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:mx#5000:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The spooling directory is the given in the sd capability. We will make three megabytes (which is 6144 disk blocks) the amount of free disk space that must exist on the filesystem for LPD to accept remote jobs: &prompt.root; echo 6144 > /var/spool/lpd/bam boo/minfree User restrictions You can control which remote users can print to local printers by specifying the rs capability in /etc/printcap. When rs appears in the entry for a locally-attached printer, LPD will accept jobs from remote hosts if the user submitting the job also has an account of the same login name on the local host. Otherwise, LPD refuses the job. This capability is particularly useful in an environment where there are (for example) different departments sharing a network, and some users transcend departmental boundaries. By giving them accounts on your systems, they can use your printers from their own departmental systems. If you would rather allow them to use only your printers and not your compute resources, you can give them - “token” accounts, with no home directory and a + token accounts, with no home directory and a useless shell like /usr/bin/false. Accounting for Printer Usage So, you need to charge for printouts. And why not? Paper and ink cost money. And then there are maintenance costs—printers are loaded with moving parts and tend to break down. You have examined your printers, usage patterns, and maintenance fees and have come up with a per-page (or per-foot, per-meter, or per-whatever) cost. Now, how do you actually start accounting for printouts? Well, the bad news is the LPD spooling system does not provide much help in this department. Accounting is highly dependent on the kind of printer in use, the formats being printed, and your requirements in charging for printer usage. To implement accounting, you have to modify a printer's text filter (to charge for plain text jobs) and the conversion filters (to charge for other file formats), to count pages or query the printer for pages printed. You cannot get away with using the simple output filter, since it cannot do accounting. See section Filters. Generally, there are two ways to do accounting: Periodic accounting is the more common way, possibly because it is easier. Whenever someone prints a job, the filter logs the user, host, and number of pages to an accounting file. Every month, semester, year, or whatever time period you prefer, you collect the accounting files for the various printers, tally up the pages printed by users, and charge for usage. Then you truncate all the logging files, starting with a clean slate for the next period. Timely accounting is less common, probably because it is more difficult. This method has the filters charge users for printouts as soon as they use the printers. Like disk quotas, the accounting is immediate. You can prevent users from printing when their account goes in the red, and might provide a way for users to check and adjust their - “print quotas.” But this method requires some database + print quotas. But this method requires some database code to track users and their quotas. The LPD spooling system supports both methods easily: since you have to provide the filters (well, most of the time), you also have to provide the accounting code. But there is a bright side: you have enormous flexibility in your accounting methods. For example, you choose whether to use periodic or timely accounting. You choose what information to log: user names, host names, job types, pages printed, square footage of paper used, how long the job took to print, and so forth. And you do so by modifying the filters to save this information. Quick and Dirty Printer Accounting FreeBSD comes with two programs that can get you set up with simple periodic accounting right away. They are the text filter lpf, described in section lpf: a Text Filter, and &man.pac.8;, a program to gather and total entries from printer accounting files. As mentioned in the section on filters (Filters), LPD starts the text and the conversion filters with the name of the accounting file to use on the filter command line. The filters can use this argument to know where to write an accounting file entry. The name of this file comes from the af capability in /etc/printcap, and if not specified as an absolute path, is relative to the spooling directory. LPD starts lpf with page width and length arguments (from the pw and pl capabilities). lpf uses these arguments to determine how much paper will be used. After sending the file to the printer, it then writes an accounting entry in the accounting file. The entries look like this: 2.00 rose:andy 3.00 rose:kelly 3.00 orchid:mary 5.00 orchid:mary 2.00 orchid:zhang You should use a separate accounting file for each printer, as lpf has no file locking logic built into it, and two lpfs might corrupt each other's entries if they were to write to the same file at the same time. A easy way to insure a separate accounting file for each printer is to use af=acct in /etc/printcap. Then, each accounting file will be in the spooling directory for a printer, in a file named acct. When you are ready to charge users for printouts, run the &man.pac.8; program. Just change to the spooling directory for the printer you want to collect on and type pac. You will get a dollar-centric summary like the following: Login pages/feet runs price orchid:kelly 5.00 1 $ 0.10 orchid:mary 31.00 3 $ 0.62 orchid:zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 rose:andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 rose:kelly 177.00 104 $ 3.54 rose:mary 87.00 32 $ 1.74 rose:root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 These are the arguments &man.pac.8; expects: Which printer to summarize. This option works only if there is an absolute path in the af capability in /etc/printcap. Sort the output by cost instead of alphabetically by user name. Ignore host name in the accounting files. With this option, user smith on host alpha is the same user smith on host gamma. Without, they are different users. Compute charges with price dollars per page or per foot instead of the price from the pc capability in /etc/printcap, or two cents (the default). You can specify price as a floating point number. Reverse the sort order. Make an accounting summary file and truncate the accounting file. name … Print accounting information for the given user names only. In the default summary that &man.pac.8; produces, you see the number of pages printed by each user from various hosts. If, at your site, host does not matter (because users can use any host), run pac -m, to produce the following summary: Login pages/feet runs price andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 kelly 182.00 105 $ 3.64 mary 118.00 35 $ 2.36 root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 To compute the dollar amount due, &man.pac.8; uses the pc capability in the /etc/printcap file (default of 200, or 2 cents per page). Specify, in hundredths of cents, the price per page or per foot you want to charge for printouts in this capability. You can override this value when you run &man.pac.8; with the option. The units for the option are in dollars, though, not hundredths of cents. For example, &prompt.root; pac -p1.50 makes each page cost one dollar and fifty cents. You can really rake in the profits by using this option. Finally, running pac -s will save the summary information in a summary accounting file, which is named the same as the printer's accounting file, but with _sum appended to the name. It then truncates the accounting file. When you run &man.pac.8; again, it rereads the summary file to get starting totals, then adds information from the regular accounting file. How Can You Count Pages Printed? In order to perform even remotely accurate accounting, you need to be able to determine how much paper a job uses. This is the essential problem of printer accounting. For plain text jobs, the problem's not that hard to solve: you count how many lines are in a job and compare it to how many lines per page your printer supports. Do not forget to take into account backspaces in the file which overprint lines, or long logical lines that wrap onto one or more additional physical lines. The text filter lpf (introduced in lpf: a Text Filter) takes into account these things when it does accounting. If you are writing a text filter which needs to do accounting, you might want to examine lpf's source code. How do you handle other file formats, though? Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-PostScript conversion, you can have your filter parse the diagnostic output of dvilj or dvips and look to see how many pages were converted. You might be able to do similar things with other file formats and conversion programs. But these methods suffer from the fact that the printer may not actually print all those pages. For example, it could jam, run out of toner, or explode—and the user would still get charged. So, what can you do? There is only one sure way to do accurate accounting. Get a printer that can tell you how much paper it uses, and attach it via a serial line or a network connection. Nearly all PostScript printers support this notion. Other makes and models do as well (networked Imagen laser printers, for example). Modify the filters for these printers to get the page usage after they print each job and have them log accounting information based on that value only. There is no line counting nor error-prone file examination required. Of course, you can always be generous and make all printouts free. Using Printers This section tells you how to use printers you have setup with FreeBSD. Here is an overview of the user-level commands: &man.lpr.1; Print jobs &man.lpq.1; Check printer queues &man.lprm.1; Remove jobs from a printer's queue There is also an administrative command, &man.lpc.8;, described in the section Administrating the LPD Spooler, used to control printers and their queues. All three of the commands &man.lpr.1;, &man.lprm.1;, and &man.lpq.1; accept an option to specify on which printer/queue to operate, as listed in the /etc/printcap file. This enables you to submit, remove, and check on jobs for various printers. If you do not use the option, then these commands use the printer specified in the PRINTER environment variable. Finally, if you do not have a PRINTER environment variable, these commands default to the printer named lp. Hereafter, the terminology default printer means the printer named in the PRINTER environment variable, or the printer named lp when there is no PRINTER environment variable. Printing Jobs To print files, type: &prompt.user; lpr filename ... This prints each of the listed files to the default printer. If you list no files, &man.lpr.1; reads data to print from standard input. For example, this command prints some important system files: &prompt.user; lpr /etc/host.conf /etc/hosts.equiv To select a specific printer, type: &prompt.user; lpr -P printer-name filename ... This example prints a long listing of the current directory to the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; ls -l | lpr -P rattan Because no files were listed for the &man.lpr.1; command, lpr read the data to print from standard input, which was the output of the ls -l command. The &man.lpr.1; command can also accept a wide variety of options to control formatting, apply file conversions, generate multiple copies, and so forth. For more information, see the section Printing Options. Checking Jobs When you print with &man.lpr.1;, the data you wish to print is put - together in a package called a “print job”, which is sent + together in a package called a print job, which is sent to the LPD spooling system. Each printer has a queue of jobs, and your job waits in that queue along with other jobs from yourself and from other users. The printer prints those jobs in a first-come, first-served order. To display the queue for the default printer, type &man.lpq.1;. For a specific printer, use the option. For example, the command &prompt.user; lpq -P bamboo shows the queue for the printer named bamboo. Here is an example of the output of the lpq command: bamboo is ready and printing Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active kelly 9 /etc/host.conf, /etc/hosts.equiv 88 bytes 2nd kelly 10 (standard input) 1635 bytes 3rd mary 11 ... 78519 bytes This shows three jobs in the queue for bamboo. - The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned “job - number” 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. + The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned job + number 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. Most of the time you can ignore the job number, but you will need it if you want to cancel the job; see section Removing Jobs for details. Job number nine consists of two files; multiple files given on the &man.lpr.1; command line are treated as part of a single job. It is the currently active job (note the word active - under the “Rank” column), which means the printer should + under the Rank column), which means the printer should be currently printing that job. The second job consists of data passed as the standard input to the &man.lpr.1; command. The third job came from user mary; it is a much larger job. The pathname of the files she's trying to print is too long to fit, so the &man.lpq.1; command just shows three dots. The very first line of the output from &man.lpq.1; is also useful: it tells what the printer is currently doing (or at least what LPD thinks the printer is doing). The &man.lpq.1; command also support a option to generate a detailed long listing. Here is an example of lpq -l: waiting for bamboo to become ready (offline ?) kelly: 1st [job 009rose] /etc/host.conf 73 bytes /etc/hosts.equiv 15 bytes kelly: 2nd [job 010rose] (standard input) 1635 bytes mary: 3rd [job 011rose] /home/orchid/mary/research/venus/alpha-regio/mapping 78519 bytes Removing Jobs If you change your mind about printing a job, you can remove the job from the queue with the &man.lprm.1; command. Often, you can even use &man.lprm.1; to remove an active job, but some or all of the job might still get printed. To remove a job from the default printer, first use &man.lpq.1; to find the job number. Then type: &prompt.user; lprm job-number To remove the job from a specific printer, add the option. The following command removes job number 10 from the queue for the printer bamboo: &prompt.user; lprm -P bamboo 10 The &man.lprm.1; command has a few shortcuts: lprm - Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to you. lprm user Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to user. The superuser can remove other users' jobs; you can remove only your own jobs. lprm With no job number, user name, or appearing on the command line, &man.lprm.1; removes the currently active job on the default printer, if it belongs to you. The superuser can remove any active job. Just use the option with the above shortcuts to operate on a specific printer instead of the default. For example, the following command removes all jobs for the current user in the queue for the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan - If you are working in a networked environment, &man.lprm.1; will let you remove jobs only from the host from which the jobs were submitted, even if the same printer is available from other hosts. The following command sequence demonstrates this: &prompt.user; lpr -P rattan myfile &prompt.user; rlogin orchid &prompt.user; lpq -P rattan Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active seeyan 12 ... 49123 bytes 2nd kelly 13 myfile 12 bytes &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 rose: Permission denied &prompt.user; logout &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 dfA013rose dequeued cfA013rose dequeued Beyond Plain Text: Printing Options The &man.lpr.1; command supports a number of options that control formatting text, converting graphic and other file formats, producing multiple copies, handling of the job, and more. This section describes the options. Formatting and Conversion Options The following &man.lpr.1; options control formatting of the files in the job. Use these options if the job does not contain plain text or if you want plain text formatted through the &man.pr.1; utility. For example, the following command prints a DVI file (from the TeX typesetting system) named fish-report.dvi to the printer named bamboo: &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d fish-report.dvi These options apply to every file in the job, so you cannot mix (say) DVI and ditroff files together in a job. Instead, submit the files as separate jobs, using a different conversion option for each job. All of these options except and require conversion filters installed for the destination printer. For example, the option requires the DVI conversion filter. Section Conversion Filters gives details. Print cifplot files. Print DVI files. Print FORTRAN text files. Print plot data. Indent the output by number columns; if you omit number, indent by 8 columns. This option works only with certain conversion filters. Do not put any space between the and the number. Print literal text data, including control characters. Print ditroff (device independent troff) data. -p Format plain text with &man.pr.1; before printing. See &man.pr.1; for more information. Use title on the &man.pr.1; header instead of the file name. This option has effect only when used with the option. Print troff data. Print raster data. Here is an example: this command prints a nicely formatted version of the &man.ls.1; manual page on the default printer: &prompt.user; zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | troff -t -man | lpr -t The &man.zcat.1; command uncompresses the source of the &man.ls.1; manual page and passes it to the &man.troff.1; command, which formats that source and makes GNU troff output and passes it to &man.lpr.1;, which submits the job to the LPD spooler. Because we used the option to &man.lpr.1;, the spooler will convert the GNU troff output into a format the default printer can understand when it prints the job. Job Handling Options The following options to &man.lpr.1; tell LPD to handle the job specially: -# copies Produce a number of copies of each file in the job instead of just one copy. An administrator may disable this option to reduce printer wear-and-tear and encourage photocopier usage. See section Restricting Multiple Copies. This example prints three copies of parser.c followed by three copies of parser.h to the default printer: &prompt.user; lpr -#3 parser.c parser.h -m Send mail after completing the print job. With this option, the LPD system will send mail to your account when it finishes handling your job. In its message, it will tell you if the job completed successfully or if there was an error, and (often) what the error was. -s Do not copy the files to the spooling directory, but make symbolic links to them instead. If you are printing a large job, you probably want to use this option. It saves space in the spooling directory (your job might overflow the free space on the filesystem where the spooling directory resides). It saves time as well since LPD will not have to copy each and every byte of your job to the spooling directory. There is a drawback, though: since LPD will refer to the original files directly, you cannot modify or remove them until they have been printed. If you are printing to a remote printer, LPD will eventually have to copy files from the local host to the remote host, so the option will save space only on the local spooling directory, not the remote. It is still useful, though. -r Remove the files in the job after copying them to the spooling directory, or after printing them with the option. Be careful with this option! Header Page Options These options to &man.lpr.1; adjust the text that normally appears on a job's header page. If header pages are suppressed for the destination printer, these options have no effect. See section Header Pages for information about setting up header pages. -C text Replace the hostname on the header page with text. The hostname is normally the name of the host from which the job was submitted. -J text Replace the job name on the header page with text. The job name is normally the name of the first file of the job, or stdin if you are printing standard input. -h Do not print any header page. At some sites, this option may have no effect due to the way header pages are generated. See Header Pages for details. Administrating Printers As an administrator for your printers, you have had to install, set up, and test them. Using the &man.lpc.8; command, you can interact with your printers in yet more ways. With &man.lpc.8;, you can Start and stop the printers Enable and disable their queues Rearrange the order of the jobs in each queue. First, a note about terminology: if a printer is stopped, it will not print anything in its queue. Users can still submit jobs, which will wait in the queue until the printer is started or the queue is cleared. If a queue is disabled, no user (except root) can submit jobs for the printer. An enabled queue allows jobs to be submitted. A printer can be started for a disabled queue, in which case it will continue to print jobs in the queue until the queue is empty. In general, you have to have root privileges to use the &man.lpc.8; command. Ordinary users can use the &man.lpc.8; command to get printer status and to restart a hung printer only. Here is a summary of the &man.lpc.8; commands. Most of the commands takes a printer-name argument to tell on which printer to operate. You can use all for the printer-name to mean all printers listed in /etc/printcap. abort printer-name Cancel the current job and stop the printer. Users can still submit jobs if the queue's enabled. clean printer-name Remove old files from the printer's spooling directory. Occasionally, the files that make up a job are not properly removed by LPD, particularly if there have been errors during printing or a lot of administrative activity. This command finds files that do not belong in the spooling directory and removes them. disable printer-name Disable queuing of new jobs. If the printer's started, it will continue to print any jobs remaining in the queue. The superuser (root) can always submit jobs, even to a disabled queue. This command is useful while you are testing a new printer or filter installation: disable the queue and submit jobs as root. Other users will not be able to submit jobs until you complete your testing and re-enable the queue with the enable command. down printer-name message Take a printer down. Equivalent to disable followed by stop. The message appears as the printer's status whenever a user checks the printer's queue with &man.lpq.1; or status with lpc status. enable printer-name Enable the queue for a printer. Users can submit jobs but the printer will not print anything until it is started. help command-name Print help on the command command-name. With no command-name, print a summary of the commands available. restart printer-name Start the printer. Ordinary users can use this command if some extraordinary circumstance hangs LPD, but they cannot start a printer stopped with either the stop or down commands. The restart command is equivalent to abort followed by start. start printer-name Start the printer. The printer will print jobs in its queue. stop printer-name Stop the printer. The printer will finish the current job and will not print anything else in its queue. Even though the printer is stopped, users can still submit jobs to an enabled queue. topq printer-name job-or-username Rearrange the queue for printer-name by placing the jobs with the listed job numbers or the jobs belonging to username at the top of the queue. For this command, you cannot use all as the printer-name. up printer-name Bring a printer up; the opposite of the down command. Equivalent to start followed by enable. &man.lpc.8; accepts the above commands on the command line. If you do not enter any commands, &man.lpc.8; enters an interactive mode, where you can enter commands until you type exit, quit, or end-of-file. Alternatives to the Standard Spooler If you have been reading straight through this manual, by now you have learned just about everything there is to know about the LPD spooling system that comes with FreeBSD. You can probably appreciate many of its shortcomings, which naturally leads to the question: - “What other spooling systems are out there (and work with - FreeBSD)?” + What other spooling systems are out there (and work with + FreeBSD)? Unfortunately, I have located only two alternatives—and they are almost identical to each other! They are: PLP, the Portable Line Printer Spooler System PLP was based on software developed by Patrick Powell and then maintained by an Internet-wide group of developers. The main site for the software is at ftp://ftp.iona.ie/pub/plp/. There is also a web page. It is quite similar to the BSD LPD spooler, but boasts a host of features, including: Better network support, including built-in support for networked printers, NIS-maintained printcaps, and NFS-mounted spooling directories Sophisticated queue management, allowing multiple printers on a queue, transfer of jobs between queues, and queue redirection Remote printer control functions Prioritization of jobs Expansive security and access options LPRng - LPRng, which purportedly means “LPR: the Next - Generation” is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell + LPRng, which purportedly means LPR: the Next + Generation is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell and Justin Mason (the principal maintainer of PLP) collaborated to make LPRng. The main site for LPRng is ftp://dickory.sdsu.edu/pub/LPRng/. Troubleshooting After performing the simple test with &man.lptest.1;, you might have gotten one of the following results instead of the correct printout: It worked, after awhile; or, it did not eject a full sheet. The printer printed the above, but it sat for awhile and did nothing. In fact, you might have needed to press a PRINT REMAINING or FORM FEED button on the printer to get any results to appear. If this is the case, the printer was probably waiting to see if there was any more data for your job before it printed anything. To fix this problem, you can have the text filter send a FORM FEED character (or whatever is necessary) to the printer. This is usually sufficient to have the printer immediately print any text remaining in its internal buffer. It is also useful to make sure each print job ends on a full sheet, so the next job does not start somewhere on the middle of the last page of the previous job. The following replacement for the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple prints a form feed after it sends the job to the printer: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Writes a form feed character (\f) after printing job. /bin/cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 - It produced the “staircase effect.” + It produced the staircase effect. You got the following on paper: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 You have become another victim of the staircase effect, caused by conflicting interpretations of what characters should indicate a new line. UNIX-style operating systems use a single character: ASCII code 10, the line feed (LF). MS-DOS, OS/2, and others uses a pair of characters, ASCII code 10 and ASCII code 13 (the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the MS-DOS convention for representing new-lines. When you print with FreeBSD, your text used just the line feed character. The printer, upon seeing a line feed character, advanced the paper one line, but maintained the same horizontal position on the page for the next character to print. That is what the carriage return is for: to move the location of the next character to print to the left edge of the paper. Here is what FreeBSD wants your printer to do: Printer received CR Printer prints CR Printer received LF Printer prints CR + LF Here are some ways to achieve this: Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to alter its interpretation of these characters. Check your printer's manual to find out how to do this. If you boot your system into other operating systems besides FreeBSD, you may have to reconfigure the printer to use a an interpretation for CR and LF characters that those other operating systems use. You might prefer one of the other solutions, below. Have FreeBSD's serial line driver automatically convert LF to CR+LF. Of course, this works with printers on serial ports only. To enable this feature, set the CRMOD bit in fs capability in the /etc/printcap file for the printer. Send an escape code to the printer to have it temporarily treat LF characters differently. Consult your printer's manual for escape codes that your printer might support. When you find the proper escape code, modify the text filter to send the code first, then send the print job. Here is an example text filter for printers that understand the Hewlett-Packard PCL escape codes. This filter makes the printer treat LF characters as a LF and CR; then it sends the job; then it sends a form feed to eject the last page of the job. It should work with nearly all Hewlett Packard printers. #!/bin/sh # # hpif - Simple text input filter for lpd for HP-PCL based printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Tells printer to treat LF as CR+LF. Ejects the page when done. printf "\033&k2G" && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 Here is an example /etc/printcap from a host called orchid. It has a single printer attached to its first parallel port, a Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si named teak. It is using the above script as its text filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: It overprinted each line. The printer never advanced a line. All of the lines of text were printed on top of each other on one line. - This problem is the “opposite” of the + This problem is the opposite of the staircase effect, described above, and is much rarer. Somewhere, the LF characters that FreeBSD uses to end a line are being treated as CR characters to return the print location to the left edge of the paper, but not also down a line. Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to enforce the following interpretation of LF and CR characters: Printer receives Printer prints CR CR LF CR + LF The printer lost characters. While printing, the printer did not print a few characters in each line. The problem might have gotten worse as the printer ran, losing more and more characters. The problem is that the printer cannot keep up with the speed at which the computer sends data over a serial line (this problem should not occur with printers on parallel ports). There are two ways to overcome the problem: If the printer supports XON/XOFF flow control, have FreeBSD use it by specifying the TANDEM bit in the fs capability. If the printer supports carrier flow control, specify the MDMBUF bit in the fs capability. Make sure the cable connecting the printer to the computer is correctly wired for carrier flow control. If the printer does not support any flow control, use some combination of the NLDELAY, TBDELAY, CRDELAY, VTDELAY, and BSDELAY bits in the fs capability to add appropriate delays to the stream of data sent to the printer. It printed garbage. The printer printed what appeared to be random garbage, but not the desired text. This is usually another symptom of incorrect communications parameters with a serial printer. Double-check the bps rate in the br capability, and the parity bits in the fs and fc capabilities; make sure the printer is using the same settings as specified in the /etc/printcap file. Nothing happened. If nothing happened, the problem is probably within FreeBSD and not the hardware. Add the log file (lf) capability to the entry for the printer you are debugging in the /etc/printcap file. For example, here is the entry for rattan, with the lf capability: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:\ :lf=/var/log/rattan.log Then, try printing again. Check the log file (in our example, /var/log/rattan.log) to see any error messages that might appear. Based on the messages you see, try to correct the problem. If you do not specify a lf capability, LPD uses /dev/console as a default. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml index c6ff707515..0222980a24 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2758 +1,2758 @@ Security Much of this chapter has been taken from the &man.security.7; man page, originally written by &a.dillon;. Synopsis The following chapter will provide a basic introduction to system security concepts, some general good rules of thumb, and some advanced topics such as S/Key, OpenSSL, Kerberos, and others. Introduction Security is a function that begins and ends with the system administrator. While all BSD UNIX multi-user systems have some inherent security, the job of building and maintaining additional - security mechanisms to keep those users “honest” is + security mechanisms to keep those users honest is probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin. Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. UNIX systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as servers – meaning that external entities can connect and talk to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become today's desktops, and as computers become networked and internetworked, security becomes an ever bigger issue. Security is best implemented through a layered - “onion” approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is + onion approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to overbuild your security or you will interefere with the detection side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set the schg flags (see &man.chflags.1;) on every system binary because while this may temporarily protect the binaries, it prevents a hacker who has broken in from making an easily detectable change that may result in your security mechanisms not detecting the hacker at all. System security also pertains to dealing with various forms of attack, including attacks that attempt to crash or otherwise make a system unusable but do not attempt to break root. Security concerns can be split up into several categories: Denial of service attacks. User account compromises. Root compromise through accessible servers. Root compromise via user accounts. Backdoor creation. A denial of service attack is an action that deprives the machine of needed resources. Typically, D.O.S. attacks are brute-force mechanisms that attempt to crash or otherwise make a machine unusable by overwhelming its servers or network stack. Some D.O.S. attacks try to take advantages of bugs in the networking stack to crash a machine with a single packet. The latter can only be fixed by applying a bug fix to the kernel. Attacks on servers can often be fixed by properly specifying options to limit the load the servers incur on the system under adverse conditions. Brute-force network attacks are harder to deal with. A spoofed-packet attack, for example, is nearly impossible to stop short of cutting your system off from the internet. It may not be able to take your machine down, but it can fill up internet pipe. A user account compromise is even more common then a D.O.S. attack. Many sysadmins still run standard telnetd, rlogind, rshd, and ftpd servers on their machines. These servers, by default, do not operate over encrypted connections. The result is that if you have any moderate-sized user base, one or more of your users logging into your system from a remote location (which is the most common and convenient way to login to a system) will have his or her password sniffed. The attentive system admin will analyze his remote access logs looking for suspicious source addresses even for successful logins. One must always assume that once an attacker has access to a user account, the attacker can break root. However, the reality is that in a well secured and maintained system, access to a user account does not necessarily give the attacker access to root. The distinction is important because without access to root the attacker cannot generally hide his tracks and may, at best, be able to do nothing more then mess with the user's files or crash the machine. User account compromises are very common because users tend not to take the precautions that sysadmins take. System administrators must keep in mind that there are potentially many ways to break root on a machine. The attacker may know the root password, the attacker may find a bug in a root-run server and be able to break root over a network connection to that server, or the attacker may know of a bug in an suid-root program that allows the attacker to break root once he has broken into a user's account. If an attacker has found a way to break root on a machine, the attacker may not have a need to install Many of the root holes found and closed to date involve a considerable amount of work by the hacker to cleanup after himself, so most hackers do install backdoors. This gives you a convienient way to detect the hacker. Making it impossible for a hacker to install a backdoor may actually be detrimental to your security because it will not close off the hole the hacker found to break in in the first place. Security remedies should always be implemented with a - multi-layered “onion peel” approach and can be + multi-layered onion peel approach and can be categorized as follows: Securing root and staff accounts. Securing root – root-run servers and suid/sgid binaries. Securing user accounts. Securing the password file. Securing the kernel core, raw devices, and filesystems. Quick detection of inappropriate changes made to the system. Paranoia. The next section of this chapter will cover the above bullet items in greater depth. Securing FreeBSD The sections that follow will cover the methods of securing your FreeBSD system that were mentioned in the last section of this chapter. Securing the root account and staff accounts First off, do not bother securing staff accounts if you have not secured the root account. Most systems have a password assigned to the root account. The first thing you do is assume that the password is always compromised. This does not mean that you should remove the password. The password is almost always necessary for console access to the machine. What it does mean is that you should not make it possible to use the password outside of the console or possibly even with the &man.su.1; command. For example, make sure that your pty's are specified as being unsecure in the /etc/ttys file so that direct root logins via telnet or rlogin are disallowed. If using other login services such as sshd, make sure that direct root logins are disabled there as well. Consider every access method – services such as ftp often fall through the cracks. Direct root logins should only be allowed via the system console. Of course, as a sysadmin you have to be able to get to root, so we open up a few holes. But we make sure these holes require additional password verification to operate. One way to make root accessible is to add appropriate staff accounts to the wheel group (in /etc/group). The staff members placed in the wheel group are allowed to su to root. You should never give staff members native wheel access by putting them in the wheel group in their password entry. Staff accounts should be placed in a staff group, and then added to the wheel group via the /etc/group file. Only those staff members who actually need to have root access should be placed in the wheel group. It is also possible, when using an authentication method such as kerberos, to use kerberos's .k5login file in the root account to allow a &man.ksu.1; to root without having to place anyone at all in the wheel group. This may be the better solution since the wheel mechanism still allows an intruder to break root if the intruder has gotten hold of your password file and can break into a staff account. While having the wheel mechanism is better then having nothing at all, it is not necessarily the safest option. An indirect way to secure the root account is to secure your staff accounts by using an alternative login access method and *'ing out the crypted password for the staff accounts. This way an intruder may be able to steal the password file but will not be able to break into any staff accounts (or, indirectly, root, even if root has a crypted password associated with it). Staff members get into their staff accounts through a secure login mechanism such as &man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a private/public key pair. When you use something like kerberos, you generally must secure the machines which run the kerberos servers and your desktop workstation. When you use a public/private key pair with ssh, you must generally secure the machine you are logging in from (typically your workstation), but you can also add an additional layer of protection to the key pair by password protecting the keypair when you create it with &man.ssh-keygen.1;. Being able to * out the passwords for staff accounts also guarantees that staff members can only login through secure access methods that you have setup. You can thus force all staff members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their sessions which closes an important hole used by many intruders: That of sniffing the network from an unrelated, less secure machine. The more indirect security mechanisms also assume that you are logging in from a more restrictive server to a less restrictive server. For example, if your main box is running all sorts of servers, your workstation should not be running any. In order for your workstation to be reasonably secure you should run as few servers as possible, up to and including no servers at all, and you should run a password-protected screen blanker. Of course, given physical access to a workstation an attacker can break any sort of security you put on it. This is definitely a problem that you should consider but you should also consider the fact that the vast majority of break-ins occur remotely, over a network, from people who do not have physical access to your workstation or servers. Using something like kerberos also gives you the ability to disable or change the password for a staff account in one place and have it immediately effect all the machine the staff member may have an account on. If a staff member's account gets compromised, the ability to instantly change his password on all machines should not be underrated. With discrete passwords, changing a password on N machines can be a mess. You can also impose re-passwording restrictions with kerberos: not only can a kerberos ticket be made to timeout after a while, but the kerberos system can require that the user choose a new password after a certain period of time (say, once a month). Securing Root-run Servers and SUID/SGID Binaries The prudent sysadmin only runs the servers he needs to, no more, no less. Be aware that third party servers are often the most bug-prone. For example, running an old version of imapd or popper is like giving a universal root ticket out to the entire world. Never run a server that you have not checked out carefully. Many servers do not need to be run as root. For example, the ntalk, comsat, and finger daemons can be run in special user sandboxes. A sandbox isn't perfect unless you go to a large amount of trouble, but the onion approach to security still stands: If someone is able to break in through a server running in a sandbox, they still have to break out of the sandbox. The more layers the attacker must break through, the lower the likelihood of his success. Root holes have historically been found in virtually every server ever run as root, including basic system servers. If you are running a machine through which people only login via sshd and never login via telnetd or rshd or rlogind, then turn off those services! FreeBSD now defaults to running ntalkd, comsat, and finger in a sandbox. Another program which may be a candidate for running in a sandbox is &man.named.8;. The default rc.conf includes the arguments necessary to run namedin a sandbox in a commented-out form. Depending on whether you are installing a new system or upgrading an existing system, the special user accounts used by these sandboxes may not be installed. The prudent sysadmin would research and implement sandboxes for servers whenever possible. There are a number of other servers that typically do not run in sandboxes: sendmail, popper, imapd, ftpd, and others. There are alternatives to some of these, but installing them may require more work then you are willing to perform (the convenience factor strikes again). You may have to run these servers as root and rely on other mechanisms to detect break-ins that might occur through them. The other big potential root hole in a system are the suid-root and sgid binaries installed on the system. Most of these binaries, such as rlogin, reside in /bin, /sbin, /usr/bin, or /usr/sbin. While nothing is 100% safe, the system-default suid and sgid binaries can be considered reasonably safe. Still, root holes are occasionally found in these binaries. A root hole was found in Xlib in 1998 that made xterm (which is typically suid) vulnerable. It is better to be safe then sorry and the prudent sysadmin will restrict suid binaries that only staff should run to a special group that only staff can access, and get rid of (chmod 000) any suid binaries that nobody uses. A server with no display generally does not need an xterm binary. Sgid binaries can be almost as dangerous. If an intruder can break an sgid-kmem binary the intruder might be able to read /dev/kmem and thus read the crypted password file, potentially compromising any passworded account. Alternatively an intruder who breaks group kmem can monitor keystrokes sent through pty's, including pty's used by users who login through secure methods. An intruder that breaks the tty group can write to almost any user's tty. If a user is running a terminal program or emulator with a keyboard-simulation feature, the intruder can potentially generate a data stream that causes the user's terminal to echo a command, which is then run as that user. Securing User Accounts User accounts are usually the most difficult to secure. While you can impose Draconian access restrictions on your staff and * out their passwords, you may not be able to do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do have sufficient control then you may win out and be able to secure the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of ssh and kerberos for user accounts is more problematic due to the extra administration and technical support required, but still a very good solution compared to a crypted password file. Securing the Password File The only sure fire way is to * out as many passwords as you can and use ssh or kerberos for access to those accounts. Even though the crypted password file (/etc/spwd.db) can only be read by root, it may be possible for an intruder to obtain read access to that file even if the attacker cannot obtain root-write access. Your security scripts should always check for and report changes to the password file (see Checking file integrity below). Securing the Kernel Core, Raw Devices, and Filesystems If an attacker breaks root he can do just about anything, but there are certain conveniences. For example, most modern kernels have a packet sniffing device driver built in. Under FreeBSD it is called the bpf device. An intruder will commonly attempt to run a packet sniffer on a compromised machine. You do not need to give the intruder the capability and most systems should not have the bpf device compiled in. But even if you turn off the bpf device, you still have /dev/mem and /dev/kmem to worry about. For that matter, the intruder can still write to raw disk devices. Also, there is another kernel feature called the module loader, &man.kldload.8;. An enterprising intruder can use a KLD module to install his own bpf device or other sniffing device on a running kernel. To avoid these problems you have to run the kernel at a higher secure level, at least securelevel 1. The securelevel can be set with a sysctl on the kern.securelevel variable. Once you have set the securelevel to 1, write access to raw devices will be denied and special chflags flags, such as schg, will be enforced. You must also ensure that the schg flag is set on critical startup binaries, directories, and script files – everything that gets run up to the point where the securelevel is set. This might be overdoing it, and upgrading the system is much more difficult when you operate at a higher secure level. You may compromise and run the system at a higher secure level but not set the schg flag for every system file and directory under the sun. Another possibility is to simply mount / and /usr read-only. It should be noted that being too draconian in what you attempt to protect may prevent the all-important detection of an intrusion. Checking File Integrity: Binaries, Configuration Files, Etc. When it comes right down to it, you can only protect your core system configuration and control files so much before the convenience factor rears its ugly head. For example, using chflags to set the schg bit on most of the files in / and /usr is probably counterproductive because while it may protect the files, it also closes a detection window. The last layer of your security onion is perhaps the most important – detection. The rest of your security is pretty much useless (or, worse, presents you with a false sense of safety) if you cannot detect potential incursions. Half the job of the onion is to slow down the attacker rather then stop him in order to give the detection side of the equation a chance to catch him in the act. The best way to detect an incursion is to look for modified, missing, or unexpected files. The best way to look for modified files is from another (often centralized) limited-access system. Writing your security scripts on the extra-secure limited-access system makes them mostly invisible to potential hackers, and this is important. In order to take maximum advantage you generally have to give the limited-access box significant access to the other machines in the business, usually either by doing a read-only NFS export of the other machines to the limited-access box, or by setting up ssh keypairs to allow the limit-access box to ssh to the other machines. Except for its network traffic, NFS is the least visible method – allowing you to monitor the filesystems on each client box virtually undetected. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a switch, the NFS method is often the better choice. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a hub or through several layers of routing, the NFS method may be too insecure (network-wise) and using ssh may be the better choice even with the audit-trail tracks that ssh lays. Once you give a limit-access box at least read access to the client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write scripts out of simple system utilities such as &man.find.1; and &man.md5.1;. It is best to physically md5 the client-box files boxes at least once a day, and to test control files such as those found in /etc and /usr/local/etc even more often. When mismatches are found relative to the base md5 information the limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files on system partitions such as / and /usr. When using ssh rather then NFS, writing the security script is much more difficult. You essentially have to scp the scripts to the client box in order to run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to scp the binaries (such as find) that those scripts use. The ssh daemon on the client box may already be compromised. All in all, using ssh may be necessary when running over unsecure links, but it's also a lot harder to deal with. A good security script will also check for changes to user and staff members access configuration files: .rhosts, .shosts, .ssh/authorized_keys and so forth… files that might fall outside the purview of the MD5 check. If you have a huge amount of user disk space it may take too long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case, setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those partitions is a good idea. The nodev and nosuid options (see &man.mount.8;) are what you want to look into. I would scan them anyway at least once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in whether or not the break-in is effective. Process accounting (see &man.accton.8;) is a relatively low-overhead feature of the operating system which I recommend using as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in occurs. Finally, security scripts should process the log files and the logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as possible – remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is to run the system console to a serial port and collect the information on a continuing basis through a secure machine monitoring the consoles. Paranoia A little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add any number of security features as long as they do not effect convenience, and can add security features that do effect convenience with some added thought. Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a bit – if you use recommendations such as those given by this document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the prospective hacker who also has access to this document. Denial of Service Attacks This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DOS attack is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network, you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks cannot take down your servers. Limiting server forks. Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping broadcast, etc.). Kernel Route Cache. A common DOS attack is against a forking server that attempts to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory until the machine dies. Inetd (see &man.inetd.8;) has several options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down it is not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted by the attack. Read the inetd manual page carefully and pay specific attention to the , , and options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks will circumvent the option to inetd, so typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone servers have self-fork-limitation parameters. Sendmail has its option which tends to work much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options due to the load lag. You should specify a MaxDaemonChildren parameter when you start sendmail high enough to handle your expected load but no so high that the computer cannot handle that number of sendmails without falling on its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode () and to run the daemon (sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs (sendmail -q15m). If you still want realtime delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as , but be sure to specify a reasonable MaxDaemonChildren option for that sendmail to prevent cascade failures. Syslogd can be attacked directly and it is strongly recommended that you use the option whenever possible, and the option otherwise. You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd, which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use the reverse-ident feature of tcpwrappers for this reason. It is a very good idea to protect internal services from external access by firewalling them off at your border routers. The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based root compromise. Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e., - “firewall everything except ports A, B, - C, D, and M-Z”. This way you can firewall off all of your + firewall everything except ports A, B, + C, D, and M-Z. This way you can firewall off all of your low ports except for certain specific services such as named (if you are primary for a zone), ntalkd, sendmail, and other internet-accessible services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way – as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good - chance that you will forget to “close” a couple of + chance that you will forget to close a couple of services or that you will add a new internal service and forget to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered port range on the firewall to allow permissive-like operation without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic binding via the various net.inet.ip.portrange sysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your firewall's configuration. I usually use a normal first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to 65535, then block everything under 4000 off in my firewall (except for certain specific internet-accessible ports, of course). Another common DOS attack is called a springboard attack – to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to generate responses which then overload the server, the local network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack. The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system. By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel compile option called ICMP_BANDLIM which limits the effectiveness of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard attacks is related to certain internal inetd services such as the udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the source address being server A's echo port, and the destination address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner. Similar problems exist with the internal chargen port. A competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test services. Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire, rtminexpire, and rtmaxcache sysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it to less then rtminexpire. There are two problems: The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly loaded server is suddenly attacked. The rtminexpire is not low enough for the kernel to survive a sustained attack. If your servers are connected to the internet via a T3 or better it may be prudent to manually override both rtexpire and rtminexpire via &man.sysctl.8;. Never set either parameter to zero (unless you want to crash the machine :-). Setting both parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route table from attack. Access Issues with Kerberos and SSH There are a few issues with both kerberos and ssh that need to be addressed if you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent authentication protocol but the kerberized telnet and rlogin suck rocks. There are bugs that make them unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the option. ssh encrypts everything by default. ssh works quite well in every respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys that give you access to the rest of the system, and you ssh to an unsecure machine, your keys becomes exposed. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but ssh installs a forwarding port for the duration of your login and if a hacker has broken root on the unsecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain access to any other machine that your keys unlock. We recommend that you use ssh in combination with kerberos whenever possible for staff logins. ssh can be compiled with kerberos support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable ssh keys while at the same time protecting passwords via kerberos. ssh keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines (something that kerberos is unsuited to). We also recommend that you either turn off key-forwarding in the ssh configuration, or that you make use of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that ssh allows in its authorized_keys file to make the key only useable to entities logging in from specific machines. DES, MD5, and Crypt Parts rewritten and updated by &a.unfurl;, 21 March 2000. Every user on a UNIX system has a password associated with their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be known only to the user and the actual operating system. In order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with - what is known as a “one-way hash”, that is, they can + what is known as a one-way hash, that is, they can only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the operating system itself does not really know the password. It only knows the encrypted form of the password. The only way to get the - “plain-text” password is by a brute force search of the + plain-text password is by a brute force search of the space of possible passwords. Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when UNIX came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption Standard. This is not such a problem for users that live in the US, but since the source code for DES cannot be exported outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with US law and retain compatibility with all the other UNIX variants that still use DES. The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries so that US users could install the DES libraries and use DES but international users still had an encryption method that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily for compatibility reasons. Recognizing your crypt mechanism It is pretty easy to identify which encryption method FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in the /etc/master.passwd file is one way. Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those with encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters $1$. DES password strings do not have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character alphabet which does not include the $ character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES password. The libraries can identify the passwords this way as well. As a result, the DES libraries are able to identify MD5 passwords, and use MD5 to check passwords that were encrypted that way, and DES for the rest. They are able to do this because the DES libraries also contain MD5. Unfortunately, the reverse is not true, so the MD5 libraries cannot authenticate passwords that were encrypted with DES. Identifying which library is being used by the programs on your system is easy as well. Any program that uses crypt is linked against libcrypt which for each type of library is a symbolic link to the appropriate implementation. For example, on a system using the DES versions: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/libcrypt* lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 13 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.a -> libdescrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 18 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.so.2.0 -> libdescrypt.so.2.0 lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 15 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt_p.a -> libdescrypt_p.a On a system using the MD5-based libraries, the same links will be present, but the target will be libscrypt rather than libdescrypt. S/Key S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc. There are three different sorts of passwords which we will talk about in the discussion below. The first is your usual UNIX-style or - Kerberos password; we will call this a “UNIX password”. + Kerberos password; we will call this a UNIX password. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key key program and accepted by the keyinit program and the login prompt; we will - call this a “one-time password”. The final sort of + call this a one-time password. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the key program (and sometimes the keyinit program) which it uses to generate - one-time passwords; we will call it a “secret password” - or just unqualified “password”. + one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password + or just unqualified password. The secret password does not have anything to do with your UNIX password; they can be the same but this is not reccomended. S/Key secret passwords are not limted to 8 characters like UNIX passwords, they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or seven word long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the S/Key system operates completely independently of the UNIX password system. Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that are important to S/Key. One is what is known as the - “seed” or “key” and consists of two letters - and five digits. The other is what is called the “iteration - count” and is a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the + seed or key and consists of two letters + and five digits. The other is what is called the iteration + count and is a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying the MD4 hash as many times as specified by the iteration count and turning the result into six short English words. These six English words are your one-time password. The login and su programs keep track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a sucessfully used password is captured; the interation count is decremented after each sucessfull login to keep the user and the login program in sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1 S/Key must be reinitialized. There are four programs involved in the S/Key system which we will discuss below. The key program accepts an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generates a one-time password. The keyinit program is used to initialized S/Key, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; it takes either a secret password, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo program examines the /etc/skeykeys file and prints out the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. Finally, the login and su programs contain the necessary logic to accept S/Key one-time passwords for authentication. The login program is also capable of disallowing the use of UNIX passwords on connections coming from specified addresses. There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The first is using the keyinit program over a secure connection to set up S/Key for the first time, or to change your password or seed. The second operation is using the keyinit program over an insecure connection, in conjunction with the key program over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using the key program to log in over an insecure connection. The fourth is using the key program to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to some location without secure connections to anywhere. Secure connection initialization To initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password, or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the keyinit command without any parameters while logged in as yourself: &prompt.user; keyinit Adding unfurl: Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected. If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s. Enter secret password: Again secret password: ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757 DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFT At the Enter secret password: prompt you should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate - your one-time login keys. The “ID” line gives the + your one-time login keys. The ID line gives the parameters of your particular S/Key instance; your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in with S/Key, the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use. Insecure connection initialization To initialize S/Key or change your secret password over an insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure connection to some place where you can run the key program; this might be in the form of a desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the keyinit -s command: &prompt.user; keyinit -s Updating unfurl: Old key: to17758 Reminder you need the 6 english words from the key command. Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100 Enter new key [default to17759]: s/key 100 to 17759 s/key access password: To accept the default seed (which the keyinit program confusingly calls a key), press return. Then before entering an access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk accessory, and give it the same parameters: &prompt.user; key 100 to17759 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the one-time password generated by key over to the keyinit program: s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE ID unfurl s/key is 100 to17759 CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE The rest of the description from the previous section applies here as well. Generating a single one-time password Once you've initialized S/Key, when you login you will be presented with a prompt like this: &prompt.user; telnet example.com Trying 10.0.0.1... Connected to example.com Escape character is '^]'. FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa) login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: As a side note, the S/Key prompt has a useful feature (not shown here): if you press return at the password prompt, the login program will turn echo on, so you can see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to type in an S/Key by hand, such as from a printout. Also, if this machine were configured to disallow UNIX passwords over a connection from my machine, the prompt would have also included the annotation (s/key required), indicating that only S/Key one-time passwords will be accepted. At this point you need to generate your one-time password to answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system that you can run the key command on. (There are versions of the key program from DOS, Windows and MacOS as well.) The key program needs both the iteration count and the seed as command line options. You can cut-and-paste these right from the login prompt on the machine that you are logging in to. On the trusted system: &prompt.user; key 97 fw13894 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Now that you have your one-time password you can continue logging in: login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: <return to enable echo> s/key 97 fw13894 Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ... This is the easiest mechanism if you have a trusted machine. There is a Java S/Key key applet, The Java OTP Calculator, that you can download and run locally on any Java supporting browser. Generating multiple one-time passwords Sometimes you have have to go places where you do not have access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case, it is possible to use the key command to generate a number of one-time passwords before hand to be printed out and taken with you. For example: &prompt.user; key -n 5 30 zz99999 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> 26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT 27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT 28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT 29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG 30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILK The requests five keys in sequence, the specifies what the last iteration number should be. Note that these are printed out in reverse order of eventual use. If you are really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand; otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as you use them. Restricting use of UNIX passwords Restrictions can be placed on the use of UNIX passwords based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a login session. These restrictions can be found in the configuration file /etc/skey.access. The &man.skey.access.5; manual page has more info on the complete format of the file and also details some security cautions to be aware of before depending on this file for security. If there is no /etc/skey.access file (this is the FreeBSD default), then all users will be allowed to use UNIX passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements in the skey.access file. In all cases, UNIX passwords are permitted on the console. Here is a sample configuration file which illustrates the three most common sorts of configuration statements: permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 permit user fnord permit port ttyd0 The first line (permit internet) allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use UNIX passwords. This should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for authentication. The second line (permit user) allows the specified username, in this case fnord, to use UNIX passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are either unable to use the key program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are uneducable. The third line (permit port) allows all users logging in on the specified terminal line to use UNIX passwords; this would be used for dial-ups. Kerberos Contributed by &a.markm; (based on contribution by &a.md;). Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable. The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description. In FreeBSD, the Kerberos is not that from the original 4.4BSD-Lite, distribution, but eBones, which had been previously ported to FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, and was sourced from outside the USA/Canada, and is thus available to system owners outside those countries. For those needing to get a legal foreign distribution of this software, please do not get it from a USA or Canada site. You will get that site in big trouble! A legal copy of this is available from ftp.internat.FreeBSD.org, which is in South Africa and an official FreeBSD mirror site. Creating the initial database This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that only the following files are present: &prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV &prompt.root; ls README krb.conf krb.realms If any additional files (such as principal.* or master_key) exist, then use the kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos database, of if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra files. You should now edit the krb.conf and krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm. In this case the realm will be GRONDAR.ZA and the server is grunt.grondar.za. We edit or create the krb.conf file: &prompt.root; cat krb.conf GRONDAR.ZA GRONDAR.ZA grunt.grondar.za admin server CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity. The first line names the realm in which this system works. The other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a - “key distribution centre”. The words admin + key distribution centre. The words admin server following a hosts name means that host also provides an administrative database server. For further explanation of these terms, please consult the Kerberos man pages. Now we have to add grunt.grondar.za to the GRONDAR.ZA realm and also add an entry to put all hosts in the .grondar.za domain in the GRONDAR.ZA realm. The krb.realms file would be updated as follows: &prompt.root; cat krb.realms grunt.grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU .MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU .mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things. The first line puts the specific system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm. Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Centre). Issue the kdb_init command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_init Realm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]: GRONDAR.ZA You will be prompted for the database Master Password. It is important that you NOT FORGET this password. Enter Kerberos master key: Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do this. &prompt.root; kstash Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! This saves the encrypted master password in /etc/kerberosIV/master_key. Making it all run Two principals need to be added to the database for each system that will be secured with Kerberos. Their names are kpasswd and rcmd These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being the name of the individual system. These daemons, kpasswd and rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos passwords and run commands like rcp, rlogin and rsh. Now let's add these entries: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: passwd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? y Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: rcmd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Creating the server file We now have to extract all the instances which define the services on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved by secure means to each Kerberos client's /etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos. &prompt.root; ext_srvtab grunt Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'.... Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be renamed to srvtab so that all the server can pick it up. Use the mv command to move it into place on the original system: &prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab If the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed safe, then copy the client-new-srvtab to removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to srvtab in the client's /etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is mode 600: &prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab &prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtab Populating the database We now have to add some user entries into the database. First let's create an entry for the user jane. Use the kdb_edit command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a secure password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Testing it all out First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automagically get what they need from the /etc/kerberosIV directory. &prompt.root; kerberos & Kerberos server starting Sleep forever on error Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Current Kerberos master key version is 1 Local realm: GRONDAR.ZA &prompt.root; kadmind -n & KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a regular kill instead Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Now we can try using the kinit command to get a ticket for the id jane that we created above: &prompt.user; kinit jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane" Password: Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we really have them: &prompt.user; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245 Principal: jane@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Now try changing the password using passwd to check if the kpasswd daemon can get authorization to the Kerberos database: &prompt.user; passwd realm GRONDAR.ZA Old password for jane: New Password for jane: Verifying password New Password for jane: Password changed. Adding <command>su</command> privileges Kerberos allows us to give each user who needs root privileges their own separate supassword. We could now add an id which is authorized to su to root. This is controlled by having an instance of root associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can create the entry jane.root in the Kerberos database: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: root <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 <--- Keep this short! Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works: &prompt.root; kinit jane.root MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root" Password: Now we need to add the user to root's .klogin file: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Now try doing the su: &prompt.user; su Password: and take a look at what tokens we have: &prompt.root; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245 Principal: jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Using other commands In an earlier example, we created a principal called jane with an instance root. This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a <principal>.<instance> of the form <username>.root will allow that <username> to su to root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin file in root's home directory: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the form: &prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin jane@GRONDAR.ZA jack@GRONDAR.ZA This allows anyone in the GRONDAR.ZA realm who has authenticated themselves to jane or jack (via kinit, see above) access to rlogin to jane's account or files on this system (grunt) via rlogin, rsh or rcp. For example, Jane now logs into another system, using Kerberos: &prompt.user; kinit MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: %prompt.user; rlogin grunt Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine (Jane having set up the .klogin file as above, and the person in charge of Kerberos having set up principal jack with a null instance: &prompt.user; kinit &prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Firewalls Contributed by &a.gpalmer; and &a.alex;. Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them. People often think that having a firewall between your - internal network and the “Big Bad Internet” will solve all + internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all your security problems. It may help, but a poorly setup firewall system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that much easier. What is a firewall? There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a packet filtering router, where the kernel on a multi-homed machine chooses whether to forward or block packets based on a set of rules. The second type, known as a proxy server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled. Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bastion host) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mechanisms. FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as IPFW), which is what the rest of this section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this document. Packet filtering routers A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more networks. A packet filtering router has an extra piece of code in its kernel which compares each packet to a list of rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing software has packet filtering code within it that defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a set of rules for the filtering code so it can decide if the packet should be allowed to pass or not. To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the code looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of this packets headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order. - Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a “rule - chain”. + Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule + chain. The packet matching criteria varies depending on the software used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source port number, the destination port number (for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc). Proxy servers Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers. These servers are called proxy servers as they normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals coming from the internal network and heading out). Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available, - including “one-shot” password systems so that even if + including one-shot password systems so that even if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password instantly expires. As they do not actually give users access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install backdoors around your security system. Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers, and often they can be set up so that you can limit which users can talk to which destination machine. Again, what facilities are available depends largely on what proxy software you choose. What does IPFW allow me to do? IPFW, the software supplied with FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the kernel, and has a user-land control utility, &man.ipfw.8;. Together, they allow you to define and query the rules currently used by the kernel in its routing decisions. There are two related parts to IPFW. The firewall section allows you to perform packet filtering. There is also an IP accounting section which allows you to track usage of your router, based on similar rules to the firewall section. This allows you to see (for example) how much traffic your router is getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW (World Wide Web) traffic it is forwarding. As a result of the way that IPFW is designed, you can use IPFW on non-router machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing connections. This is a special case of the more general use of IPFW, and the same commands and techniques should be used in this situation. Enabling IPFW on FreeBSD As the main part of the IPFW system lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and recompile your kernel. See reconfiguring the kernel for more details on how to recompile your kernel. There are currently three kernel configuration options relevant to IPFW: options IPFIREWALL Compiles into the kernel the code for packet filtering. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Enables code to allow logging of packets through &man.syslogd.8;. Without this option, even if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will happen. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10 Limits the number of packets logged through &man.syslogd.8; on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in hostile environments in which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog flooding. When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified, logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the &man.ipfw.8; utility: &prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500 Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue logging. Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as the firewall code automatically includes accounting facilities. Configuring IPFW The configuration of the IPFW software is done through the &man.ipfw.8; utility. The syntax for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you understand its structure. There are currently four different command categories used by the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing. Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting entries. Altering the IPFW rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -N command index action log protocol addresses options There is one valid flag when using this form of the command: -N Resolve addresses and service names in output. The command given can be shortened to the shortest unique form. The valid commands are: add Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule list delete Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule list Previous versions of IPFW used separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides packet accounting with each firewall entry. If an index value is supplied, it used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule 65535, deny). The log option causes matching rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE. Valid actions are: reject Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the source. allow Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: pass and accept) deny Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never arrived at the destination). count Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain entry. Each action will be recognized by the shortest unambiguous prefix. The protocols which can be specified are: all Matches any IP packet icmp Matches ICMP packets tcp Matches TCP packets udp Matches UDP packets The address specification is: from address/maskport to address/maskport via interface You can only specify port in conjunction with protocols which support ports (UDP and TCP). The is optional and may specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name (e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp* would match all kernel PPP interfaces. The syntax used to specify an address/mask is: address or address/mask-bits or address:mask-pattern A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address. is a decimal number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set. e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be matched. is an IP address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The - keyword any may be used to specify “any IP - address”. + keyword any may be used to specify any IP + address. The port numbers to be blocked are specified as: port,port,port… to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or port-port to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be specified first. The options available are: frag Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of the datagram. in Matches if the packet is on the way in. out Matches if the packet is on the way out. ipoptions spec Matches if the IP header contains the comma separated list of options specified in spec. The supported list of IP options are: ssrr (strict source route), lsrr (loose source route), rr (record packet route), and ts (timestamp). The absence of a particular option may be denoted with a leading !. established Matches if the packet is part of an already established TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can optimize the performance of the firewall by placing established rules early in the chain. setup Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP connection (the SYN bit set is set but the ACK bit is not). tcpflags flags Matches if the TCP header contains the comma separated list of flags. The supported flags are fin, syn, rst, psh, ack, and urg. The absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading !. icmptypes types Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list types. The list may be specified as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0 echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination unreachable, 5 redirect, 8 echo request (ping request), and 11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL expiration as with &man.traceroute.8;). Listing the IPFW rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -a -t -N l There are three valid flags when using this form of the command: -a While listing, show counter values. This option is the only way to see accounting counters. -t Display the last match times for each chain entry. The time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the &man.ipfw.8; utility. -N Attempt to resolve given addresses and service names. Flushing the IPFW rules The syntax for flushing the chain is: ipfw flush This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index 65535). Use caution when flushing rules, the default deny policy will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries are added to the chain. Clearing the IPFW packet counters The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is: ipfw zero index When used without an index argument, all packet counters are cleared. If an index is supplied, the clearing operation only affects a specific chain entry. Example commands for ipfw This command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the host nice.people.org by being forwarded by the router: &prompt.root ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23 The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire crackers.org network (a class C) to the nice.people.org machine (any port). &prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.org If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the necessary filtering: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setup To see the accounting records: &prompt.root; ipfw -a list or in the short form &prompt.root; ipfw -a l You can also see the last time a chain entry was matched with: &prompt.root; ipfw -at l Building a packet filtering firewall The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The requirements of each firewall are different and I cannot tell you how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements. When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled environment, I strongly recommend you use the logging version of the commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I recommend using the logging for of `deny' as it allows tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your requirements alter. If you use the logging versions of the accept command, it can generate large amounts of log data as one log line will be generated for every packet that passes through the firewall, so large ftp/http transfers, etc, will really slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet can be passed on. syslogd with also start using up a lot more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it could quite easily fill the partition /var/log is located on. You should enable your firewall from /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf. The associated manpage explains which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations. If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list will output the current ruleset into a file that you can pass to rc.conf. If you do not use /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall, it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before any IP interfaces are configured. The next problem is what your firewall should actually do! This is largely dependent on what access to your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general rules are: Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger, SMTP (mail) and telnet. Block all incoming UDP traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful traffic there is is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers. If you want to allow access to archie, you'll have to allow packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port 123. Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat (especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost + on their workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063. Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above. Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from CERT at ftp://ftp.cert.org/pub/tech_tips/packet_filtering As I said above, these are only guidelines. You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. I cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given above. OpenSSL As of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base system. OpenSSL provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols. However, some of the algorithms (specifically, RSA and IDEA) included in OpenSSL are protected by patents in the USA and elsewhere, and are not available for unrestricted use (in particular, IDEA is not available at all in FreeBSD's version of OpenSSL). As a result, FreeBSD has available two different versions of the OpenSSL RSA libraries depending on geographical location (USA/non-USA). Source Code Installations OpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and src-securecvsup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source code. International (Non-USA) Users People who are located outside the USA, and who obtain their crypto sources from internat.FreeBSD.org (the International Crypto Repository) or an international mirror site, will build a - version of OpenSSL which includes the “native” OpenSSL + version of OpenSSL which includes the native OpenSSL implementation of RSA, but does not include IDEA, because the latter is restricted in certain locations elsewhere in the world. In the future a more flexible geographical identification system may allow building of IDEA in countries for which it is not restricted. Please be aware of any local restrictions on the import, use and redistribution of cryptography which may exist in your country. USA Users As noted above, RSA is patented in the USA, with terms preventing general use without an appropriate license. Therefore the standard OpenSSL RSA code may not be used in the USA, and has been removed from the version of OpenSSL carried on USA mirror sites. The RSA patent is due to expire on September 20, 2000, at which - time it is intended to add the “full” RSA code back to + time it is intended to add the full RSA code back to the USA version of OpenSSL. However (and fortunately), the RSA patent holder (RSA Security, has - provided a “RSA reference implementation” toolkit + provided a RSA reference implementation toolkit (RSAREF) which is available for certain classes of use, including non-commercial use (see the RSAREF license for their definition of non-commercial). If you meet the conditions of the RSAREF license and wish to use it in conjunction with OpenSSL to provide RSA support, you can install the rsaref port, which is located in /usr/ports/security/rsaref, or the rsaref-2.0 package. The OpenSSL library will then automatically detect and use the RSAREF libraries. Please obtain legal advice if you are unsure of your compliance with the license terms. The RSAREF implementation is inferior to the - “native&rdquo OpenSSL implementation (it is much slower, + native OpenSSL implementation (it is much slower, and cannot be used with keys larger than 1024 bits). If you are not located in the USA then you are doing yourself a disadvantage by using RSAREF. Users who have purchased an appropriate RSA source code license from RSA Security may use the International version of OpenSSL described above to obtain native RSA support. IDEA code is also removed from the USA version of OpenSSL for patent reasons. Binary Installations If your FreeBSD installation was a binary installation (e.g., installed from the Walnut Creek CDROM, or from a snapshot downloaded from ftp.FreeBSD.org) and you selected to install the crypto collection, then the sysinstall utility will automatically select the correct version to install during the installation process. If the international version was selected but could not be installed during sysinstall (e.g. you have not configured network access, and the version must be downloaded from a FTP site) then you can add the international RSA library after installation as a package. The librsaintl package contains the RSA code for International (non-USA) users. This is not legal for use in the USA, but international users should use this version because the RSA implementation is faster and more flexible. It is available from ftp.internat.FreeBSD.org and does not require RSAREF. IPsec Contributed by &a.shin;, 5 March 2000. IPsec mechanism provides secure communication either for IP layer and socket layer communication. This section should explain how to use them. About IPsec implementation, please refer section 23.5.4. The current IPsec implementation supports both transport mode and tunnel mode. However, tunnel mode comes with some restrictions. http://www.kame.net/newsletter/ has more comprehensive examples. Transport mode example with IPv4 Let's setup security association to deploy a secure channel between HOST A (10.2.3.4) and HOST B (10.6.7.8). Here we show a little complicated example. From HOST A to HOST B, only old AH is used. From HOST B to HOST A, new AH and new ESP are combined. Now we should choose algorithm to be used corresponding to "AH"/"new AH"/"ESP"/"new ESP". Please refer to the &man.setkey.8; man page to know algorithm names. Our choice is MD5 for AH, new-HMAC-SHA1 for new AH, and new-DES-expIV with 8 byte IV for new ESP. Key length highly depends on each algorithm. For example, key length must be equal to 16 bytes for MD5, 20 for new-HMAC-SHA1, and 8 for new-DES-expIV. Now we choose "MYSECRETMYSECRET", "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME", "PASSWORD", respectively. OK, let's assign SPI (Security Parameter Index) for each protocol. Please note that we need 3 SPIs for this secure channel since three security headers are produced (one for from HOST A to HOST B, two for from HOST B to HOST A). Please also note that SPI MUST be greater than or equal to 256. We choose, 1000, 2000, and 3000, respectively. (1) HOST A ------> HOST B (1)PROTO=AH ALG=MD5(RFC1826) KEY=MYSECRETMYSECRET SPI=1000 (2.1) HOST A <------ HOST B <------ (2.2) (2.1) PROTO=AH ALG=new-HMAC-SHA1(new AH) KEY=KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME SPI=2000 (2.2) PROTO=ESP ALG=new-DES-expIV(new ESP) IV length = 8 KEY=PASSWORD SPI=3000 Now, let's setup security association. Execute &man.setkey.8; on both HOST A and B: &prompt.root; setkey -c add 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 ah-old 1000 -m transport -A keyed-md5 "MYSECRETMYSECRET" ; add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 ah 2000 -m transport -A hmac-sha1 "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME" ; add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 esp 3000 -m transport -E des-cbc "PASSWORD" ; ^D Actually, IPsec communication doesn't process until security policy entries will be defined. In this case, you must setup each host. At A: &prompt.root; setkey -c spdadd 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 any -P out ipsec ah/transport/10.2.3.4-10.6.7.8/require ; ^D At B: &prompt.root; setkey -c spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec esp/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ; spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec ah/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ; ^D HOST A --------------------------------------> HOST E 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 | | ========== old AH keyed-md5 ==========> <========= new AH hmac-sha1 =========== <========= new ESP des-cbc ============ Transport mode example with IPv6 Another example using IPv6. ESP transport mode is recommended for TCP port number 110 between Host-A and Host-B. ============ ESP ============ | | Host-A Host-B fec0::10 -------------------- fec0::11 Encryption algorithm is blowfish-cbc whose key is "kamekame", and authentication algorithm is hmac-sha1 whose key is "this is the test key". Configuration at Host-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ; spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ; add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; EOF and at Host-B: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ; spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ; add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; EOF Note the direction of SP. Tunnel mode example with IPv4 Tunnel mode between two security gateways Security protocol is old AH tunnel mode, i.e. specified by RFC1826, with keyed-md5 whose key is "this is the test" as authentication algorithm. ======= AH ======= | | Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B 10.0.1.0/24 ---- 172.16.0.1 ----- 172.16.0.2 ---- 10.0.2.0/24 Configuration at Gateway-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P out ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ; spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P in ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ; add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF If port number field is omitted such above then "[any]" is employed. `-m' specifies the mode of SA to be used. "-m any" means wild-card of mode of security protocol. You can use this SA for both tunnel and transport mode. and at Gateway-B: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P out ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ; spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P in ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ; add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Making SA bundle between two security gateways AH transport mode and ESP tunnel mode is required between Gateway-A and Gateway-B. In this case, ESP tunnel mode is applied first, and AH transport mode is next. ========== AH ========= | ======= ESP ===== | | | | | Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B fec0:0:0:1::/64 --- fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 --- fec0:0:0:2::/64 Tunnel mode example with IPv6 Encryption algorithm is 3des-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-sha1. Authentication algorithm for AH is hmac-md5. Configuration at Gateway-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0:0:0:1::/64 fec0:0:0:2::/64 any -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ah/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ; spdadd fec0:0:0:2::/64 fec0:0:0:1::/64 any -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ah/transport/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel -E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel -E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Making SAs with the different end ESP tunnel mode is required between Host-A and Gateway-A. Encryption algorithm is cast128-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-sha1. ESP transport mode is recommended between Host-A and Host-B. Encryption algorithm is rc5-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-md5. ================== ESP ================= | ======= ESP ======= | | | | | Host-A Gateway-A Host-B fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::2 Configuration at Host-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0:0:0:1::1[any] fec0:0:0:2::2[80] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::2/use esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ; spdadd fec0:0:0:2::1[80] fec0:0:0:1::1[any] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0:0:0:2::2-fec0:0:0:l::1/use esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::2 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E cast128-cbc "12341234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10002 -E rc5-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; add fec0:0:0:2::2 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10003 -m transport -E cast128-cbc "12341234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10004 -E rc5-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml index 20891636d2..5edffa56cb 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2742 +1,2742 @@ Serial Communications Synopsis UNIX has always had support for serial communications. In fact, the very first UNIX machines relied on serial lines for user input and output. Things have changed a lot from the days when the average - “terminal” consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial + terminal consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial printer and a keyboard. This chapter will cover some of the ways in which FreeBSD uses serial communications. Serial Basics Assembled from FAQ. This section should give you some general information about serial ports. If you do not find what you want here, check into the Terminal and Dialup sections of the handbook. The ttydX (or cuaaX) device is the regular device you will want to open for your applications. When a process opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O settings. You can see these settings with the command &prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1 When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the default set, you can open and - adjust the settings of the “initial state” device. For + adjust the settings of the initial state device. For example, to turn on CLOCAL mode, 8 bits, and XON/XOFF flow control by default for ttyd5, do: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff A good place to do this is in /etc/rc.serial. Now, an application will have these settings by default when it opens ttyd5. It can still change these settings to its liking, though. You can also prevent certain settings from being changed by an - application by making adjustments to the “lock state” + application by making adjustments to the lock state device. For example, to lock the speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, do &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600 Now, an application that opens ttyd5 and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps. Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state devices writable only by root. The MAKEDEV script does not do this when it creates the device entries. Terminals Contributed by &a.kelly; 28 July 1996 Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access the power of your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's console or on a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with FreeBSD. Uses and Types of Terminals The original Unix systems did not have consoles. Instead, people logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to using a modem and some terminal software to dial into a remote system to do text-only work. Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics, but the ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists in nearly every Unix-style operating system today; FreeBSD is no exception. By using a terminal attached to a unused serial port, you can log in and run any text program that you would normally run on the console or in an xterm window in the X Window System. For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a FreeBSD system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a home user, a spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a Macintosh can be a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running FreeBSD. You can turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful multiple user system. For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals: Dumb terminals PCs acting as terminals X terminals The remaining subsections describe each kind. Dumb Terminals Dumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let you connect to computers over serial lines. They are called - “dumb” because they have only enough computational power + dumb because they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so forth. There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100 and Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD. Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced features. Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do not need access to graphic applications such as those provided by the X Window System. PCs Acting As Terminals If a dumb terminal has just enough ability to display, send, and receive text, then certainly any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal. All you need is the proper cable and some terminal emulation software to run on the computer. Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if your spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console, you can do some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the FreeBSD system. X Terminals X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they can display any X application. We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness. However, this chapter does not cover setup, configuration, or use of X terminals. Cables and Ports To connect a terminal to your FreeBSD system, you need the right kind of cable and a serial port to which to connect it. This section tells you what to do. If you are already familiar with your terminal and the cable it requires, skip to Configuration. Cables Because terminals use serial ports, you need to use serial—also known as RS-232C—cables to connect the terminal to the FreeBSD system. There are a couple of kinds of serial cables. Which one you'll use depends on the terminal you want to connect: If you are connecting a personal computer to act as a terminal, use a null-modem cable. A null-modem cable connects two computers or terminals together. If you have an actual terminal, your best source of information on what cable to use is the documentation that accompanied the terminal. If you do not have the documentation, then try a null-modem cable. If that does not work, then try a standard cable. Also, the serial port on both the terminal and your FreeBSD system must have connectors that will fit the cable you are using. Null-modem cables A null-modem cable passes some signals straight through, like - “signal ground,” but switches other signals. For - example, the “send data” pin on one end goes to the - “receive data” pin on the other end. + signal ground, but switches other signals. For + example, the send data pin on one end goes to the + receive data pin on the other end. If you like making your own cables, here is a table showing a recommended way to construct a null-modem cable for use with terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names and the pin numbers on a DB-25 connector. Signal Pin # Pin # Signal TxD 2 connects to 3 RxD RxD 3 connects to 2 TxD DTR 20 connects to 6 DSR DSR 6 connects to 20 DTR SG 7 connects to 7 SG DCD 8 connects to 4 RTS RTS 4 5 CTS CTS 5 connects to 8 DCD For DCD to RTS, connect pins 4 to 5 internally in the connector hood, and then to pin 8 in the remote hood. Standard RS-232C Cables A standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals - straight-through. That is, the “send data” pin on one - end of the cable goes to the “send data” pin on the + straight-through. That is, the send data pin on one + end of the cable goes to the send data pin on the other end. This is the type of cable to connect a modem to your FreeBSD system, and the type of cable needed for some terminals. Ports Serial ports are the devices through which data is transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal. This section describes the kinds of ports that exist and how they are addressed in FreeBSD. Kinds of Ports Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase or construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the ports on your terminal and on the FreeBSD system. Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers, including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports. If you have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have RJ-12 or RJ-45 ports. See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual inspection of the port often works, too. Port Names In FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry in the /dev directory. There are two different kinds of entries: Callin ports are named /dev/ttydX where X is the port number, starting from zero. Generally, you use the callin port for terminals. Callin ports require that the serial line assert the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work. Callout ports are named /dev/cuaaX. You usually do not use the callout port for terminals, just for modems. You may use the callout port if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the carrier detect signal. See the &man.sio.4; manual page for more information. If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port (COM1 in DOS parlance), then you want to use /dev/ttyd0 to refer to the terminal. If it is on the second serial port (also known as COM2), it is /dev/ttyd1, and so forth. Note that you may have to configure your kernel to support each serial port, especially if you have a multiport serial card. See Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for more information. Configuration This section describes what you need to configure on your FreeBSD system to enable a login session on a terminal. It assumes you have already configured your kernel to support the serial port to which the terminal is connected—and that you have connected it. In a nutshell, you need to tell the init process, which is responsible for process control and initialization, to start a getty process, which is responsible for reading a login name and starting the login program. To do so, you have to edit the /etc/ttys file. First, use the su command to become root. Then, make the following changes to /etc/ttys: Add an line to /etc/ttys for the entry in the /dev directory for the serial port if it is not already there. Specify that /usr/libexec/getty be run on the port, and specify the appropriate getty type from the /etc/gettytab file. Specify the default terminal type. - Set the port to “on.” + Set the port to on. Specify whether the port should be - “secure.” + secure. Force init to reread the /etc/ttys file. As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom getty type for use in step 2 by making an entry in /etc/gettytab. This document does not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the &man.gettytab.5; and the &man.getty.8; manual pages for more information. The remaining sections detail how to do these steps. We will use a running example throughout these sections to illustrate what we need to do. In our example, we will connect two terminals to the system: a Wyse-50 and a old 286 IBM PC running Procomm terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. We connect the Wyse to the second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a port on a multiport serial card). For more information on the /etc/ttys file, see the &man.ttys.5; manual page. Adding an Entry to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> First, you need to add an entry to the /etc/ttys file, unless one is already there. The /etc/ttys file lists all of the ports on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For example, the first virtual console ttyv0 has an entry in this file. You can log in on the console using this entry. This file contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, just list the serial port's /dev entry without the /dev part. When you installed your FreeBSD system, the /etc/ttys file included entries for the first four serial ports: ttyd0 through ttyd3. If you are attaching a terminal on one of those ports, you do not need to add an entry. In our example, we attached a Wyse-50 to the second serial port, ttyd1, which is already in the file. We need to add an entry for the 286 PC connected to the sixth serial port. Here is an excerpt of the /etc/ttys file after we add the new entry: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd5 Specifying the <replaceable>getty</replaceable> Type Next, we need to specify what program will be run to handle the logins on a terminal. For FreeBSD, the standard program to do that is /usr/libexec/getty. It is what provides the login: prompt. The program getty takes one (optional) parameter on its command line, the getty type. A getty type tells about characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity. The getty program reads these characteristics from the file /etc/gettytab. The file /etc/gettytab contains lots of entries for terminal lines both old and new. In almost all cases, the entries that start with the text std will work for hardwired terminals. These entries ignore parity. There is a std entry for each bps rate from 110 to 115200. Of course, you can add your own entries to this file. The manual page &man.gettytab.5; provides more information. When setting the getty type in the /etc/ttys file, make sure that the communications settings on the terminal match. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at 38400 bps. The 286 PC uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps. Here is the /etc/ttys file so far (showing just the two terminals in which we are interested): ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown off secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" Note that the second field—where we specify what program to run—appears in quotes. This is important, otherwise the type argument to getty might be interpreted as the next field. Specifying the Default Terminal Type The third field in the /etc/ttys file lists the default terminal type for the port. For dialup ports, you typically put unknown or dialup in this field because users may dial up with practically any kind of terminal or software. For hardwired terminals, the terminal type does not change, so you can put a real terminal type in this field. Users will usually use the tset program in their .login or .profile files to check the terminal type and prompt for one if necessary. By setting a terminal type in the /etc/ttys file, users can forego such prompting. To find out what terminal types FreeBSD supports, see the file /usr/share/misc/termcap. It lists about 600 terminal types. You can add more if you wish. See the &man.termcap.5; manual page for information. In our example, the Wyse-50 is a Wyse-50 type of terminal (although it can emulate others, we will leave it in Wyse-50 mode). The 286 PC is running Procomm which will be set to emulate a VT-100. Here are the pertinent yet unfinished entries from the /etc/ttys file: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 off secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 Enabling the Port The next field in /etc/ttys, the fourth field, tells whether to enable the port. Putting on here will have the init process start the program in the second field, getty, which will prompt for a login. If you put off in the fourth field, there will be no getty, and hence no logins on the port. So, naturally, you want an on in this field. Here again is the /etc/ttys file. We have turned each port on. ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on Specifying Secure Ports We have arrived at the last field (well, almost: there is an optional window specifier, but we will ignore that). The last field tells whether the port is secure. - What does “secure” mean? + What does secure mean? It means that the root account (or any account with a user ID of 0) may login on the port. Insecure ports do not allow root to login. How do you use secure and insecure ports? By marking a port as insecure, the terminal to which it is connected will not allow root to login. People who know the root password to your FreeBSD system will first have to login using a regular user account. To gain superuser privileges, they will then have to use the su command. Because of this, you will have two records to help track down possible compromises of root privileges: both the login and the su command make records in the system log (and logins are also recorded in the wtmp file). By marking a port as secure, the terminal will allow root in. People who know the root password will just login as root. You will not have the potentially useful login and su command records. Which should you use? - Just use “insecure.” Use “insecure” + Just use insecure. Use insecure even for terminals not in public user areas or behind locked doors. It is quite easy to login and use su if you need superuser privileges. Here finally are the completed entries in the /etc/ttys file, with comments added to describe where the terminals are: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on insecure # Kitchen ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on insecure # Guest bathroom Force <command>init</command> to Reread <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> When you boot FreeBSD, the first process, init, will read the /etc/ttys file and start the programs listed for each enabled port to prompt for logins. After you edit /etc/ttys, you do not want to have to reboot your system to get init to see the changes. So, init will reread /etc/ttys if it receives a SIGHUP (hangup) signal. So, after you have saved your changes to /etc/ttys, send SIGHUP to init by typing: &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 (The init process always has process ID 1.) If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place, and the terminals are powered up, you should see login prompts. Your terminals are ready for their first logins! Debugging your connection Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of symptoms and some suggested fixes. No login prompt appears Make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal emulation software on the correct serial port. Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the right kind of cable. Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. If you have a video display terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness controls are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good supply. Make sure that a getty process is running and serving the terminal. Type &prompt.root; ps -axww|grep getty to get a list of running getty processes. You should see an entry for the terminal. For example, the display 22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyd1 shows that a getty is running on the second serial port ttyd1 and is using the std.38400 entry in /etc/gettytab. If no getty process is running, make sure you have enabled the port in /etc/ttys. Make sure you have run kill -HUP 1. Garbage appears instead of a login prompt Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to make sure the correct getty type is in use. If not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill -HUP 1. Characters appear doubled; the password appears when typed Switch the terminal (or the terminal emulation software) - from “half duplex” or “local echo” to - “full duplex.” + from half duplex or local echo to + full duplex. Dialin Service Contributed by &a.ghelmer;. This document provides suggestions for configuring a FreeBSD system to handle dialup modems. This document is written based on the author's experience with FreeBSD versions 1.0, 1.1, and 1.1.5.1 (and experience with dialup modems on other UNIX-like operating systems); however, this document may not answer all of your questions or provide examples specific enough to your environment. The author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. Prerequisites To begin with, the author assumes you have some basic knowledge of FreeBSD. You need to have FreeBSD installed, know how to edit files in a UNIX-like environment, and how to look up manual pages on the system. As discussed below, you will need certain versions of FreeBSD, and knowledge of some terminology & modem and cabling. FreeBSD Version First, it is assumed that you are using FreeBSD version 1.1 or higher (including versions 2.x). FreeBSD version 1.0 included two different serial drivers, which complicates the situation. Also, the serial device driver (sio) has improved in every release of FreeBSD, so more recent versions of FreeBSD are assumed to have better and more efficient drivers than earlier versions. Terminology A quick rundown of terminology: bps Bits per Second — the rate at which data is transmitted DTE Data Terminal Equipment — for example, your computer DCE Data Communications Equipment — your modem RS-232 EIA standard for serial communications via hardware If you need more information about these terms and data communications in general, the author remembers reading that The RS-232 Bible (anybody have an ISBN?) is a good reference. When talking about communications data rates, the author does - not use the term “baud”. Baud refers to the number of + not use the term baud. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a period of time, - while “bps” (bits per second) is the - “correct” term to use (at least it does not seem to + while bps (bits per second) is the + correct term to use (at least it does not seem to bother the curmudgeons quite a much). External vs. Internal Modems External modems seem to be more convenient for dialup, because external modems often can be semi-permanently configured via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232 signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are also very useful to see whether a modem is operating properly. Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their configuration may be limited only to setting DIP switches. If your internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is probably difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is in place. Modems and Cables A background knowledge of these items is assumed You know how to connect your modem to your computer so that the two can communicate (unless you have an internal modem, which does not need such a cable) You are familiar with your modem's command set, or know where to look up needed commands You know how to configure your modem (probably via a terminal communications program) so you can set the non-volatile RAM parameters The first, connecting your modem, is usually simple — most straight-through serial cables work without any problems. You need to have a cable with appropriate connectors (DB-25 or DB-9, male or female) on each end, and the cable must be a DCE-to-DTE cable with these signals wired: Transmitted Data (SD) Received Data (RD) Request to Send (RTS) Clear to Send (CTS) Data Set Ready (DSR) Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Carrier Detect (CD) Signal Ground (SG) FreeBSD needs the RTS and CTS signals for flow-control at speeds above 2400bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals, so if you have problems, such as a login session not going away when the line hangs up, you may have a problem with your cable. The second prerequisite depends on the modem(s) you use. If you do not know your modem's command set by heart, you will need to have the modem's reference book or user's guide handy. Sample commands for USR Sportster 14,400 external modems will be given, which you may be able to use as a reference for your own modem's commands. Lastly, you will need to know how to setup your modem so that it will work well with FreeBSD. Like other UNIX-like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the modem. If you are familiar with connecting modems to PC-based bulletin board systems, this may seem awkward. Serial Interface Considerations FreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have single-character buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if possible). Because single-character-buffer devices require more work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are much preferred. If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate communications. Quick Overview Here is the process that FreeBSD follows to accept dialup logins. A getty process, spawned by init, patiently waits to open the assigned serial port (/dev/ttyd0, for our example). The command ps ax might show this: 4850 ?? I 0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the CD line is asserted by the modem. The kernel notices that carrier has been detected and completes getty's open of the port. getty sends a login: prompt at the specified initial line speed. getty watches to see if legitimate characters are received, and, in a typical configuration, if it finds junk (probably due to the modem's connection speed being different than getty's speed), getty tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable characters. We hope getty finds the correct speed and the user sees a login: prompt. After the user enters his/her login name, getty executes /usr/bin/login, which completes the login by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's shell. Let's dive into the configuration... Kernel Configuration FreeBSD kernels typically come prepared to search for four serial ports, known in the PC-DOS world as COM1:, COM2:, COM3:, and COM4:. FreeBSD can presently also handle - “dumb” multiport serial interface cards, such as the Boca + dumb multiport serial interface cards, such as the Boca Board 1008 and 2016 (please see the manual page &man.sio.4; for kernel configuration information if you have a multiport serial card). The default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports, though. To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports, watch for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the /sbin/dmesg command to replay the kernel's boot messages. In particular, look for messages that start with the characters sio. Hint: to view just the messages that have the word sio, use the command: &prompt.root; /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio' For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the serial-port specific kernel boot messages: sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa sio1: type 16550A sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef irq 9 on isa sio3: type 16550A If your kernel does not recognize all of your serial ports, you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD kernel for your system. Please see the BSD System Manager's Manual chapter on - “Building Berkeley Kernels with Config” [the source for + Building Berkeley Kernels with Config [the source for which is in /usr/src/share/doc/smm] and - “FreeBSD Configuration Options” [in + FreeBSD Configuration Options [in /sys/conf/options and in /sys/arch/conf/options.arch, with arch for example being i386] for more information on configuring and building kernels. You may have to unpack the kernel source distribution if have not installed the system sources already (srcdist/srcsys.?? in FreeBSD 1.1, srcdist/sys.?? in FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, or the entire source distribution in FreeBSD 2.0) to be able to configure and build kernels. Create a kernel configuration file for your system (if you have not already) by cding to /sys/i386/conf. Then, if you are creating a new custom configuration file, copy the file GENERICAH (or GENERICBT, if you have a BusTek SCSI controller on FreeBSD 1.x) to YOURSYS, where YOURSYS is the name of your system, but in upper-case letters. Edit the file, and change the device lines: device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty irq 4 vector siointr device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty irq 3 vector siointr device sio2 at isa? port "IO_COM3" tty irq 5 vector siointr device sio3 at isa? port "IO_COM4" tty irq 9 vector siointr You can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices you do not have. If you have a multiport serial board, such as the Boca Board BB2016, please see the &man.sio.4; man page for complete information on how to write configuration lines for multiport boards. Be careful if you are using a configuration file that was previously used for a different version of FreeBSD because the device flags have changed between versions. port "IO_COM1" is a substitution for port 0x3f8, IO_COM2 is 0x2f8, IO_COM3 is 0x3e8, and IO_COM4 is 0x2e8, which are fairly common port addresses for their respective serial ports; interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly common interrupt request lines. Also note that regular serial ports cannot share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs (multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the 16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request lines). When you are finished adjusting the kernel configuration file, use - the program config as documented in “Building - Berkeley Kernels with Config” and the + the program config as documented in Building + Berkeley Kernels with Config and the &man.config.8; manual page to prepare a kernel building directory, then build, install, and test the new kernel. Device Special Files - Most devices in the kernel are accessed through “device - special files”, which are located in the + Most devices in the kernel are accessed through device + special files, which are located in the /dev directory. The sio devices are accessed through the /dev/ttyd? (dial-in) and /dev/cua0? (call-out) devices. On FreeBSD version 1.1.5 and higher, there are also initialization devices (/dev/ttyid? and /dev/cuai0?) and locking devices (/dev/ttyld? and /dev/cual0?). The initialization devices are used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port is opened, such as crtscts for modems which use CTS/RTS signaling for flow control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs changing certain parameters; see the manual pages &man.termios.4;, &man.sio.4;, and &man.stty.1; for information on the terminal settings, locking & initializing devices, and setting terminal options, respectively. Making Device Special Files A shell script called MAKEDEV in the /dev directory manages the device special files. (The manual page for &man.MAKEDEV.8; on FreeBSD 1.1.5 is fairly bogus in its discussion of COM ports, so ignore it.) To use MAKEDEV to make dialup device special files for COM1: (port 0), cd to /dev and issue the command MAKEDEV ttyd0. Likewise, to make dialup device special files for COM2: (port 1), use MAKEDEV ttyd1. MAKEDEV not only creates the /dev/ttyd? device special files, but also creates the /dev/cua0? (and all of the initializing and locking special files under FreeBSD 1.1.5 and up) and removes the hardwired terminal special file /dev/tty0?, if it exists. After making new device special files, be sure to check the permissions on the files (especially the /dev/cua* files) to make sure that only users who should have access to those device special files can read & write on them — you probably do not want to allow your average user to use your modems to dialout. The default permissions on the /dev/cua* files should be sufficient: crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 129 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cua01 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 161 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuai01 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cual01 These permissions allow the user uucp and users in the group dialer to use the call-out devices. Configuration Files There are three system configuration files in the /etc directory that you will probably need to edit to allow dialup access to your FreeBSD system. The first, /etc/gettytab, contains configuration information for the /usr/libexec/getty daemon. Second, /etc/ttys holds information that tells /sbin/init what tty devices should have getty processes running on them. Lastly, you can place port initialization commands in the /etc/rc.serial script if you have FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 or higher; otherwise, you can initialize ports in the /etc/rc.local script. There are two schools of thought regarding dialup modems on UNIX. One group likes to configure their modems and system so that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the local computer-to-modem RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response better for slower connections. The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For example, V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make the modem run its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps connections make the modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps. Because getty does not understand any particular modem's connection speed reporting, getty gives a login: message at an initial speed and watches the characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, it is assumed that they know they should press the <Enter> key until they see a recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees - anything the user types as “junk”, tries going to the next + anything the user types as junk, tries going to the next speed and gives the login: prompt again. This procedure can continue ad nauseum, but normally only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login sequence does not look as clean as the former - “locked-speed” method, but a user on a low-speed + locked-speed method, but a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs. The author will try to give balanced configuration information, but is biased towards having the modem's data rate follow the connection rate. <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> /etc/gettytab is a &man.termcap.5;-style file of configuration information for &man.getty.8;. Please see the &man.gettytab.5; manual page for complete information on the format of the file and the list of capabilities. Locked-Speed Config If you are locking your modem's data communications rate at a particular speed, you probably will not need to make any changes to /etc/gettytab. Matching-Speed Config You will need to setup an entry in /etc/gettytab to give getty information about the speeds you wish to use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you can probably use the existing D2400 entry. This entry already exists in the FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 gettytab file, so you do not need to add it unless it is missing under your version of FreeBSD: # # Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can start either way) # D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\ :nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud: 3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\ :nx=D300:tc=1200-baud: 5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\ :nx=D2400:tc=300-baud: If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need to add an entry in /etc/gettytab; here is an entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface speed of 19.2 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis Modem # um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=V19200:tc=std.300: un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=V300:tc=std.1200: uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400: up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600: uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\ :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200: On FreeBSD 1.1.5 and later, this will result in 8-bit, no parity connections. Under FreeBSD 1.1, add :np: parameters to the std.xxx entries at the top of the file for 8 bits, no parity; otherwise, the default is 7 bits, even parity. The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2 Kbps (for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps (for V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the - nx= (“next table”) capability. - Each of the lines uses a tc= (“table - continuation”) entry to pick up the rest of the - “standard” settings for a particular data rate. + nx= (next table) capability. + Each of the lines uses a tc= (table + continuation) entry to pick up the rest of the + standard settings for a particular data rate. If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use a higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an example of a gettytab entry starting a 57.6 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem # Starting at 57.6 Kbps # vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300: vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200: vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400: vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600: vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600: If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and you do not have 16550A-based serial ports, you may receive sio - “silo” errors at 57.6 Kbps. + silo errors at 57.6 Kbps. <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> /etc/ttys is the list of ttys for init to monitor. /etc/ttys also provides security information to login (user root may only login on ttys marked secure). See the manual page for &man.ttys.5; for more information. You will need to either modify existing lines in /etc/ttys or add new lines to make init run getty processes automatically on your new dialup ports. The general format of the line will be the same, whether you are using a locked-speed or matching-speed configuration: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup on The first item in the above line is the device special file for this entry — ttyd0 means /dev/ttyd0 is the file that this getty will be watching. The second item, "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" (xxx will be replaced by the initial gettytab capability) is the process init will run on the device. The third item, dialup, is the default terminal type. The fourth parameter, on, indicates to init that the line is operational. There can be a fifth parameter, secure, but it should only be used for terminals which are physically secure (such as the system console). The default terminal type (dialup in the example above) may depend on local preferences. dialup is the traditional default terminal type on dialup lines so that users may customize their login scripts to notice when the terminal is dialup and automatically adjust their terminal type. However, the author finds it easier at his site to specify vt102 as the default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation on their remote systems. After you have made changes to /etc/ttys, you may send the init process a HUP signal to re-read the file. You can use the command &prompt.root; kill -1 1 to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up the system, though, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are properly configured and connected before signaling init. Locked-Speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to have a fixed-speed entry provided to getty. For a modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup on If your modem is locked at a different data rate, substitute the appropriate name for the std.speed entry for std.19200 from /etc/gettytab for your modem's data rate. Matching-Speed Config In a matching-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to reference the appropriate - beginning “auto-baud” (sic) entry in + beginning auto-baud (sic) entry in /etc/gettytab. For example, if you added the above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that starts at 19.2 Kbps (the gettytab entry containing the V19200 starting point), your ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup on <filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> or <filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, need to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control. You can add stty commands to /etc/rc.serial on FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 and up, or /etc/rc.local on FreeBSD 1.1, to set the hardware flow control flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem ports. For example, on a sample FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 system, /etc/rc.serial reads: #!/bin/sh # # Serial port initial configuration stty -f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts stty -f /dev/cuai01 crtscts This sets the termios flag crtscts on serial port #1's (COM2:) dialin and dialout initialization devices. On an old FreeBSD 1.1 system, these entries were added to /etc/rc.local to set the crtscts flag on the devices: # Set serial ports to use RTS/CTS flow control stty -f /dev/ttyd0 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd1 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd2 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd3 crtscts Since there is no initialization device special file on FreeBSD 1.1, one has to just set the flags on the sole device special file and hope the flags are not cleared by a miscreant. Modem Settings If you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as Telix under PC-DOS or tip under FreeBSD) to set the parameters. Connect to the modem using the same communications speed as the initial speed getty will use and configure the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these requirements: CD asserted when connected DTR asserted for operation; dropping DTR hangs up line & resets modem CTS transmitted data flow control Disable XON/XOFF flow control RTS received data flow control Quiet mode (no result codes) No command echo Please read the documentation for your modem to find out what commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it. For example, to set the above parameters on a USRobotics Sportster 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to the modem: ATZ AT&C1&D2&H1&I0&R2&W You might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5 compression. The USR Sportster 14,400 external modem also has some DIP switches that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can use these settings as an example: Switch 1: UP — DTR Normal Switch 2: Do not care (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result Codes) Switch 3: UP — Suppress Result Codes Switch 4: DOWN — No echo, offline commands Switch 5: UP — Auto Answer Switch 6: UP — Carrier Detect Normal Switch 7: UP — Load NVRAM Defaults Switch 8: Do not care (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode) Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dialup modems to avoid problems that can occur if getty mistakenly gives a login: prompt to a modem that is in command mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result code. I have heard this sequence can result in a extended, silly conversation between getty and the modem. Locked-speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure the modem to maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent of the communications rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the commands: ATZ AT&B1&W Matching-speed Config For a variable-speed configuration, you will need to configure your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming call rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem's error-corrected data rate to the speed used to issue the commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for non-error-corrected connections: ATZ AT&B2&W Checking the Modem's Configuration Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable fashion. On the USR Sportster 14,400 external modems, the command ATI5 displays the settings that are stored in the non-volatile RAM. To see the true operating parameters of the modem (as influenced by the USR's DIP switch settings), use the commands ATZ and then ATI4. If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration parameters. Troubleshooting Here are a few steps you can follow to check out the dialup modem on your system. Checking out the FreeBSD system Hook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system, and, if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the modem's DTR indicator lights when the login: prompt appears on the system's console — if it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD has started a getty process on the appropriate communications port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call. If the DTR indicator doesn't light, login to the FreeBSD system through the console and issue a ps ax to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a getty process on the correct port. You should see a lines like this among the processes displayed: 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 115 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd1 If you see something different, like this: 114 d0 I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that getty has completed its open on the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling or a mis-configured modem, because getty should not be able to open the communications port until CD (carrier detect) has been asserted by the modem. If you do not see any getty processes waiting to open the desired ttyd? port, double-check your entries in /etc/ttys to see if there are any mistakes there. Also, check the log file /var/log/messages to see if there are any log messages from init or getty regarding any problems. If there are any messages, triple-check the configuration files /etc/ttys and /etc/gettytab, as well as the appropriate device special files /dev/ttyd?, for any mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special files. Try Dialing In Try dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a prompt right away, or get garbage, try pressing <Enter> about once per second. If you still do not see a login: prompt after a while, try sending a BREAK. If you are using a high-speed modem to do the dialing, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's interface speed (via AT&B1 on a USR Sportster, for example). If you still cannot get a login: prompt, check /etc/gettytab again and double-check that The initial capability name specified in /etc/ttys for the line matches a name of a capability in /etc/gettytab Each nx= entry matches another gettytab capability name Each tc= entry matches another gettytab capability name If you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights (if it has any). If you have gone over everything several times and it still does not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it still does not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail message to the &a.questions;describing your modem and your problem, and the good folks on the list will try to help. Acknowledgments Thanks to these people for comments and advice: &a.kelly; for a number of good suggestions Dialout Service Information integrated from FAQ. The following are tips to getting your host to be able to connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for establishing a terminal session with a remote host. This is useful to log onto a BBS. This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file on the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to ftp something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to ftp it. Then use zmodem to transfer it to your machine. Why cannot I run <command>tip</command> or <command>cu</command>? On your system, the programs tip and cu are probably executable only by uucp and group dialer. You can use the group dialer to control who has access to your modem or remote systems. Just add yourself to group dialer. Alternatively, you can let everyone on your system run tip and cu by typing: &prompt.root; chmod 4511 /usr/bin/tip You do not have to run this command for cu, since cu is just a hard link to tip. My stock Hayes modem is not supported, what can I do? Actually, the man page for tip is out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in. Just use at=hayes in your /etc/remote file. The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the advanced features of newer modems—messages like BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You should turn those messages off when you use tip (using ATX0&W). Also, the dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W. Actually, as shipped tip does not yet support it fully. The solution is to edit the file tipconf.h in the directory /usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip Obviously you need the source distribution to do this. Edit the line #define HAYES 0 to #define HAYES 1. Then make and make install. Everything works nicely after that. How am I expected to enter these AT commands? - Make what is called a “direct” entry in your + Make what is called a direct entry in your /etc/remote file. For example, if your modem is hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0, then put in the following line: cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br capability. Then, type tip cuaa0 and you will be connected to your modem. If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your system, do this: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; MAKEDEV cuaa0 Or use cu as root with the following command: &prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeed line is the serial port (e.g./dev/cuaa0) and speed is the speed (e.g.57600). When you are done entering the AT commands hit ~. to exit. The <literal>@</literal> sign for the pn capability does not work! The @ sign in the phone number capability tells tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number. But the @ sign is also a special character in capability files like /etc/remote. Escape it with a backslash: pn=\@ How can I dial a phone number on the command line? - Put what is called a “generic” entry in your + Put what is called a generic entry in your /etc/remote file. For example: tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du: tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: Then you can things like: &prompt.root; tip -115200 5551234 If you prefer cu over tip, use a generic cu entry: cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: and type: &prompt.root; cu 5551234 -s 115200 Do I have to type in the bps rate every time I do that? Put in an entry for tip1200 or cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps, though. I access a number of hosts through a terminal server. Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing CONNECT <host> each time, use tip's cm capability. For example, these entries in /etc/remote: pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13: muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13: deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\ :dv=/dev/cua02:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234: will let you type tip pain or tip muffin to connect to the hosts pain or muffin; and tip deep13 to get to the terminal server. Can tip try more than one line for each site? This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines and several thousand students trying to use them... Make an entry for your university in /etc/remote and use @ for the pn capability: big-university:\ :pn=\@:tc=dialout dialout:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none: Then, list the phone numbers for the university in /etc/phones: big-university 5551111 big-university 5551112 big-university 5551113 big-university 5551114 tip will try each one in the listed order, then give up. If you want to keep retrying, run tip in a while loop. Why do I have to hit CTRL+P twice to send CTRL+P once? - CTRL+P is the default “force” character, used to tell + CTRL+P is the default force character, used to tell tip that the next character is literal data. You can set the force character to any other character with the - ~s escape, which means “set a - variable.” + ~s escape, which means set a + variable. Type ~sforce=single-char followed by a newline. single-char is any single character. If you leave out single-char, then the force character is the nul character, which you can get by typing CTRL+2 or CTRL+SPACE. A pretty good value for single-char is SHIFT+CTRL+6, which I have seen only used on some terminal servers. You can have the force character be whatever you want by specifying the following in your $HOME/.tiprc file: force=<single-char> Suddenly everything I type is in UPPER CASE?? You must have pressed CTRL+A, tip's - “raise character,” specially designed for people with + raise character, specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s as above and set the variable raisechar to something reasonable. In fact, you can set it to the same as the force character, if you never expect to use either of these features. Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who need to type CTRL+2 and CTRL+A a lot: force=^^ raisechar=^^ The ^^ is SHIFT+CTRL+6. How can I do file transfers with <command>tip</command>? If you are talking to another UNIX system, you can send and receive files with ~p (put) and ~t (take). These commands run cat and echo on the remote system to accept and send files. The syntax is: ~p local-file remote-file ~t remote-file local-file There is no error checking, so you probably should use another protocol, like zmodem. How can I run zmodem with <command>tip</command>? To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end. Then, type ~C rz to begin receiving them locally. To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end. Then, type ~C sz files to send them to the remote system. Setting Up the Serial Console &a.yokota; and &a.wpaul;: The text is heavily based on /sys/i386/boot/biosboot/README.serial written by &a.wpaul;. Introduction The FreeBSD/i386 operating system can boot on a system with only a dumb terminal on a serial port as a console. Such a configuration should be useful for two classes of people; system administrators who wish to install FreeBSD on a dedicated file/compute/terminal server machines that have no keyboard or monitor attached, and developers who want to debug the kernel or device drivers. Starting from version 3.1, FreeBSD/i386 employs a three stage bootstrap. The first two stages are in the boot block code which is stored at the beginning of the FreeBSD slice on the boot disk. The boot block will then load and run the boot loader (/boot/loader) as the third stage code. (See &man.boot.8; and &man.loader.8; for more details on the boot process.) In order to set up the serial console you must configure the boot block code, the boot loader code and the kernel. In FreeBSD version 3.0, the boot loader does not exist and there are only two stages in the bootstrap; the boot blocks directly load the kernel into memory. If you are using FreeBSD 3.0, then you should disregard any reference to the boot loader in this section. You can still use the serial port as a console. FreeBSD versions 2.X are quite different from 3.X, in that the serial port driver, &man.sio.4;, must be configured in a different way. This chapter will not describe the settings for version 2.X systems. If you are using these older versions of FreeBSD, please consult /sys/i386/boot/biosboot/README.serial instead. 6 Steps to Set up the Serial Console Prepare a serial cable. You will need either a null-modem cable or a standard serial cable and a null-modem adapter. See for a discussion on serial cables. Unplug your keyboard. Most PC systems probe for the keyboard during the Power-On Self-Test (POST) and will generate an error if the keyboard is not detected. Some machines complain loudly about the lack of a keyboard and will not continue to boot until it is plugged in. If your computer complains about the error, but boots anyway, then you do not have to do anything special. (One machine with a Phoenix BIOS that I have here merely says Keyboard failed then continues to boot normally.) If your computer refuses to boot without a keyboard attached then you will have to configure the BIOS so that it ignores this error (if it can). Consult your motherboard's manual for details on how to do this. - Setting the keyboard to “Not installed” in the + Setting the keyboard to Not installed in the BIOS setup does not mean that you will not be able to use your keyboard. All this does is tell the BIOS not to probe for a keyboard at power-on so that it will not complain if the keyboard is not plugged in. You can leave the - keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to “Not - installed” and the keyboard will still work. + keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to Not + installed and the keyboard will still work. If your system has a PS/2 mouse, chances are very good that you may have to unplug your mouse as well as your keyboard. This is because PS/2 mice share some hardware with the keyboard, and leaving the mouse plugged in can fool the keyboard probe into thinking the keyboard is still there. It is said that a Gateway 2000 Pentium 90Mhz system with an AMI BIOS that behaves this way. In general this is not a problem since the mouse is not much good without the keyboard anyway. Plug a dumb terminal into COM1: (sio0). If you do not have a dumb terminal, you can use an old PC/XT with a modem program, or the serial port on another UNIX box. If you do not have a COM1: (sio0), get one. At this time, there is no way to select a port other than COM1: for the boot blocks without recompiling the boot blocks. If you are already using COM1: for another device, you will have to temporarily remove that device and install a new boot block and kernel once you get FreeBSD up and running. (It is assumed that COM1: will be available on a file/compute/terminal server anyway; if you really need COM1: for something else (and you can not switch that something else to COM2: (sio1)), then you probably should not even be bothering with all this in the first place.) Make sure the configuration file of your kernel has appropriate flags set for COM1: (sio0). Relevant flags are: 0x10 Enables console support for this unit. The other console flags are ignored unless this is set. Currently, at most one unit can have console support; the first one (in config file order) with this flag set is preferred. This option alone will not make the serial port the console. Set the following flag or use the option described below, together with this flag. 0x20 Forces this unit to be the console (unless there is another higher priority console), regardless of the option discussed below. This flag replaces the COMCONSOLE option in FreeBSD versions 2.X. The flag 0x20 must be used together with the flag. 0x40 Reserves this unit (in conjunction with 0x10) and makes the unit unavailable for normal access. You should not set this flag to the serial port unit which you want to use as the serial console. The only use of this flag is to designate the unit for kernel remote debugging. See for more information on remote debugging. In FreeBSD 4.0-CURRENT or later the semantics of the flag 0x40 are slightly different and there is another flag to specify a serial port for remote debugging. Example: device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 irq 4 See &man.sio.4; for more details. If the flags were not set, you need to run UserConfig (on a different console) or recompile the kernel. Create boot.config in the root directory of the a partition on the boot drive. This file will instruct the boot block code how you would like to boot the system. In order to activate the serial console, you need one or more of the following options—if you want multiple options, include them all on the same line: Toggles internal and serial consoles. You can use this to switch console devices. For instance, if you boot from the internal (video) console, you can use to direct the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial port as its console device. Alternatively, if you boot from the serial port, you can use the to tell the boot loader and the kernel to use the video display as the console instead. Toggles single and dual console configurations. In the single configuration the console will be either the internal console (video display) or the serial port, depending on the state of the option above. In the dual console configuration, both the video display and the serial port will become the console at the same time, regardless of the state of the option. However, that the dual console configuration takes effect only during the boot block is running. Once the boot loader gets control, the console specified by the option becomes the only console. Makes the boot block probe the keyboard. If no keyboard is found, the and options are automatically set. Due to space constraints in the current version of the boot blocks, the option is capable of detecting extended keyboards only. Keyboards with less than 101 keys (and without F11 and F12 keys) may not be detected. Keyboards on some laptop computers may not be properly found because of this limitation. If this is to be the case with your system, you have to abandon using the option. Unfortunately there is no workaround for this problem. Use either the option to select the console automatically, or the option to activate the serial console. You may include other options described in &man.boot.8; as well. The options, except for , will be passed to the boot loader (/boot/loader). The boot loader will determine which of the internal video or the serial port should become the console by examining the state of the option alone. This means that if you specify the option but not the option in /boot.config, you can use the serial port as the console only during the boot block; the boot loader will use the internal video display as the console. Boot the machine. When you start your FreeBSD box, the boot blocks will echo the contents of /boot.config to the console. For example; /boot.config: -P Keyboard: no The second line appears only if you put in /boot.config and indicates presence/absence of the keyboard. These messages go to either serial or internal console, or both, depending on the option in /boot.config. Options Message goes to none internal console serial console serial and internal consoles serial and internal consoles , keyboard present internal console , keyboard absent serial console After the above messages, there will be a small pause before the boot blocks continue loading the boot loader and before any further messages printed to the console. Under normal circumstances, you do not need to interrupt the boot blocks, but you may want to do so in order to make sure things are set up correctly. Hit any key, other than Enter/Return, at the console to interrupt the boot process. The boot blocks will then prompt you for further action. You should now see something like: >> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT Default: 0:wd(0,a)/boot/loader boot: Verify the above message appears on either the serial or internal console or both, according to the options you put in /boot.config. If the message appears in the correct console, hit Enter/Return to continue the boot process. If you want the serial console but you do not see the prompt on the serial terminal, something is wrong with your settings. In the meantime, you enter and hit Enter/Return (if possible) to tell the boot block (and then the boot loader and the kernel) to choose the serial port for the console. Once the system is up, go back and check what went wrong. After the boot loader is loaded and you are in the third stage of the boot process you can still switch between the internal console and the serial console by setting appropriate environment variables in the boot loader. See . Summary Here is the summary of various settings discussed in this section and the console eventually selected. Case 1: You set the flags to 0x10 for sio0 device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal internal serial serial serial serial and internal internal internal serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal internal , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Case 2: You set the flags to 0x30 for sio0 device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x30 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal serial serial serial serial serial and internal internal serial serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal serial , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Tips for the Serial Console Setting A Faster Serial Port Speed By default the serial port settings are set to 9600 baud, 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit. If you wish to change the speed, you need to recompile at least the boot blocks. Add the following line to /etc/make.conf and compile new boot blocks: BOOT_COMCONSOLE_SPEED=19200 If the serial console is configured in some other way than by booting with , or if the serial console used by the kernel is different from the one used by the boot blocks, then you must also add the following option to the kernel configuration file and compile a new kernel: options CONSPEED=19200 Using Serial Port Other Than <devicename>sio0</devicename> For The Console Using a port other than sio0 as the console requires some recompiling. If you want to use another serial port for whatever reasons, recompile the boot blocks, the boot loader and the kernel as follows. Get the kernel source. Edit /etc/make.conf and set BOOT_COMCONSOLE_PORT to the address of the port you want to use (0x3F8, 0x2F8, 0x3E8 or 0x2E8). Only sio0 through sio3 (COM1: through COM4:) can be used; multiport serial cards will not work. No interrupt setting is needed. Create a custom kernel configuration file and add appropriate flags for the serial port you want to use. For example, if you want to make sio1 (COM2:) the console: device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x10 irq 3 or device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x30 irq 3 The console flags for the other serial ports should not be set. Recompile and install the boot blocks: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot/i386/boot2 &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install Recompile and install the boot loader: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot/i386/loader &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install Rebuild and install the kernel. Write the boot blocks to the boot disk with &man.disklabel.8; and boot from the new kernel. Entering the DDB Debugger from the Serial Line If you wish to drop into the kernel debugger from the serial console (useful for remote diagnostics, but also dangerous if you generate a spurious BREAK on the serial port!) then you should compile your kernel with the following options: options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER options DDB Getting a Login Prompt on the Serial Console While this is not required, you may wish to get a login prompt over the serial line, now that you can see boot messages and can enter the kernel debugging session through the serial console. Here is how to do it. Open the file /etc/ttys with an editor and locate the lines: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd3 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd0 through ttyd3 corresponds to COM1 through COM4. Change off to on for the desired port. If you have changed the speed of the serial port, you need to change std.9600 to match the current setting, e.g. std.19200. You may also want to change the terminal type from unknown to the actual type of your serial terminal. After editing the file, you must kill -HUP 1 to make this change take effect. Changing Console from the Boot Loader Previous sections described how to set up the serial console by tweaking the boot block. This section shows that you can specify the console by entering some commands and environment variables in the boot loader. As the boot loader is invoked as the third stage of the boot process, after the boot block, the settings in the boot loader will override the settings in the boot block. Setting Up the Serial Console You can easily specify the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial console by writing just one line in /boot/loader.rc: set console=comconsole This will take effect regardless of the settings in the boot block discussed in the previous section. You had better put the above line as the first line of /boot/loader.rc so as to see boot messages on the serial console as early as possible. Likewise, you can specify the internal console as: set console=vidconsole If you do not set the boot loader environment variable console, the boot loader, and subsequently the kernel, will use whichever console indicated by the option in the boot block. In versions 3.2 or later, you may specify the console in /boot/loader.conf.local or /boot/loader.conf, rather than in /boot/loader.rc. In this method your /boot/loader.rc should look like: include /boot/loader.4th start Then, create /boot/loader.conf.local and put the following line there. console=comconsole or console=vidconsole See &man.loader.conf.5; for more information. At the moment, the boot loader has no option equivalent to the option in the boot block, and there is no provision to automatically select the internal console and the serial console based on the presence of the keyboard. Using Serial Port Other than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for the Console You need to recompile the boot loader to use a serial port other than sio0 for the serial console. Follow the procedure described in . Caveats The idea here is to allow people to set up dedicated servers that require no graphics hardware or attached keyboards. Unfortunately, while (most?) every system will let you boot without a keyboard, there are quite a few that will not let you boot without a graphics adapter. Machines with AMI BIOSes can be configured to boot with no graphics adapter installed simply by changing the `graphics adapter' setting in the CMOS configuration to `Not installed.' However, many machines do not support this option and will refuse to boot if you have no display hardware in the system. With these machines, you'll have to leave some kind of graphics card plugged in, (even if it's just a junky mono board) although you will not have to attach a monitor into it. You might also try installing an AMI BIOS. diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/staff/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/staff/chapter.sgml index 0ef31311eb..a0ac0c009e 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/staff/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/staff/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1119 +1,1119 @@ FreeBSD Project Staff The FreeBSD Project is managed and operated by the following groups of people: The FreeBSD Core Team - The FreeBSD core team constitutes the project's “Board of - Directors”, responsible for deciding the project's overall goals + The FreeBSD core team constitutes the project's Board of + Directors, responsible for deciding the project's overall goals and direction as well as managing specific areas of the FreeBSD project landscape. (in alphabetical order by last name): &a.asami; &a.jmb; &a.ache; &a.bde; &a.gibbs; &a.dg; &a.jkh; &a.phk; &a.rich; &a.gpalmer; &a.dfr; &a.sos; &a.peter; &a.wollman; &a.joerg; The FreeBSD Developers These are the people who have commit privileges and do the engineering work on the FreeBSD source tree. All core team members are also developers. &a.jmas; &a.will; &a.ugen; &a.dbaker; &a.jhb; &a.mbarkah; &a.stb; &a.pb; &a.abial; &a.jb; &a.nbm; &a.torstenb; &a.wilko; &a.jake; &a.dburr; &a.charnier; &a.luoqi; &a.ejc; &a.kjc; &a.gclarkii; &a.archie; &a.chris; &a.alc; &a.cracauer; &a.dec; &a.adam; &a.bsd; &a.jwd; &a.dillon; &a.mdodd; &a.dufault; &a.uhclem; &a.tegge; &a.deischen; &a.eivind; &a.julian; &a.rse; &a.ru; &a.se; &a.jasone; &a.sef; &a.jedgar; &a.green; &a.fenner; &a.jfieber; &a.jfitz; &a.scrappy; &a.lars; &a.dirk; &a.shige; &a.billf; &a.gallatin; &a.patrick; &a.tg; &a.brandon; &a.gioria; &a.graichen; &a.cg; &a.rgrimes; &a.jmg; &a.hanai; &a.roger; &a.mharo; &a.thepish; &a.jhay; &a.sheldonh; &a.helbig; &a.ghelmer; &a.erich; &a.nhibma; &a.flathill; &a.pho; &a.hosokawa; &a.hsu; &a.foxfair; &a.tom; &a.mph; &a.imura; &a.shin; &a.itojun; &a.iwasaki; &a.mjacob; &a.gj; &a.nsj; &a.joe; &a.kato; &a.kris; &a.andreas; &a.motoyuki; &a.jkoshy; &a.kuriyama; &a.reg; &a.grog; &a.jlemon; &a.truckman; &a.lile; &a.kevlo; &a.imp; &a.ade; &a.jmacd; &a.smace; &a.gehenna; &a.mckay; &a.mckusick; &a.ken; &a.hm; &a.tedm; &a.jim; &a.marcel; &a.dan; &a.amurai; &a.markm; &a.knu; &a.nakai; &a.max; &a.newton; &a.rnordier; &a.davidn; &a.obrien; &a.danny; &a.ljo; &a.fsmp; &a.smpatel; &a.cp; &a.wpaul; &a.alfred; &a.wes; &a.cpiazza; &a.jdp; &a.bp; &a.steve; &a.mpp; &a.jraynard; &a.darrenr; &a.csgr; &a.martin; &a.paul; &a.roberto; &a.chuckr; &a.jesusr; &a.guido; &a.groudier; &a.dima; &a.asmodai; &a.ps; &a.sada; &a.wsanchez; &a.nsayer; &a.wosch; &a.dick; &a.jseger; &a.simokawa; &a.vanilla; &a.msmith; &a.des; &a.sobomax; &a.dcs; &a.brian; &a.mks; &a.stark; &a.karl; &a.sumikawa; &a.murray; &a.gsutter; &a.unfurl; &a.nyan; &a.tanimura; &a.taoka; &a.mtaylor; &a.dt; &a.cwt; &a.pst; &a.ume; &a.hoek; &a.nectar; &a.jayanth; &a.swallace; &a.rwatson; &a.dwhite; &a.nate; &a.yokota; &a.andy; &a.phantom; &a.jmz; The FreeBSD Documentation Project The FreeBSD Documentation Project is responsible for a number of different services, each service being run by an individual and his deputies (if any): Documentation Project Architect &a.nik; Webmaster &a.wosch; Handbook Editor &a.jim; FAQ Editor &a.faq; News Editor &a.jim; In the Press Editor &a.jkoshy; FreeBSD Really-Quick NewsLetter Editor Chris Coleman chrisc@vmunix.com Gallery Editor &a.phantom; Commercial Editor &a.phantom; Web Changes Editor &a.www; User Groups Editor &a.grog; FreeBSD Projects and Tasklist Editor &a.asmodai; FreeBSD Java Project &a.patrick; LinuxDoc to DocBook conversion &a.nik; Who is Responsible for What Principal Architect &a.dg; Documentation Project Manager &a.nik; Boot blocks &a.rnordier;, &a.jhb; Boot loader &a.dcs; Internationalization &a.ache; Networking &a.wollman; Postmaster &a.jmb; Release Coordinator &a.jkh; Public Relations & Corporate Liaison &a.jkh; Security Officer &a.imp; Source Repository Managers Principal: &a.peter; Assistant: &a.jdp; International (Crypto): &a.markm; Ports Manager &a.asami; XFree86 Project, Inc. Liaison &a.rich; Usenet Support &a.joerg; GNATS Administrator &a.steve; Webmaster &a.wosch; diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml index 090af3974f..71f22c7765 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1328 +1,1328 @@ The X Window System This chapter has been graciously donated by &a.grog; from his book, The Complete FreeBSD, and remains copyright of him. Modifications for the handbook made by &a.jim;. Synopsis The following chapter will cover installing and configuring X11 on your system. For more information on X11 and to see whether your video card is supported, check the XFree86 web site. Overview FreeBSD comes with XFree86, a port of X11R6 that supports several versions of Intel-based UNIX. This chapter describes how to set up your XFree86 server. It is based on material supplied with the FreeBSD release, specifically the files README.FreeBSD and README.Config in the directory /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc. If you find any discrepancy, the material in those files will be more up-to-date than this description. In addition, the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/RELNOTES contains OS-independent information about the current release. X uses a lot of memory. In order to run X, your system should have an absolute minimum of 8 MB of memory, but performance will be painful with so little memory. A more practical minimum is 16 MB, and you can improve performance by adding more memory. If you use X intensively, you will continue seeing performance improvement by increasing to as much as 128 MB of RAM. There is lots of useful information in the rest of this chapter, but maybe you are not interested in information right now. You just want to get your X server up and running. However, be warned: An incorrect installation can burn out your monitor or your video board. However, if you know you are in spec, and you have a standard Super VGA board and a good multifrequency monitor, then you can probably get things up and running without reading this chapter. Installing XFree86 The easiest way to install XFree86 is with the sysinstall program, either when you are installing the system, or later by starting the program /stand/sysinstall. In the rest of this chapter, we will look at what makes up the distribution, and we will also take a look at manually installing X11. The XFree86 Distribution XFree86 is distributed as a bewildering number of archives. In the following section, we will take a look at what you should install. Do not worry too much, though; if you cannot decide what to pick and you have 200MB of disk space free, it's safe to unpack everything. At a minimum you need to unpack the archives in the following table and at least one server that matches your VGA board. You will need 10Mb for the minimum required run-time binaries only, and between 1.7 and 3 MB for the server. Below is a table of the required components. Archive Description Xbin.tgz All the executable X client applications and shared libraries. Xfnts.tgz The misc and 75 dpi fonts. Xlib.tgz Data files and libraries needed at runtime. The X Server In addition to the archives above, you need at least one server, which will take up about 3 MB of disk. The choice depends primarily on what kind of display board you have. The default server name is /usr/X11R6/bin/X, and it is a link to a specific server binary /usr/X11R6/bin/XF86_xxxx. You will find the server archives for the standard PC architecture in /cdrom/XF86336/Servers, and the servers for the Japanese PC98 architecture in /cdrom/XF86336/PC98-Servers if you have the CD set. Alternatively, they are available on our FTP site at ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel.current;-RELEASE/XF86336/Servers/ or ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel.current;-RELEASE/XF86336/PC98-Servers/ Available X servers for the standard PC architechture: Archive Description X8514.tgz 8-bit color for IBM 8514 and true compatibles. XAGX.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for AGX and XGA boards. XI128.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for I128 boards. XMa32.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for ATI Mach32 boards. XMa64.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color fot ATI Mach64 boards. XMa8.tgz 8-bit color for ATI Mach8 boards. XMono.tgz 1-bit monochrome for VGA, Super-VGA, Hercules, and others. XP9K.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color for Weitek P9000 boards (Diamond Viper). XS3.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color for S3 boards. XS3V.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for S3 ViRGE boards. XSVGA.tgz >=8-bit color for Super-VGA cards. XVG16.tgz 4-bit color for VGA and Super-VGA cards. XW32.tgz 8-bit color for ET4000/W32, /W32i, /W32p, and ET6000 cards. Available X servers for the Japanese PC98 architecture: Archive Description X9GAN.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 GA-98NB/WAP boards. X9GA9.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color for PC98 S3 GA-968 boards. X9480.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 PEGC X9NKV.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 NEC-CIRRUS/EPSON NKV/NKV2 boards. X9WBS.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 WAB-S boards. X9WEP.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 WAB-EP boards. X9WSN.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 WSN-A2F boards. X9EGC.tgz 4-bit color for PC98 EGC. X9TGU.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 Trident Cyber9320/9680 boards. X9NS3.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 NEC S3 boards. X9SPW.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 S3 PW/PCSKB boards. X9LPW.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 S3 PW/LB boards. Each of these servers includes a manual page which contains details of supported chipsets and server-specific configuration options. There are also a number of archives are provided for X programmers: Archive Description Xprog.tgz Config, lib*.a, and *.h files needed for compiling clients. Xctrb.tgz Contributed sources. Xlk98.tgz - The “link kit” for building servers, + The link kit for building servers, Japanese PC98 version. Xlkit.tgz - The “link kit” for building servers, + The link kit for building servers, normal PC architecture. Xsrc-1.tgz Part 1 of the complete sources. Xsrc-2.tgz Part 2 of the complete sources. Xsrc-3.tgz Part 3 of the complete sources. You will need Xprog.tgz if you intend to install ports of X software. XFree86 also includes a number of optional parts, such as documentation, and setup programs. Archive Description Xdoc.tgz READMEs Xjdoc.tgz READMEs in Japanese. Xps.tgz READMEs in PostScript. Xhtml.tgz READMEs in HTML. Xman.tgz Manual pages. Xcfg.tgz Customizable xinit and xdm runtime configuration files. Xset.tgz The X86Setup utility; a graphical version of the xf86config utility. Xjset.tgz The XF86Setup utility, Japanese version, for the normal PC architecture. XF86Setup is a graphical mode setup program for XFree86, and you may prefer it to the standard setup program xf86config. You do not need any special archives for xf86config; it is included in Xbin.tgz. The first time you install, you will need Xcfg.tgz to create your initial configuration files. Do not use it when upgrading; it overwrites your configuration files. There are also additional fonts that are available with XFree86: Archive Description Xf100.tgz 100 dpi fonts. Xfscl.tgz Speedo and Type1 fonts. Xfnon.tgz Japanese, Chinese, and other non-english fonts. Xfcyr.tgz Cyrillic fonts. Unlike the X servers described above, the archives for the following servers are all in the main directory. Archive Description Xfsrv.tgz The font server. Xnest.tgz A nested server running as a client window on another display. Xprt.tgz The print server. Xvfb.tgz The Virtual Framebuffer X server, which renders into memory or an mmapped file. Installing XFree86 Manually If you do not use sysinstall to install X, you need to perform a number of steps: Create the directories and unpack the required archives. Choose and install an X server. Set up the environment to be able to access X. Find a virtual terminal in which to run X. Configure X for your hardware. This sounds like a lot of work, but if you approach it methodically, it is not too bad. In the rest of this section, we will look at each step in turn. Unpacking the Archives You must unpack the archives as root, since a number of the executables are set-user-id (they run as root even when started by other users). If you unpack the server as an ordinary user, it may abort when you try to run it. You must also use a umask value of 022 (permissions rwxr-xr-x), because the X server requires special permissions. &prompt.user; su Password: &prompt.root; umask 022 If you do not have enough space in the /usr file system, create a directory on another partition and symlink it to /usr. For example, if you have a file system /home with adequate space, you could do: &prompt.root; cd /home &prompt.root; mkdir X11R6 &prompt.root; ln -s /home/X11R6 /usr/X11R6 Next, decide which archives you want to install. For a minimal installation, choose Xbin.tgz, Xfnts.tgz, Xlib.tgz, and Xcfg.tgz. If you have already configured X for your hardware, you can omit Xcfg.tgz. If you are using sh, unpack like this: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; for i in bin fnts lib cfg; do &prompt.root; tar xzf X$i.tgz &prompt.root; done If you are using csh, enter: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; foreach i (bin fnts lib cfg) ? tar xzf X$i.tgz ? end Installing the Server Choose a server archive corresponding to your VGA board. If the table in the section above does not give you enough information, check the server man pages, /usr/X11R6/man/man1/XF86_*, which list the VGA chipsets supported by each server. For example, if you have an ET4000 based board you will use the XF86_SVGA server. In this case you would enter: &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; tar xzf XSVGA.tgz [substitute your server name here] Setting up the environment Next, you may wish to create a symbolic link /usr/X11/bin/X that points to the server that matches your video board. In this example, it is the XF86_SVGA server: &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/bin &prompt.root; rm X &prompt.root; ln -s XF86_SVGA X X needs this symbolic link in order to be able to work correctly, but you have the option of setting it when you run xf86config – see below. Next, check that the directory /usr/X11R6/bin is in the default path for sh in /etc/profile and for csh in /etc/csh.login, and add it if it is not. It is best to do this with an editor, but if you want to take a shortcut, you can enter: &prompt.root; echo 'PATH=$PATH:/usr/X11R6/bin' >>/etc/profile or: &prompt.root; echo 'set path = ($path /usr/X11R6/bin)' >>/etc/csh.login Alternatively, make sure everybody who uses X puts /usr/X11R6/bin in their shell's PATH variable. Next, invoke ldconfig to put the shared libraries in ld.so's cache: &prompt.root; ldconfig -m /usr/X11R6/lib You can omit invoking ldconfig if you plan to reboot before using X. You do not need to uncompress the font files, but if you do, you must run mkfontdir in the corresponding font directory, otherwise your server will abort - with the message “could not open default font - `fixed'”. + with the message could not open default font + `fixed'. Assigning a virtual terminal to X Next, make sure you have a spare virtual console which is running a getty. First check how many virtual consoles you have: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep virtual sc0: VGA color <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x0> Then check /etc/ttys to make sure there is at least one virtual terminal (ttyvxx device) which does not have a getty enabled. Look for the keyword off: &prompt.root; grep ttyv /etc/ttys ttyv0 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure ttyv1 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure ttyv2 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure ttyv3 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure In this case, /dev/ttyv3 is available, if your kernel has least 4 VTs. If not, either disable a getty in /etc/ttys by changing on to off, or build another kernel with more virtual terminals. Configuring X for Your Hardware After installing the X software, you will need to customize the file XF86Config, which tells the X server about your hardware and how you want to run it. In order to set up XF86Config, you will need the following hardware information: Your mouse type, the bit rate if it is a serial mouse, and the name of the device to which it is connected. This will typically be /dev/ttyd0 or /dev/ttyd1 for a serial mouse, /dev/psm0 for a PS/2 mouse, or /dev/mse0 for a bus mouse. The type of the video board and the amount of display memory. If it is a no-name board, establish what VGA chip set it uses. The parameters of your monitor; vertical and horizontal frequency. Identifying the hardware How do you decide what your hardware is? The manufacturer should tell you, but very often the information you get about - your display board and monitor is pitiful; “Super VGA - board with 76 Hz refresh rate and 16,777,216 colors”. + your display board and monitor is pitiful; Super VGA + board with 76 Hz refresh rate and 16,777,216 colors. This tells you the maximum pixel depth (24 bits – - the number of colors is 2(pixel depth)), but it doesn't tell you anything else about the display board. As we will see later, the real parameters you need to know are the maximum horizontal frequency, the dot clock range, the chipset and the amount of display memory. You could be unlucky trying to get some of this information, but you can get some with the SuperProbe program. It should always be able to tell you the chipset and the amount of memory on board. Occasionally SuperProbe can crash your system. Make sure you are not doing anything important when you run it. Running SuperProbe looks like this: &prompt.root; SuperProbe (warnings and acknowledgements omitted) First video: Super-VGA Chipset: Tseng ET4000 (Port Probed) Memory: 1024 Kbytes RAMDAC: Generic 8-bit pseudo-color DAC (with 6-bit wide lookup tables (or in 6-bit mode)) SuperProbe is very finicky about running at all, and you will often get messages like: SuperProbe: Cannot be run while an X server is running SuperProbe: If an X server is not running, unset $DISPLAY and try again SuperProbe: Cannot open video In other words, even if no X server is running, SuperProbe will not work if you have the environment variable DISPLAY set. How do you unset it? With Bourne-style shells, you enter: &prompt.root; unset DISPLAY In the C shell, you enter: &prompt.root; unsetenv DISPLAY Running <command>xf86config</command> The easy way to create your configuration file is with one of the utilities xf86config (note the lower case name) or XF86Setup. Both lead you through the configuration step by step. xf86config runs in character mode, while XF86Setup runs in a graphical mode. XF86Setup can have problems with unusual hardware, so I personally prefer xf86config. You can also use sysinstall, but this does not change much; sysinstall just starts xf86config for you, and it is easier to start it directly. In this section, we will use an example to illustrate configuration via xf86config. We are installing X for an ancient Diamond SpeedStar with 1 MB of display memory, a Logitech MouseMan mouse, and an ADI MicroScan 5AP monitor. The mouse is connected to the system via the first serial port, /dev/ttyd0. To run xf86config, type in the name. If /usr/X11R6/bin is included in your PATH environment variable, you just need to type xf86config. If it is not, you need to type out the full path to xf86config, like so: &prompt.root; /usr/X11R6/bin/xf86config This program will create a basic XF86Configfile, based on menu selections you make. The XF86Config file usually resides in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11 or /etc. A sample XF86Config file is supplied with XFree86; it is configured for a standard VGA card and monitor with 640x480 resolution. This program will ask for a pathname when it is ready to write the file. You can either take the sample XF86Config as a base and edit it for your configuration, or let this program produce a base XF86Config file for your configuration and fine-tune it. Refer to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/README.Config for a detailed overview of the configuration process. For accelerated servers (including accelerated drivers in the SVGA server), there are many chipset and card-specific options and settings. This program does not know about these. On some configurations some of these settings must be specified. Refer to the server man pages and chipset-specific READMEs. Before continuing with this program, make sure you know the chipset and amount of video memory on your video card. SuperProbe can help with this. It is also helpful if you know what server you want to run. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. ENTER First specify a mouse protocol type. Choose one from the following list: 1. Microsoft compatible (2-button protocol) 2. Mouse Systems (3-button protocol) 3. Bus Mouse 4. PS/2 Mouse 5. Logitech Mouse (serial, old type, Logitech protocol) 6. Logitech MouseMan (Microsoft compatible) 7. MM Series 8. MM HitTablet 9. Microsoft IntelliMouse If you have a two-button mouse, it is most likely of type 1, and if you have a three-button mouse, it can probably support both protocol 1 and 2. There are two main varieties of the latter type; mice with a switch to select the protocol, and mice that default to 1 and require a button to be held at boot-time to select protocol 2. Some mice can be convinced to do 2 by sending a special sequence to the serial port (see the ClearDTR/ClearRTS options). Enter a protocol number: 6 Logitech MouseMan You have selected a Logitech MouseMan type mouse. You might want to enable ChordMiddle which could cause the third button to work. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to enable ChordMiddle? n You definitely want to enable the third button on your mouse, since many X clients use it. With a genuine Logitech mouse, however, you don't need to enable ChordMiddle in order to use the button. If you find that the third button does not work when you start X, you can enable ChordMiddle by editing the configuration file – it is much easier and less error-prone than re-running XF86Setup. Continuing through the setup: If your mouse has only two buttons, it is recommended that you enable Emulate3Buttons. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to enable Emulate3Buttons? n Now give the full device name that the mouse is connected to, for example /dev/tty00. Just pressing enter will use the default, /dev/mouse. Mouse device: /dev/ttyd1 Be very careful about this entry. You must specify the correct name for the device to which the mouse is connected. xf86config is not specific to FreeBSD, and the suggested example is just plain wrong for FreeBSD. Use the names /dev/ttyd0 through /dev/ttyd3 for serial mice, /dev/psm0 for PS/2 mice or /dev/mse0 for a bus mouse. Continuing, we see: Beginning with XFree86 3.1.2D, you can use the new X11R6.1 XKEYBOARD extension to manage the keyboard layout. If you answer 'n' to the following question, the server will use the old method, and you have to adjust your keyboard layout with xmodmap. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to use XKB? y The following dialogue will allow you to select from a list of already preconfigured keymaps. If you don't find a suitable keymap in the list, the program will try to combine a keymap from additional information you are asked then. Such a keymap is by default untested and may require manual tuning. Please report success or required changes for such a keymap to XFREE86@XFREE86.ORG for addition to the list of preconfigured keymaps in the future. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. List of preconfigured keymaps: 1 Standard 101-key, US encoding 2 Microsoft Natural, US encoding 3 KeyTronic FlexPro, US encoding 4 Standard 101-key, US encoding with ISO9995-3 extensions 5 Standard 101-key, German encoding 6 Standard 101-key, French encoding 7 Standard 101-key, Thai encoding 8 Standard 101-key, Swiss/German encoding 9 Standard 101-key, Swiss/French encoding 10 None of the above Enter a number to choose the keymap. 1 Choose the standard US keyboard Now we want to set the specifications of the monitor. The two critical parameters are the vertical refresh rate, which is the rate at which the the whole screen is refreshed, and most importantly the horizontal sync rate, which is the rate at which scanlines are displayed. The valid range for horizontal sync and vertical sync should be documented in the manual of your monitor. If in doubt, check the monitor database /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/Monitors to see if your monitor is there. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. ENTER You must indicate the horizontal sync range of your monitor. You can either select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry- standard monitor types, or give a specific range. It is VERY IMPORTANT that you do not specify a monitor type with a horizontal sync range that is beyond the capabilities of your monitor. If in doubt, choose a conservative setting. hsync in kHz; monitor type with characteristic modes 1 31.5; Standard VGA, 640x480 @@ 60 Hz 2 31.5 - 35.1; Super VGA, 800x600 @@ 56 Hz 3 31.5, 35.5; 8514 Compatible, 1024x768 @@ 87 Hz interlaced (no 800x600) 4 31.5, 35.15, 35.5; Super VGA, 1024x768 @@ 87 Hz interlaced, 800x600 @@ 56 Hz 5 31.5 - 37.9; Extended Super VGA, 800x600 @@ 60 Hz, 640x480 @@ 72 Hz 6 31.5 - 48.5; Non-Interlaced SVGA, 1024x768 @@ 60 Hz, 800x600 @@ 72 Hz 7 31.5 - 57.0; High Frequency SVGA, 1024x768 @@ 70 Hz 8 31.5 - 64.3; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @@ 60 Hz 9 31.5 - 79.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @@ 74 Hz 10 31.5 - 82.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @@ 76 Hz 11 Enter your own horizontal sync range Enter your choice (1-11): Unfortunately, our monitor is not mentioned in the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/Monitors, but by chance the manual does specify the frequency range in the Technical Data section. The horizontal frequency range is from 30 to 64 kHz, and the vertical frequency range is from 50 to 100 Hz. The horizontal frequency range is almost exactly covered by choice 8, but that setting threatens to go 0.3 kHz higher in frequency than the technical data state. Do you want to risk it? Doing so will most likely not be a problem, since it is unlikely that the monitor will die at such a small deviation from the specs, and it is also unlikely that your XF86Config will actually generate a horizontal frequency between 64.0 and 64.3 kHz. However, there is no need to take even this slight risk. Just specify the real values: Enter your choice (1-11): 11 Please enter the horizontal sync range of your monitor, in the format used in the table of monitor types above. You can either specify one or more continuous ranges (e.g. 15-25, 30-50), or one or more fixed sync frequencies. Horizontal sync range: 30-64 Next, we select the vertical frequency range: You must indicate the vertical sync range of your monitor. You can either select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry-standard monitor types, or give a specific range. For interlaced modes, the number that counts is the high one (e.g., 87 Hz rather than 43 Hz). 1 50-70 2 50-90 3 50-100 4 40-150 5 Enter your own vertical sync range Enter your choice: 3 exactly the range of the monitor The next step is to specify identification strings. You can think out names if you want, but unless you are juggling a lot of different hardware, you can let xf86config do it for you: You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill in default names. The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed. Enter an identifier for your monitor definition: ENTER Enter the vendor name of your monitor: ENTER Enter the model name of your monitor: ENTER Next comes the choice of the video board. We have an elderly Diamond SpeedStar Plus with an ET4000 chip, and unknown Ramdac and Clock Chip. Let's see how we fare: Now we must configure video card specific settings. At this point you can choose to make a selection out of a database of video card definitions. Because there can be variation in Ramdacs and clock generators even between cards of the same model, it is not sensible to blindly copy the settings (e.g., a Device section). For this reason, after you make a selection, you will still be asked about the components of the card, with the settings from the chosen database entry presented as a strong hint. The database entries include information about the chipset, what server to run, the Ramdac and ClockChip, and comments that will be included in the Device section. However, a lot of definitions only hint about what server to run (based on the chipset the card uses) and are untested. If you can't find your card in the database, there's nothing to worry about. You should only choose a database entry that is exactly the same model as your card; choosing one that looks similar is just a bad idea (e.g. a GemStone Snail 64 may be as different from a GemStone Snail 64+ in terms of hardware as can be). Do you want to look at the card database? y 0 2 the Max MAXColor S3 Trio64V+ S3 Trio64V+ 1 928Movie S3 928 2 AGX (generic) AGX-014/15/16 3 ALG-5434(E) CL-GD5434 4 ASUS 3Dexplorer RIVA128 5 ASUS PCI-AV264CT ATI-Mach64 6 ASUS PCI-V264CT ATI-Mach64 7 ASUS Video Magic PCI V864 S3 864 8 ASUS Video Magic PCI VT64 S3 Trio64 9 AT25 Alliance AT3D 10 AT3D Alliance AT3D 11 ATI 3D Pro Turbo ATI-Mach64 12 ATI 3D Xpression ATI-Mach64 13 ATI 3D Xpression+ PC2TV ATI-Mach64 14 ATI 8514 Ultra (no VGA) ATI-Mach8 15 ATI All-in-Wonder ATI-Mach64 16 ATI Graphics Pro Turbo ATI-Mach64 17 ATI Graphics Pro Turbo 1600 ATI-Mach64 Enter a number to choose the corresponding card definition. Press enter for the next page, q to continue configuration. ENTER Dozens of board definitions come in alphabetic order. Finally we see: 108 DSV3325 S3 ViRGE 109 DSV3326 S3 Trio64V+ 110 DataExpert DSV3325 S3 ViRGE 111 DataExpert DSV3365 S3 Trio64V+ 112 Dell S3 805 S3 801/805 113 Dell onboard ET4000 ET4000 114 Diamond Edge 3D nv1 115 Diamond Multimedia Stealth 3D 2000 S3 ViRGE 116 Diamond Multimedia Stealth 3D 2000 PRO S3 ViRGE/DX 117 Diamond SpeedStar (Plus) ET4000 118 Diamond SpeedStar 24 ET4000 119 Diamond SpeedStar 24X (not fully supported) WD90C31 120 Diamond SpeedStar 64 CL-GD5434 121 Diamond SpeedStar HiColor ET4000 122 Diamond SpeedStar Pro (not SE) CL-GD5426/28 123 Diamond SpeedStar Pro 1100 CL-GD5420/2/4/6/8/9 124 Diamond SpeedStar Pro SE (CL-GD5430/5434) CL-GD5430/5434 125 Diamond SpeedStar64 Graphics 2000/2200 CL-GD5434 Enter a number to choose the corresponding card definition. Press enter for the next page, q to continue configuration. 117 Your selected card definition: Identifier: Diamond SpeedStar (Plus) Chipset: ET4000 Server: XF86_SVGA Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort.ENTER Now you must determine which server to run. Refer to the manpages and other documentation. The following servers are available (they may not all be installed on your system): 1 The XF86_Mono server. This a monochrome server that should work on any VGA-compatible card, in 640x480 (more on some SVGA chipsets). 2 The XF86_VGA16 server. This is a 16-color VGA server that should work on any VGA-compatible card. 3 The XF86_SVGA server. This is a 256 color SVGA server that supports a number of SVGA chipsets. On some chipsets it is accelerated or supports higher color depths. 4 The accelerated servers. These include XF86_S3, XF86_Mach32, XF86_Mach8, XF86_8514, XF86_P9000, XF86_AGX, XF86_W32, XF86_Mach64, XF86_I128 and XF86_S3V. These four server types correspond to the four different "Screen" sections in XF86Config (vga2, vga16, svga, accel). 5 Choose the server from the card definition, XF86_SVGA. Which one of these screen types do you intend to run by default (1-5)? The system already chose XF86_SVGA for us. Do we want to change? We would need a good reason. In this case, we do not have a reason, so we will keep the server from the card definition: Which one of these screen types do you intend to run by default (1-5)? 5 The server to run is selected by changing the symbolic link 'X'. For example, the SVGA server. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want me to set the symbolic link? y All the programs that start X (xinit, startx, and xdm) start a program /usr/X11R6/bin/X. This symbolic link makes /usr/X11R6/bin/X point to your X server. If you don't have a link, you will not be able to start X. Now you must give information about your video card. This will be used for the "Device" section of your video card in XF86Config. You must indicate how much video memory you have. It is probably a good idea to use the same approximate amount as that detected by the server you intend to use. If you encounter problems that are due to the used server not supporting the amount memory you have (e.g. ATI Mach64 is limited to 1024K with the SVGA server), specify the maximum amount supported by the server. How much video memory do you have on your video card: 1 256K 2 512K 3 1024K 4 2048K 5 4096K 6 Other Enter your choice: 3 You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill in default names (possibly from a card definition). Your card definition is Diamond SpeedStar (Plus). The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed. Enter an identifier for your video card definition: ENTER You can simply press enter here if you have a generic card, or want to describe your card with one string. Enter the vendor name of your video card: ENTER Enter the model (board) name of your video card: ENTER Especially for accelerated servers, Ramdac, Dacspeed and ClockChip settings or special options may be required in the Device section. The RAMDAC setting only applies to the S3, AGX, W32 servers, and some drivers in the SVGA servers. Some RAMDAC's are auto-detected by the server. The detection of a RAMDAC is forced by using a Ramdac "identifier" line in the Device section. The identifiers are shown at the right of the following table of RAMDAC types: 1 AT&T 20C490 (S3 and AGX servers, ARK driver) att20c490 2 AT&T 20C498/21C498/22C498 (S3, autodetected) att20c498 3 AT&T 20C409/20C499 (S3, autodetected) att20c409 4 AT&T 20C505 (S3) att20c505 5 BrookTree BT481 (AGX) bt481 6 BrookTree BT482 (AGX) bt482 7 BrookTree BT485/9485 (S3) bt485 8 Sierra SC15025 (S3, AGX) sc15025 9 S3 GenDAC (86C708) (autodetected) s3gendac 10 S3 SDAC (86C716) (autodetected) s3_sdac 11 STG-1700 (S3, autodetected) stg1700 12 STG-1703 (S3, autodetected) stg1703 Enter a number to choose the corresponding RAMDAC. Press enter for the next page, q to quit without selection of a RAMDAC. q We don't need this A Clockchip line in the Device section forces the detection of a programmable clock device. With a clockchip enabled, any required clock can be programmed without requiring probing of clocks or a Clocks line. Most cards don't have a programmable clock chip. Choose from the following list: 1 Chrontel 8391 ch8391 2 ICD2061A and compatibles (ICS9161A, DCS2824) icd2061a 3 ICS2595 ics2595 4 ICS5342 (similar to SDAC, but not completely compatible) ics5342 5 ICS5341 ics5341 6 S3 GenDAC (86C708) and ICS5300 (autodetected) s3gendac 7 S3 SDAC (86C716) s3_sdac 8 STG 1703 (autodetected) stg1703 9 Sierra SC11412 sc11412 10 TI 3025 (autodetected) ti3025 11 TI 3026 (autodetected) ti3026 12 IBM RGB 51x/52x (autodetected) ibm_rgb5xx Just press enter if you don't want a Clockchip setting. What Clockchip setting do you want (1-12)? ENTER For most configurations, a Clocks line is useful since it prevents the slow and nasty sounding clock probing at server start-up. Probed clocks are displayed at server startup, along with other server and hardware configuration info. You can save this information in a file by running imprecise; some clocks may be slightly too high (varies per run). At this point I can run X -probeonly, and try to extract the clock information from the output. It is recommended that you do this yourself and add a clocks line (note that the list of clocks may be split over multiple Clocks lines) to your Device section afterwards. Be aware that a clocks line is not appropriate for drivers that have a fixed set of clocks and don't probe by default (e.g. Cirrus). Also, for the P9000 server you must simply specify clocks line that matches the modes you want to use. For the S3 server with a programmable clock chip you need a 'ClockChip' line and no Clocks line. You must be root to be able to run X -probeonly now. Do you want me to run 'X -probeonly' now? This last question is worth thinking about. You should run X -probeonly at some point, but it requires some extra work. We'll take the recommendation and try it later. Do you want me to run 'X -probeonly' now? n For each depth, a list of modes (resolutions) is defined. The default resolution that the server will start-up with will be the first listed mode that can be supported by the monitor and card. Currently it is set to: "640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" for 8bpp "640x480" "800x600" for 16bpp "640x480" for 24bpp "640x400" for 32bpp Note that 16, 24 and 32bpp are only supported on a few configurations. Modes that cannot be supported due to monitor or clock constraints will be automatically skipped by the server. 1 Change the modes for 8pp (256 colors) 2 Change the modes for 16bpp (32K/64K colors) 3 Change the modes for 24bpp (24-bit color, packed pixel) 4 Change the modes for 32bpp (24-bit color) 5 The modes are OK, continue. Enter your choice: 5 accept the defaults You can have a virtual screen (desktop), which is screen area that is larger than the physical screen and which is panned by moving the mouse to the edge of the screen. If you don't want virtual desktop at a certain resolution, you cannot have modes listed that are larger. Each color depth can have a differently-sized virtual screen Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want a virtual screen that is larger than the physical screen? n It is difficult to decide whether you want a virtual screen larger than the physical screen. I find it extremely disturbing, so I suggest you answer n. You might find it useful, especially if your highest resolution is small. Now the configuration is complete, and sysinstall just need to write the configuration file: I am going to write the XF86Config file now. Make sure you don't accidently overwrite a previously configured one. Shall I write it to /etc/XF86Config? y File has been written. Take a look at it before running 'startx'. Note that the XF86Config file must be in one of the directories searched by the server (e.g. /usr/X11R6/lib/X11) in order to be used. Within the server press ctrl, alt and '+' simultaneously to cycle video resolutions. Pressing ctrl, alt and backspace simultaneously immediately exits the server (use if the monitor doesn't sync for a particular mode). For further configuration, refer to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/README.Config. Once you have completed this configuration, you are ready to start X. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml index 438549e67f..2268cea7d6 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/advanced-networking/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1813 +1,1813 @@ Advanced Networking Synopsis The following chapter will cover some of the more frequently used network services on UNIX systems. This, of course, will pertain to configuring said services on your FreeBSD system. Gateways and Routes Contributed by &a.gryphon;. 6 October 1995. For one machine to be able to find another, there must be a mechanism in place to describe how to get from one to the other. This is - called Routing. A “route” is a defined pair of addresses: a - “destination” and a “gateway”. The pair + called Routing. A route is a defined pair of addresses: a + destination and a gateway. The pair indicates that if you are trying to get to this destination, send along through this gateway. There are three types of destinations: - individual hosts, subnets, and “default”. The - “default route” is used if none of the other routes apply. + individual hosts, subnets, and default. The + default route is used if none of the other routes apply. We will talk a little bit more about default routes later on. There are also three types of gateways: individual hosts, interfaces (also called - “links”), and ethernet hardware addresses. + links), and ethernet hardware addresses. An example To illustrate different aspects of routing, we will use the following example which is the output of the command netstat -r: Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use Netif Expire default outside-gw UGSc 37 418 ppp0 localhost localhost UH 0 181 lo0 test0 0:e0:b5:36:cf:4f UHLW 5 63288 ed0 77 10.20.30.255 link#1 UHLW 1 2421 foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 host1 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 3 4601 lo0 host2 0:e0:a8:37:8:1e UHLW 0 5 lo0 => host2.foobar.com link#1 UC 0 0 224 link#1 UC 0 0 The first two lines specify the default route (which we will cover in the next section) and the localhost route. The interface (Netif column) that it specifies to use for localhost is lo0, also known as the loopback device. This says to keep all traffic for this destination internal, rather than sending it out over the LAN, since it will only end up back where it started anyway. The next thing that stands out are the 0:e0:... addresses. These are ethernet hardware addresses. FreeBSD will automatically identify any hosts (test0 in the example) on the local ethernet and add a route for that host, directly to it over the ethernet interface, ed0. There is also a timeout (Expire column) associated with this type of route, which is used if we fail to hear from the host in a specific amount of time. In this case the route will be automatically deleted. These hosts are identified using a mechanism known as RIP (Routing Information Protocol), which figures out routes to local hosts based upon a shortest path determination. FreeBSD will also add subnet routes for the local subnet (10.20.30.255 is the broadcast address for the subnet 10.20.30, and foobar.com is the domain name associated with that subnet). The designation link#1 refers to the first ethernet card in the machine. You will notice no additional interface is specified for those. Both of these groups (local network hosts and local subnets) have their routes automatically configured by a daemon called routed. If this is not run, then only routes which are statically defined (ie. entered explicitly) will exist. The host1 line refers to our host, which it knows by ethernet address. Since we are the sending host, FreeBSD knows to use the loopback interface (lo0) rather than sending it out over the ethernet interface. The two host2 lines are an example of what happens when we use an ifconfig alias (see the section of ethernet for reasons why we would do this). The => symbol after the lo0 interface says that not only are we using the loopback (since this is address also refers to the local host), but specifically it is an alias. Such routes only show up on the host that supports the alias; all other hosts on the local network will simply have a link#1 line for such. The final line (destination subnet 224) deals with MultiCasting, which will be covered in a another section. The other column that we should talk about are the Flags. Each route has different attributes that are described in the column. Below is a short table of some of these flags and their meanings: U Up: The route is active. H Host: The route destination is a single host. G Gateway: Send anything for this destination on to this remote system, which will figure out from there where to send it. S Static: This route was configured manually, not automatically generated by the system. C Clone: Generates a new route based upon this route for machines we connect to. This type of route is normally used for local networks. W WasCloned: Indicated a route that was auto-configured based upon a local area network (Clone) route. L Link: Route involves references to ethernet hardware. Default routes When the local system needs to make a connection to remote host, it checks the routing table to determine if a known path exists. If the remote host falls into a subnet that we know how to reach (Cloned routes), then the system checks to see if it can connect along that interface. If all known paths fail, the system has one last option: the - “default” route. This route is a special type of gateway + default route. This route is a special type of gateway route (usually the only one present in the system), and is always marked with a c in the flags field. For hosts on a local area network, this gateway is set to whatever machine has a direct connection to the outside world (whether via PPP link, or your hardware device attached to a dedicated data line). If you are configuring the default route for a machine which itself is functioning as the gateway to the outside world, then the default route will be the gateway machine at your Internet Service Provider's (ISP) site. Let us look at an example of default routes. This is a common configuration: [Local2] <--ether--> [Local1] <--PPP--> [ISP-Serv] <--ether--> [T1-GW] The hosts Local1 and Local2 are at your site, with the formed being your PPP connection to your ISP's Terminal Server. Your ISP has a local network at their site, which has, among other things, the server where you connect and a hardware device (T1-GW) attached to the ISP's Internet feed. The default routes for each of your machines will be: host default gateway interface Local2 Local1 ethernet Local1 T1-GW PPP - A common question is “Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to + A common question is Why (or how) would we set the T1-GW to be the default gateway for Local1, rather than the ISP server it is - connected to?”. + connected to?. Remember, since the PPP interface is using an address on the ISP's local network for your side of the connection, routes for any other machines on the ISP's local network will be automatically generated. Hence, you will already know how to reach the T1-GW machine, so there is no need for the intermediate step of sending traffic to the ISP server. As a final note, it is common to use the address ...1 as the gateway address for your local network. So (using the same example), if your local class-C address space was 10.20.30 and your ISP was using 10.9.9 then the default routes would be: Local2 (10.20.30.2) --> Local1 (10.20.30.1) Local1 (10.20.30.1, 10.9.9.30) --> T1-GW (10.9.9.1) Dual homed hosts There is one other type of configuration that we should cover, and that is a host that sits on two different networks. Technically, any machine functioning as a gateway (in the example above, using a PPP connection) counts as a dual-homed host. But the term is really only used to refer to a machine that sits on two local-area networks. In one case, the machine as two ethernet cards, each having an address on the separate subnets. Alternately, the machine may only have one ethernet card, and be using ifconfig aliasing. The former is used if two physically separate ethernet networks are in use, the latter if there is one physical network segment, but two logically separate subnets. Either way, routing tables are set up so that each subnet knows that this machine is the defined gateway (inbound route) to the other subnet. This configuration, with the machine acting as a Bridge between the two subnets, is often used when we need to implement packet filtering or firewall security in either or both directions. Routing propagation We have already talked about how we define our routes to the outside world, but not about how the outside world finds us. We already know that routing tables can be set up so that all traffic for a particular address space (in our examples, a class-C subnet) can be sent to a particular host on that network, which will forward the packets inbound. When you get an address space assigned to your site, your service provider will set up their routing tables so that all traffic for your subnet will be sent down your PPP link to your site. But how do sites across the country know to send to your ISP? There is a system (much like the distributed DNS information) that keeps track of all assigned address-spaces, and defines their point of - connection to the Internet Backbone. The “Backbone” are + connection to the Internet Backbone. The Backbone are the main trunk lines that carry Internet traffic across the country, and around the world. Each backbone machine has a copy of a master set of tables, which direct traffic for a particular network to a specific backbone carrier, and from there down the chain of service providers until it reaches your network. It is the task of your service provider to advertise to the backbone sites that they are the point of connection (and thus the path inward) for your site. This is known as route propagation. Troubleshooting Sometimes, there is a problem with routing propagation, and some sites are unable to connect to you. Perhaps the most useful command for trying to figure out where a routing is breaking down is the &man.traceroute.8; command. It is equally useful if you cannot seem to make a connection to a remote machine (i.e. &man.ping.8; fails). The &man.traceroute.8; command is run with the name of the remote host you are trying to connect to. It will show the gateway hosts along the path of the attempt, eventually either reaching the target host, or terminating because of a lack of connection. For more information, see the manual page for &man.traceroute.8;. NFS Written by &a.unfurl;, 4 March 2000. Among the many different file systems that FreeBSD supports is a very unique type, the Network File System or NFS. NFS allows you to share directories and files on one machine with one or more other machines via the network they are attached to. Using NFS, users and programs can access files on remote systems as if they were local files. NFS has several benefits: Local workstations dont need as much disk space because commonly used data can be stored on a single machine and still remain accessible to everyone on the network. There is no need for users to have unique home directories on every machine on your network. Once they have an established directory that is available via NFS it can be accessed from anywhere. Storage devices such as floppies and CD-ROM drives can be used by other machines on the network eliminating the need for extra hardware. How It Works NFS is composed of two sides – a client side and a server side. Think of it as a want/have relationship. The client wants the data that the server side has. The server shares its data with the client. In order for this system to function properly a few processes have to be configured and running properly. The server has to be running the following daemons: nfsd - The NFS Daemon which services requests from NFS clients. mountd - The NFS Mount Daemon which actually carries out requests that nfsd passes on to it. The client side only needs to run a single daemon: nfsiod - The NFS async I/O Daemon which services requests from its NFS server. Configuring NFS Luckily for us, on a FreeBSD system this setup is a snap. The processes that need to be running can all be run at boot time with a few modificationss to your /etc/rc.conf file. On the NFS server make sure you have: nfs_server_enable="YES" nfs_server_flags="-u -t -n 4" mountd_flags="-r" mountd is automatically run whenever the NFS server is enabled. The and flags to nfsd tell it to serve UDP and TCP clients. The flag tells nfsd to start 4 copies of itself. On the client, make sure you have: nfs_client_enable="YES" nfs_client_flags="-n 4" Like nfsd, the tells nfsiod to start 4 copies of itself. The last configuration step requires that you create a file called /etc/exports. The exports file specifies which file systems on your server will be shared - (a.k.a., “exported”) and with what clients they will + (a.k.a., exported) and with what clients they will be shared. Each line in the file specifies a file system to be shared. There are a handful of options that can be used in this file but I will only touch on a few of them. You can find out about the rest in the &man.exports.5; man page. Here are a few example /etc/exports entries: The following line exports /cdrom to three silly machines that have the same domain name as the server (hence the lack of a domain name for each) or have entries in your /etc/hosts file. The flag makes the shared file system read-only. With this flag, the remote system will not be able to make any changes to the the shared file system. /cdrom -ro moe larry curly The following line exports /home to three hosts by IP address. This is a useful setup if you have a private network but do not have DNS running. The flag allows all the directories below the specified file system to be exported as well. /home -alldirs 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.3 10.0.0.4 The following line exports /a to two machines that have different domain names than the server. The flag allows the root user on the remote system to write to the shared file system as root. Without the -maproot=0 flag even if someone has root access on the remote system they won't be able to modify files on the shared file system. /a -maproot=0 host.domain.com box.example.com In order for a client to share an exported file system it must have permission to do so. Make sure your client is listed in your /etc/exports file. Now that you have made all these changes you can just reboot and let FreeBSD start everything for you at boot time or you can run the following commands as root: On the NFS server: &prompt.root; nfsd -u -t -n 4 &prompt.root; mountd -r On the NFS client: &prompt.root; nfsiod -n 4 Now you should be ready to actually mount a remote file system. This can be done one of two ways. In these examples the server's name will be server and the client's name will be client. If you just want to temporarily mount a remote file system or just want to test out your config you can run a command like this as root on the client: &prompt.root; mount server:/home /mnt This will mount /home on the server on /mnt on the client. If everything is setup correctly you should be able to go into /mnt on the client and see all the files that are on the server. If you want to permanently (each time you reboot) mount a remote file system you need to add it to your /etc/fstab file. Here is an example line: server:/home /mnt nfs rw 0 0 Read the &man.fstab.5; man page for more options. Practical Uses There are many very cool uses for NFS. I use it quite a bit on the LAN I admin. Here are a few ways I have found it to be useful. I have several machines on my network but only one of them has a CD-ROM drive. Why? Because I have that one CD-ROM drive shared with all the others via NFS. The same can be done with floppy drives. With so many machines on the network it gets old having your personal files strewn all over the place. I have a central NFS server that houses all user home directories and shares them with the rest of the machines on the LAN, so no matter where I login I have the same home directory. When you get to reinstalling FreeBSD on one of your machines, NFS is the way to go. Just pop your distribution CD into your file server and away you go. I have a common /usr/ports/distfiles directory that all my machines share. That way when I go to install a port that I already installed on a different machine I do not have to download the source all over again. Problems integrating with other systems Contributed by &a.jlind;. Certain Ethernet adapters for ISA PC systems have limitations which can lead to serious network problems, particularly with NFS. This difficulty is not specific to FreeBSD, but FreeBSD systems are affected by it. The problem nearly always occurs when (FreeBSD) PC systems are networked with high-performance workstations, such as those made by Silicon Graphics, Inc., and Sun Microsystems, Inc. The NFS mount will work fine, and some operations may succeed, but suddenly the server will seem to become unresponsive to the client, even though requests to and from other systems continue to be processed. This happens to the client system, whether the client is the FreeBSD system or the workstation. On many systems, there is no way to shut down the client gracefully once this problem has manifested itself. The only solution is often to reset the client, because the NFS situation cannot be resolved. - Though the “correct” solution is to get a higher + Though the correct solution is to get a higher performance and capacity Ethernet adapter for the FreeBSD system, there is a simple workaround that will allow satisfactory operation. If the FreeBSD system is the server, include the option on the mount from the client. If the FreeBSD system is the client, then mount the NFS file system with the option . These options may be specified using the fourth field of the fstab entry on the client for automatic mounts, or by using the parameter of the mount command for manual mounts. It should be noted that there is a different problem, sometimes mistaken for this one, when the NFS servers and clients are on different networks. If that is the case, make certain that your routers are routing the necessary UDP information, or you will not get anywhere, no matter what else you are doing. In the following examples, fastws is the host (interface) name of a high-performance workstation, and freebox is the host (interface) name of a FreeBSD system with a lower-performance Ethernet adapter. Also, /sharedfs will be the exported NFS filesystem (see man exports), and /project will be the mount point on the client for the exported file system. In all cases, note that additional options, such as or and may be desirable in your application. Examples for the FreeBSD system (freebox) as the client: in /etc/fstab on freebox: fastws:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-r=1024 0 0 As a manual mount command on freebox: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -r=1024 fastws:/sharedfs /project Examples for the FreeBSD system as the server: in /etc/fstab on fastws: freebox:/sharedfs /project nfs rw,-w=1024 0 0 As a manual mount command on fastws: &prompt.root; mount -t nfs -o -w=1024 freebox:/sharedfs /project Nearly any 16-bit Ethernet adapter will allow operation without the above restrictions on the read or write size. For anyone who cares, here is what happens when the failure occurs, which also explains why it is unrecoverable. NFS - typically works with a “block” size of 8k (though it + typically works with a block size of 8k (though it may do fragments of smaller sizes). Since the maximum Ethernet - packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS “block” gets + packet is around 1500 bytes, the NFS block gets split into multiple Ethernet packets, even though it is still a single unit to the upper-level code, and must be received, assembled, and acknowledged as a unit. The high-performance workstations can pump out the packets which comprise the NFS unit one right after the other, just as close together as the standard allows. On the smaller, lower capacity cards, the later packets overrun the earlier packets of the same unit before they can be transferred to the host and the unit as a whole cannot be reconstructed or acknowledged. As a result, the workstation will time out and try again, but it will try again with the entire 8K unit, and the process will be repeated, ad infinitum. By keeping the unit size below the Ethernet packet size limitation, we ensure that any complete Ethernet packet received can be acknowledged individually, avoiding the deadlock situation. Overruns may still occur when a high-performance workstations is slamming data out to a PC system, but with the better cards, - such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS “units”. When + such overruns are not guaranteed on NFS units. When an overrun occurs, the units affected will be retransmitted, and there will be a fair chance that they will be received, assembled, and acknowledged. Diskless Operation Contributed by &a.martin;. netboot.com/netboot.rom allow you to boot your FreeBSD machine over the network and run FreeBSD without having a disk on your client. Under 2.0 it is now possible to have local swap. Swapping over NFS is also still supported. Supported Ethernet cards include: Western Digital/SMC 8003, 8013, 8216 and compatibles; NE1000/NE2000 and compatibles (requires recompile) Setup Instructions Find a machine that will be your server. This machine will require enough disk space to hold the FreeBSD 2.0 binaries and have bootp, tftp and NFS services available. Tested machines: HP9000/8xx running HP-UX 9.04 or later (pre 9.04 doesn't work) Sun/Solaris 2.3. (you may need to get bootp) Set up a bootp server to provide the client with IP, gateway, netmask. diskless:\ :ht=ether:\ :ha=0000c01f848a:\ :sm=255.255.255.0:\ :hn:\ :ds=192.1.2.3:\ :ip=192.1.2.4:\ :gw=192.1.2.5:\ :vm=rfc1048: Set up a TFTP server (on same machine as bootp server) to provide booting information to client. The name of this file is cfg.X.X.X.X (or /tftpboot/cfg.X.X.X.X, it will try both) where X.X.X.X is the IP address of the client. The contents of this file can be any valid netboot commands. Under 2.0, netboot has the following commands: help print help list ip print/set client's IP address server print/set bootp/tftp server address netmask print/set netmask hostname name print/set hostname kernel print/set kernel name rootfs print/set root filesystem swapfs print/set swap filesystem swapsize set diskless swapsize in Kbytes diskboot boot from disk autoboot continue boot process trans | turn transceiver on|off flags set boot flags A typical completely diskless cfg file might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient swapfs 192.1.2.3:/swapfs swapsize 20000 hostname myclient.mydomain A cfg file for a machine with local swap might contain: rootfs 192.1.2.3:/rootfs/myclient hostname myclient.mydomain Ensure that your NFS server has exported the root (and swap if applicable) filesystems to your client, and that the client has root access to these filesystems A typical /etc/exports file on FreeBSD might look like: /rootfs/myclient -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain /swapfs -maproot=0:0 myclient.mydomain And on HP-UX: /rootfs/myclient -root=myclient.mydomain /swapfs -root=myclient.mydomain If you are swapping over NFS (completely diskless configuration) create a swap file for your client using dd. If your swapfs command has the arguments /swapfs and the size 20000 as in the example above, the swapfile for myclient will be called /swapfs/swap.X.X.X.X where X.X.X.X is the client's IP addr, eg: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 bs=1k count=20000 Also, the client's swap space might contain sensitive information once swapping starts, so make sure to restrict read and write access to this file to prevent unauthorized access: &prompt.root; chmod 0600 /swapfs/swap.192.1.2.4 Unpack the root filesystem in the directory the client will use for its root filesystem (/rootfs/myclient in the example above). On HP-UX systems: The server should be running HP-UX 9.04 or later for HP9000/800 series machines. Prior versions do not allow the creation of device files over NFS. When extracting /dev in /rootfs/myclient, beware that some systems (HPUX) will not create device files that FreeBSD is happy with. You may have to go to single user mode on the first bootup (press control-c during the bootup phase), cd /dev and do a sh ./MAKEDEV all from the client to fix this. Run netboot.com on the client or make an EPROM from the netboot.rom file Using Shared <filename>/</filename> and <filename>/usr</filename> filesystems At present there isn't an officially sanctioned way of doing this, although I have been using a shared /usr filesystem and individual / filesystems for each client. If anyone has any suggestions on how to do this cleanly, please let me and/or the &a.core; know. Compiling netboot for specific setups Netboot can be compiled to support NE1000/2000 cards by changing the configuration in /sys/i386/boot/netboot/Makefile. See the comments at the top of this file. ISDN Last modified by &a.wlloyd;. A good resource for information on ISDN technology and hardware is Dan Kegel's ISDN Page. A quick simple roadmap to ISDN follows: If you live in Europe I suggest you investigate the ISDN card section. If you are planning to use ISDN primarily to connect to the Internet with an Internet Provider on a dialup non-dedicated basis, I suggest you look into Terminal Adapters. This will give you the most flexibility, with the fewest problems, if you change providers. If you are connecting two lans together, or connecting to the Internet with a dedicated ISDN connection, I suggest you consider the stand alone router/bridge option. Cost is a significant factor in determining what solution you will choose. The following options are listed from least expensive to most expensive. ISDN Cards Contributed by &a.hm;. This section is really only relevant to ISDN users in countries where the DSS1/Q.931 ISDN standard is supported. Some growing number of PC ISDN cards are supported under FreeBSD 2.2.x and up by the isdn4bsd driver package. It is still under development but the reports show that it is successfully used all over Europe. The latest isdn4bsd version is available from ftp://isdn4bsd@ftp.consol.de/pub/, the main isdn4bsd ftp site (you have to log in as user isdn4bsd , give your mail address as the password and change to the pub directory. Anonymous ftp as user ftp or anonymous will not give the desired result). Isdn4bsd allows you to connect to other ISDN routers using either IP over raw HDLC or by using synchronous PPP. A telephone answering machine application is also available. Many ISDN PC cards are supported, mostly the ones with a Siemens ISDN chipset (ISAC/HSCX), support for other chipsets (from Motorola, Cologne Chip Designs) is currently under development. For an up-to-date list of supported cards, please have a look at the README file. In case you are interested in adding support for a different ISDN protocol, a currently unsupported ISDN PC card or otherwise enhancing isdn4bsd, please get in touch with hm@kts.org. A majordomo maintained mailing list is available. To join the list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify: subscribe freebsd-isdn in the body of your message. ISDN Terminal Adapters Terminal adapters(TA), are to ISDN what modems are to regular phone lines. Most TA's use the standard hayes modem AT command set, and can be used as a drop in replacement for a modem. A TA will operate basically the same as a modem except connection and throughput speeds will be much faster than your old modem. You will need to configure PPP exactly the same as for a modem setup. Make sure you set your serial speed as high as possible. The main advantage of using a TA to connect to an Internet Provider is that you can do Dynamic PPP. As IP address space becomes more and more scarce, most providers are not willing to provide you with a static IP anymore. Most standalone routers are not able to accommodate dynamic IP allocation. TA's completely rely on the PPP daemon that you are running for their features and stability of connection. This allows you to upgrade easily from using a modem to ISDN on a FreeBSD machine, if you already have PPP setup. However, at the same time any problems you experienced with the PPP program and are going to persist. If you want maximum stability, use the kernel PPP option, not the user-land iijPPP. The following TA's are know to work with FreeBSD. Motorola BitSurfer and Bitsurfer Pro Adtran Most other TA's will probably work as well, TA vendors try to make sure their product can accept most of the standard modem AT command set. The real problem with external TA's is like modems you need a good serial card in your computer. You should read the serial ports section in the handbook for a detailed understanding of serial devices, and the differences between asynchronous and synchronous serial ports. A TA running off a standard PC serial port (asynchronous) limits you to 115.2Kbs, even though you have a 128Kbs connection. To fully utilize the 128Kbs that ISDN is capable of, you must move the TA to a synchronous serial card. Do not be fooled into buying an internal TA and thinking you have avoided the synchronous/asynchronous issue. Internal TA's simply have a standard PC serial port chip built into them. All this will do, is save you having to buy another serial cable, and find another empty electrical socket. A synchronous card with a TA is at least as fast as a standalone router, and with a simple 386 FreeBSD box driving it, probably more flexible. The choice of sync/TA vs standalone router is largely a religious issue. There has been some discussion of this in the mailing lists. I suggest you search the archives for the complete discussion. Standalone ISDN Bridges/Routers ISDN bridges or routers are not at all specific to FreeBSD or any other operating system. For a more complete description of routing and bridging technology, please refer to a Networking reference book. In the context of this page, I will use router and bridge interchangeably. As the cost of low end ISDN routers/bridges comes down, it will likely become a more and more popular choice. An ISDN router is a small box that plugs directly into your local Ethernet network(or card), and manages its own connection to the other bridge/router. It has all the software to do PPP and other protocols built in. A router will allow you much faster throughput that a standard TA, since it will be using a full synchronous ISDN connection. The main problem with ISDN routers and bridges is that interoperability between manufacturers can still be a problem. If you are planning to connect to an Internet provider, I recommend that you discuss your needs with them. If you are planning to connect two lan segments together, ie: home lan to the office lan, this is the simplest lowest maintenance solution. Since you are buying the equipment for both sides of the connection you can be assured that the link will work. For example to connect a home computer or branch office network to a head office network the following setup could be used. Branch office or Home network Network is 10 Base T Ethernet. Connect router to network cable with AUI/10BT transceiver, if necessary. ---Sun workstation | ---FreeBSD box | ---Windows 95 (Do not admit to owning it) | Standalone router | ISDN BRI line If your home/branch office is only one computer you can use a twisted pair crossover cable to connect to the standalone router directly. Head office or other lan Network is Twisted Pair Ethernet. -------Novell Server | H | | ---Sun | | | U ---FreeBSD | | | ---Windows 95 | B | |___---Standalone router | ISDN BRI line One large advantage of most routers/bridges is that they allow you to have 2 separate independent PPP connections to 2 separate sites at the same time. This is not supported on most TA's, except for specific(expensive) models that have two serial ports. Do not confuse this with channel bonding, MPP etc. This can be very useful feature, for example if you have an dedicated internet ISDN connection at your office and would like to tap into it, but don't want to get another ISDN line at work. A router at the office location can manage a dedicated B channel connection (64Kbs) to the internet, as well as a use the other B channel for a separate data connection. The second B channel can be used for dialin, dialout or dynamically bond(MPP etc.) with the first B channel for more bandwidth. An Ethernet bridge will also allow you to transmit more than just IP traffic, you can also send IPX/SPX or whatever other protocols you use. NIS/YP Written by &a.unfurl;, 21 January 2000. What is it? NIS is an RPC-based client/server system that allows a group of machines within an NIS domain to share a common set of configuration files. This permits a system administrator to set up NIS client systems with only minimal configuration data and add, remove or modify configuration data from a single location. How does it work? There are 3 types of hosts in an NIS enviornment; master servers, slave servers, and clients. Servers act as a central repository for host configuration information. Master servers hold the authoritatve copy of this information, while slave servers mirror this information for redundancy. Clients rely on the servers to provide this information to them. Information in many files can be shared in this manner. The master.passwd, group, and hosts files are commonly shared via NIS. Whenever a process on a client needs information that would normally be found in these files locally, it makes a query to the server it is bound to, to get this information. Using NIS/YP Planning If you are setting up a NIS scheme for the first time, it is a good idea to think through how you want to go about it. No matter what the size of your network, there are a few decisions that need to be made. Choosing a NIS Domain Name - This might not be the “domainname” that you + This might not be the domainname that you are used to. It is more accurately called the - “NIS domainname”. When a client broadcasts its + NIS domainname. When a client broadcasts its requests for info, it includes the name of the NIS domain that it is part of. This is how multiple servers on one network can tell which server should answer which request. Think of the NIS domainname as the name for a group of hosts that are related in someway way. Some organizations choose to use their Internet domainname for their NIS domainname. This is not recommended as it can cause confusion when trying to debug network problems. The NIS domainname should be unique within your network and it is helpful if it describes the group of machines it represents. For example, the Art department at Acme Inc. might be in the "acme-art" NIS domain. Physical Server Requirements There are several things to keep in mind when chosing a machine to use as a NIS server. One of the unfortunate things about NIS is the level of dependency the clients have on the server. If a client cannot contact the server for its NIS domain, very often the machine becomes unusable. The lack of user and group information causes most systems to temporarily freeze up. With this in mind you should make sure to choose a machine that won't be prone to being rebooted regularly, or one that might be used for development. The NIS server should ideally be a stand alone machine whose sole purpose in life is to be an NIS server. If you have a network that is not very heavily used, it is acceptable to put the NIS server on a machine running other services, just keep in mind that if the NIS server becomes unavailable, it will affect all of your NIS clients adversely. NIS Servers The canonical copies of all NIS information are stored on a single machine called the NIS master server. The databases used to store the information are called NIS maps. In FreeBSD, these maps are stored in /var/yp/[domainname] where [domainname] is the name of the NIS domain being served. A single NIS server can support several domains at once, therefore it is possible to have several such directories, one for each supported domain. Each domain will have its own independent set of maps. NIS master and slave servers handle all NIS requests with the ypserv daemon. Ypserv is responsible for receiving incoming requests from NIS clients, translating the requested domain and map name to a path to the corresponding database file and transmitting data from the database back to the client. Setting up a NIS master server Setting up a master NIS server can be relativly straight forward, depending on your needs. FreeBSD comes with a handy script called ypinit that makes the initial setup procedure very easy. A few steps are needed ahead of time to make the setup process go smoothly. Make sure your NIS domainname is set, using the domainname command. You can run ypinit for domains other than the one your host is in but if domainname is not set, now is a good time to do so. Make sure a copy of the master.passwd file is in /var/yp. This where NIS will get the password entries it will share with it's clients. ypinit runs with errors if this file is not present. You can either start a new master.passwd or copy the existing one from /etc/master.passwd. If you do the latter, make sure the permissions are set properly to disallow world/group reading of the file. Start the ypserv daemon. ypinit requires ypserv to be running to answer some RPC calls it makes. In its basic configuration ypserv does not need to be run with any flags. Once you've done the above steps, run ypinit with the flag. You might want to specify the domain you are building a master server for if it is different than what the domainname is set to. In this example, test-domain will be our NIS domainname. # ypinit -m test-domain Server Type: MASTER Domain: test-domain Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If you don't, something might not work. At this point, we have to construct a list of this domains YP servers. master.example.com is already known as master server. Please continue to add any slave servers, one per line. When you are done with the list, type a <Control D>. master server : master.example.com next host to add: ^D The current list of NIS servers looks like this: master.example.com Is this correct? [y/n: y] y Building /var/yp/test-domain/ypservers... Running /var/yp/Makefile... NIS Map update started on Fri Dec 3 16:54:12 PST 1999 for domain test-domain Updating hosts.byname... Creating new /var/yp/passwd file from /var/yp/master.passwd... Updating netid.byname... Updating hosts.byaddr... Updating networks.byaddr... Updating networks.byname... Updating protocols.bynumber... Updating protocols.byname... Updating rpc.byname... Updating rpc.bynumber... Updating services.byname... Updating group.byname... Updating group.bygid... Updating passwd.byname... Updating passwd.byuid... Updating master.passwd.byname... Updating master.passwd.byuid... NIS Map update completed. master.example.com has been setup as an YP master server without any errors. There are a few crucial lines that need to be added to your /etc/rc.conf in order for the NIS server to start properly. Make sure that these lines are included: nis_server_enable="YES" nis_server_flags="" nis_yppasswdd_enable="YES" nis_yppasswdd_flags="" You will most likely want to run yppasswd on the NIS server. This allows users on NIS client machines to change their passwords and other user information remotely. Setting up a NIS slave server Setting up an NIS slave server is even more simple than setting up the master. Again the ypinit command helps out a great deal. As in the previous example - we'll use “test-domain” as our target NIS + we'll use test-domain as our target NIS domainname. # ypinit -s master.example.com test-domain Server Type: SLAVE Domain: test-domain Master: master.example.com Creating an YP server will require that you answer a few questions. Questions will all be asked at the beginning of the procedure. Do you want this procedure to quit on non-fatal errors? [y/n: n] n Ok, please remember to go back and redo manually whatever fails. If you don't, something might not work. There will be no further questions. The remainder of the procedure should take a few minutes, to copy the databases from master.example.com. Transfering netgroup... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering netgroup.byuser... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering netgroup.byhost... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering master.passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering passwd.byuid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering group.bygid... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering group.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering services.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering rpc.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering rpc.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering protocols.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering master.passwd.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering networks.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering networks.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering netid.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering hosts.byaddr... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering protocols.bynumber... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering ypservers... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered Transfering hosts.byname... ypxfr: Exiting: Map successfully transfered slave.example.com has been setup as an YP slave server without any errors. Don't forget to update map ypservers on master.example.com. You should now have a directory called /var/yp/test-domain. Copies of the NIS master server's maps should be in this directory. You will need to make sure that these stay updated. The following /etc/crontab entries on your slave servers should do the job: 20 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byname 21 * * * * root /usr/libexec/ypxfr passwd.byuid These two lines force the slave to sync its maps with the maps on the master server. Although this is not mandatory, because the master server tries to make sure any changes to it's NIS maps are communicated to it's slaves, the password information is so vital to systems that depend on the server, that it is a good idea to force the updates. This is more important on busy networks where map updates might not always complete. NIS Clients An NIS client establishes what is called a binding to a particular NIS server using the ypbind daemon. Ypbind checks the system's default domain (as set by the domainname command), and begins broadcasting RPC requests on the local network. These requests specify the name of the domain for which ypbind is attempting to establish a binding. If a server that has been configured to serve the requested domain receives one of the broadcasts, it will respond to ypbind, which will record the server's address. If there are several servers available (a master and several slaves, for example), ypbind will use the address of the first one to respond. From that point on, the client system will direct all of its NIS requests to that server. Ypbind will - occasionally “ping” the server to make sure it is + occasionally ping the server to make sure it is still up and running. If it fails to receive a reply to one of its pings within a reasonable amount of time, ypbind will mark the domain as unbound and begin broadcasting again in the hopes of locating another server. Setting up an NIS client Setting up a FreeBSD machine to be a NIS client is fairly straight forward. Set the host's NIS domainname with the domainname command, or at boot time with this entry in /etc/rc.conf: nisdomainname="test-domain" To import all possible password entries from the NIS server, add this line to your /etc/master.passwd file, using vipw: +::::::::: This line will afford anyone with a valid account in the NIS server's password maps an account. There are many ways to configure your NIS client by changing this line. For more detailed reading see O'Reilly's book on Managing NFS and NIS. To import all possible group entries from the NIS server, add this line to your /etc/group file: +:*:: After completing these steps, you should be able to run ypcat passwd and see the NIS server's passwd map. NIS Security In general, any remote user can issue an RPC to ypserv and retrieve the contents of your NIS maps, provided the remote user knows your domainname. To prevent such unauthorized transactions, ypserv supports a feature called securenets which can be used to restrict access to a given set of hosts. At startup, ypserv will attempt to load the securenets information from a file called /var/yp/securenets. This path varies depending on the path specified with the option. This file contains entries that consist of a network specification and a network mask separated - by white space. Lines starting with “#” are + by white space. Lines starting with # are considered to be comments. A sample securenets file might look like this: # allow connections from local host -- mandatory 127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 # allow connections from any host # on the 192.168.128.0 network 192.168.128.0 255.255.255.0 # allow connections from any host # between 10.0.0.0 to 10.0.15.255 10.0.0.0 255.255.240.0 If ypserv receives a request from an address that matches one of these rules, it will process the request normally. If the address fails to match a rule, the request will be ignored and a warning message will be logged. If the /var/yp/securenets file does not exist, ypserv will allow connections from any host. The ypserv program also has support for Wietse Venema's tcpwrapper package. This allows the administrator to use the tcpwrapper configuration files for access control instead of /var/yp/securenets. While both of these access control mechanisms provide some security, they, like the privileged port test, are both - vulnerable to “IP spoofing” attacks. + vulnerable to IP spoofing attacks. NIS v1 compatibility FreeBSD's ypserv has some support for serving NIS v1 clients. FreeBSD's NIS implementation only uses the NIS v2 protocol, however other implementations include support for the v1 protocol for backwards compatibility with older systems. The ypbind daemons supplied with these systems will try to establish a binding to an NIS v1 server even though they may never actually need it (and they may persist in broadcasting in search of one even after they receive a response from a v2 server). Note that while support for normal client calls is provided, this version of ypserv does not handle v1 map transfer requests; consequently, it can not be used as a master or slave in conjunction with older NIS servers that only support the v1 protocol. Fortunately, there probably are not any such servers still in use today. NIS servers that are also NIS clients Care must be taken when running ypserv in a multi-server domain where the server machines are also NIS clients. It is generally a good idea to force the servers to bind to themselves rather than allowing them to broadcast bind requests and possibly become bound to each other. Strange failure modes can result if one server goes down and others are dependent upon on it. Eventually all the clients will time out and attempt to bind to other servers, but the delay involved can be considerable and the failure mode is still present since the servers might bind to each other all over again. You can force a host to bind to a particular server by running ypbind with the flag. libscrypt vs. libdescrypt One of the most common issues that people run into when trying to implement NIS is crypt library compatibility. If your NIS server is using the DES crypt libraries, it will only support clients that are using DES as well. To check which one your server and clients are using look at the symlinks in /usr/lib. If the machine is configured to use the DES libraries, it will look something like this: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/*crypt* lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 13 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.a@ -> libdescrypt.a lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 14 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.so@ -> libdescrypt.so lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 16 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.so.2@ -> libdescrypt.so.2 lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 15 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt_p.a@ -> libdescrypt_p.a -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 13018 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libdescrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 16 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libdescrypt.so@ -> libdescrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 12965 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libdescrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 14750 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libdescrypt_p.a If the machine is configured to use the standard FreeBSD MD5 crypt libraries they will look somethine like this: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/*crypt* lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 13 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.a@ -> libscrypt.a lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 14 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.so@ -> libscrypt.so lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 16 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt.so.2@ -> libscrypt.so.2 lrwxrwxrwx 1 root wheel 15 Jul 15 08:55 /usr/lib/libcrypt_p.a@ -> libscrypt_p.a -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 6194 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libscrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 14 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libscrypt.so@ -> libscrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 7579 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libscrypt.so.2 -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 6684 Nov 8 14:27 /usr/lib/libscrypt_p.a If you have trouble authenticating on an NIS client, this is a pretty good place to start looking for possible problems. DHCP Written by &a.gsutter;, March 2000. What is DHCP? DHCP, the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, describes the means by which a system can connect to a network and obtain the necessary information for communication upon that network. FreeBSD uses the ISC (Internet Software Consortium) DHCP implementation, so all implementation-specific information here is for use with the ISC distribution. What This Section Covers This handbook section attempts to describe only the parts of the DHCP system that are integrated with FreeBSD; consequently, the server portions are not described. The DHCP manual pages, in addition to the references below, are useful resources. How it Works When dhclient, the DHCP client, is executed on the client machine, it begins broadcasting requests for configuration information. By default, these requests are on UDP port 68. The server replies on UDP 67, giving the client an IP address and other relevant network information such as netmask, router, and DNS servers. All of this information comes in the form of a DHCP "lease" and is only valid for a certain time (configured by the DHCP server maintainer). In this manner, stale IP addresses for clients no longer connected to the network can be automatically reclaimed. DHCP clients can obtain a great deal of information from the server. An exhaustive list may be found in &man.dhcp-options.5;. FreeBSD Integration FreeBSD fully integrates the ISC DHCP client, dhclient. DHCP client support is provided within both the installer and the base system, obviating the need for detailed knowledge of network configurations on any network that runs a DHCP server. dhclient has been included in all FreeBSD distributions since 3.2. DHCP is supported by sysinstall. When configuring a network interface within sysinstall, the first question asked is, "Do you want to try dhcp configuration of this interface?" Answering affirmatively will execute dhclient, and if successful, will fill in the network configuration information automatically. To have your system use DHCP to obtain network information upon startup, edit your /etc/rc.conf to include the following: ifconfig_fxp0="DHCP" Be sure to replace fxp0 with the designation for the interface that you wish to dynamically configure. If you are using a different location for dhclient, or if you wish to pass additional flags to dhclient, also include the following (editing as necessary): dhcp_program="/sbin/dhclient" dhcp_flags="" The DHCP server, dhcpd, is included as part of the isc-dhcp2 port in the ports collection. This port contains the full ISC DHCP distribution, consisting of client, server, relay agent and documentation. Files /etc/dhclient.conf dhclient requires a configuration file, /etc/dhclient.conf. Typically the file contains only comments, the defaults being reasonably sane. This configuration file is described by the &man.dhclient.conf.5; man page. /sbin/dhclient dhclient is statically linked and resides in /sbin. The &man.dhclient.8; manual page gives more information about dhclient. /sbin/dhclient-script dhclient-script is the FreeBSD-specific DHCP client configuration script. It is described in &man.dhclient-script.8;, but should not need any user modification to function properly. /var/db/dhclient.leases The DHCP client keeps a database of valid leases in this file, which is written as a log. &man.dhclient.leases.5; gives a slightly longer description. Further Reading The DHCP protocol is fully described in RFC 2131. An informational resource has also been set up at dhcp.org. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/backups/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/backups/chapter.sgml index 4d4478454d..b6c5c3c292 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/backups/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/backups/chapter.sgml @@ -1,732 +1,732 @@ Backups Synopsis The following chapter will cover methods of backing up data, and the programs used to create those backups. If you would like to contribute something to this section, send it to the &a.doc;. Tape Media The major tape media are the 4mm, 8mm, QIC, mini-cartridge and DLT. 4mm (DDS: Digital Data Storage) 4mm tapes are replacing QIC as the workstation backup media of choice. This trend accelerated greatly when Conner purchased Archive, a leading manufacturer of QIC drives, and then stopped production of QIC drives. 4mm drives are small and quiet but do not have the reputation for reliability that is enjoyed by 8mm drives. The cartridges are less expensive and smaller (3 x 2 x 0.5 inches, 76 x 51 x 12 mm) than 8mm cartridges. 4mm, like 8mm, has comparatively short head life for the same reason, both use helical scan. Data thruput on these drives starts ~150kB/s, peaking at ~500kB/s. Data capacity starts at 1.3 GB and ends at 2.0 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. Multi-drive tape library units can have 6 drives in a single cabinet with automatic tape changing. Library capacities reach 240 GB. The DDS-3 standard now supports tape capacities up to 12GB (or 24GB compressed). 4mm drives, like 8mm drives, use helical-scan. All the benefits and drawbacks of helical-scan apply to both 4mm and 8mm drives. Tapes should be retired from use after 2,000 passes or 100 full backups. 8mm (Exabyte) 8mm tapes are the most common SCSI tape drives; they are the best choice of exchanging tapes. Nearly every site has an exabyte 2 GB 8mm tape drive. 8mm drives are reliable, convenient and quiet. Cartridges are inexpensive and small (4.8 x 3.3 x 0.6 inches; 122 x 84 x 15 mm). One downside of 8mm tape is relatively short head and tape life due to the high rate of relative motion of the tape across the heads. Data thruput ranges from ~250kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data sizes start at 300 MB and go up to 7 GB. Hardware compression, available with most of these drives, approximately doubles the capacity. These drives are available as single units or multi-drive tape libraries with 6 drives and 120 tapes in a single cabinet. Tapes are changed automatically by the unit. Library capacities reach 840+ GB. - The Exabyte “Mammoth” model supports 12GB on one tape + The Exabyte Mammoth model supports 12GB on one tape (24MB with compression) and costs approximately twice as much as conventional tape drives. Data is recorded onto the tape using helical-scan, the heads are positioned at an angle to the media (approximately 6 degrees). The tape wraps around 270 degrees of the spool that holds the heads. The spool spins while the tape slides over the spool. The result is a high density of data and closely packed tracks that angle across the tape from one edge to the other. QIC QIC-150 tapes and drives are, perhaps, the most common tape drive and media around. QIC tape drives are the least expensive "serious" backup drives. The downside is the cost of media. QIC tapes are expensive compared to 8mm or 4mm tapes, up to 5 times the price per GB data storage. But, if your needs can be satisfied with a half-dozen tapes, QIC may be the correct choice. QIC is the most common tape drive. Every site has a QIC drive of some density or another. Therein lies the rub, QIC has a large number of densities on physically similar (sometimes identical) tapes. QIC drives are not quiet. These drives audibly seek before they begin to record data and are clearly audible whenever reading, writing or seeking. QIC tapes measure (6 x 4 x 0.7 inches; 15.2 x 10.2 x 1.7 mm). Mini-cartridges, which also use 1/4" wide tape are discussed separately. Tape libraries and changers are not available. Data thruput ranges from ~150kB/s to ~500kB/s. Data capacity ranges from 40 MB to 15 GB. Hardware compression is available on many of the newer QIC drives. QIC drives are less frequently installed; they are being supplanted by DAT drives. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks. The tracks run along the long axis of the tape media from one end to the other. The number of tracks, and therefore the width of a track, varies with the tape's capacity. Most if not all newer drives provide backward-compatibility at least for reading (but often also for writing). QIC has a good reputation regarding the safety of the data (the mechanics are simpler and more robust than for helical scan drives). Tapes should be retired from use after 5,000 backups. * Mini-Cartridge ]]> DLT DLT has the fastest data transfer rate of all the drive types listed here. The 1/2" (12.5mm) tape is contained in a single spool cartridge (4 x 4 x 1 inches; 100 x 100 x 25 mm). The cartridge has a swinging gate along one entire side of the cartridge. The drive mechanism opens this gate to extract the tape leader. The tape leader has an oval hole in it which the drive uses to "hook" the tape. The take-up spool is located inside the tape drive. All the other tape cartridges listed here (9 track tapes are the only exception) have both the supply and take-up spools located inside the tape cartridge itself. Data thruput is approximately 1.5MB/s, three times the thruput of 4mm, 8mm, or QIC tape drives. Data capacities range from 10GB to 20GB for a single drive. Drives are available in both multi-tape changers and multi-tape, multi-drive tape libraries containing from 5 to 900 tapes over 1 to 20 drives, providing from 50GB to 9TB of storage. With compression, DLT Type IV format supports up to 70GB capacity. Data is recorded onto the tape in tracks parallel to the direction of travel (just like QIC tapes). Two tracks are written at once. Read/write head lifetimes are relatively long; once the tape stops moving, there is no relative motion between the heads and the tape. AIT AIT is a new format from Sony, and can hold up to 50GB (with compression) per tape. The tapes contain memory chips which retain an index of the tape's contents. This index can be rapidly read by the tape drive to determine the position of files on the tape, instead of the several minutes that would be required for other tapes. Software such as SAMS:Alexandria can operate forty or more AIT tape libraries, communicating directly with the tape's memory chip to display the contents on screen, determine what files where backed up to which tape, locate the correct tape, load it, and restore the data from the tape. Libraries like this cost in the region of $20,000, pricing them a little out of the hobbyist market. Using a New Tape for the First Time The first time that you try to read or write a new, completely blank tape, the operation will fail. The console messages should be similar to: sa0(ncr1:4:0): NOT READY asc:4,1 sa0(ncr1:4:0): Logical unit is in process of becoming ready The tape does not contain an Identifier Block (block number 0). All QIC tape drives since the adoption of QIC-525 standard write an Identifier Block to the tape. There are two solutions: mt fsf 1 causes the tape drive to write an Identifier Block to the tape. Use the front panel button to eject the tape. Re-insert the tape and &man.dump.8; data to the tape. &man.dump.8; will report DUMP: End of tape detected and the console will show: HARDWARE FAILURE info:280 asc:80,96 rewind the tape using: mt rewind Subsequent tape operations are successful. Backup Programs The three major programs are &man.dump.8;, &man.tar.1;, and &man.cpio.1;. Dump and Restore &man.dump.8; and &man.restore.8; are the traditional Unix backup programs. They operate on the drive as a collection of disk blocks, below the abstractions of files, links and directories that are created by the filesystems. &man.dump.8; backs up devices, entire filesystems, not parts of a filesystem and not directory trees that span more than one filesystem, using either soft links &man.ln.1; or mounting one filesystem onto another. &man.dump.8; does not write files and directories to tape, but rather writes the data blocks that are the building blocks of files and directories. &man.dump.8; has quirks that remain from its early days in Version 6 of ATT Unix (circa 1975). The default parameters are suitable for 9-track tapes (6250 bpi), not the high-density media available today (up to 62,182 ftpi). These defaults must be overridden on the command line to utilize the capacity of current tape drives. &man.rdump.8; and &man.rrestore.8; backup data across the network to a tape drive attached to another computer. Both programs rely upon &man.rcmd.3; and &man.ruserok.3; to access the remote tape drive. Therefore, the user performing the backup must have rhosts access to the remote computer. The arguments to &man.rdump.8; and &man.rrestore.8; must suitable to use on the remote computer. (e.g. When rdump'ing from a FreeBSD computer to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: /sbin/rdump 0dsbfu 54000 13000 126 komodo:/dev/nrsa8 /dev/rda0a 2>&1) Beware: there are security implications to allowing rhosts commands. Evaluate your situation carefully. Tar &man.tar.1; also dates back to Version 6 of ATT Unix (circa 1975). &man.tar.1; operates in cooperation with the filesystem; &man.tar.1; writes files and directories to tape. &man.tar.1; does not support the full range of options that are available from &man.cpio.1;, but &man.tar.1; does not require the unusual command pipeline that &man.cpio.1; uses. Most versions of &man.tar.1; do not support backups across the network. The GNU version of &man.tar.1;, which FreeBSD utilizes, supports remote devices using the same syntax as &man.rdump.8;. To &man.tar.1; to an Exabyte tape drive connected to a Sun called komodo, use: /usr/bin/tar cf komodo:/dev/nrsa8 . 2>&1. For versions without remote device support, you can use a pipeline and &man.rsh.1; to send the data to a remote tape drive. &prompt.root; tar cf - . | rsh hostname dd of=tape-device obs=20b If you're worried about the security of backing over a network you should use the &man.ssh.1; command instead of &man.rsh.1;. Cpio &man.cpio.1; is the original Unix file interchange tape program for magnetic media. &man.cpio.1; has options (among many others) to perform byte-swapping, write a number of different archives format, and pipe the data to other programs. This last feature makes &man.cpio.1; and excellent choice for installation media. &man.cpio.1; does not know how to walk the directory tree and a list of files must be provided through stdin. &man.cpio.1; does not support backups across the network. You can use a pipeline and &man.rsh.1; to send the data to a remote tape drive. (XXX add an example command) Pax &man.pax.1; is IEEE/POSIX's answer to &man.tar.1; and &man.cpio.1;. Over the years the various versions of &man.tar.1; and &man.cpio.1; have gotten slightly incompatible. So rather than fight it out to fully standardize them, POSIX created a new archive utility. &man.pax.1; attempts to read and write many of the various &man.cpio.1; and &man.tar.1; formats, plus new formats of its own. Its command set more resembles &man.cpio.1; than &man.tar.1;. Amanda Amanda (Advanced Maryland Network Disk Archiver) is a client/server backup system, rather than a single program. An Amanda server will backup to a single tape drive any number of computers that have Amanda clients and network communications with the Amanda server. A common problem at locations with a number of large disks is the length of time required to backup to data directly to tape exceeds the amount of time available for the task. Amanda solves this problem. Amanda can use a "holding disk" to backup several filesystems at the same time. Amanda creates "archive sets": a group of tapes used over a period of time to create full backups of all the filesystems listed in Amanda's configuration file. The "archive set" also contains nightly incremental (or differential) backups of all the filesystems. Restoring a damaged filesystem requires the most recent full backup and the incremental backups. The configuration file provides fine control backups and the network traffic that Amanda generates. Amanda will use any of the above backup programs to write the data to tape. Amanda is available as either a port or a package, it is not installed by default. Do Nothing - “Do nothing” is not a computer program, but it is the + Do nothing is not a computer program, but it is the most widely used backup strategy. There are no initial costs. There is no backup schedule to follow. Just say no. If something happens to your data, grin and bear it! If your time and your data is worth little to nothing, then - “Do nothing” is the most suitable backup program for your + Do nothing is the most suitable backup program for your computer. But beware, Unix is a useful tool, you may find that within six months you have a collection of files that are valuable to you. - “Do nothing” is the correct backup method for + Do nothing is the correct backup method for /usr/obj and other directory trees that can be exactly recreated by your computer. An example is the files that comprise these handbook pages-they have been generated from SGML input files. Creating backups of these HTML files is not necessary. The SGML source files are backed up regularly. Which Backup Program is Best? &man.dump.8; Period. Elizabeth D. Zwicky torture tested all the backup programs discussed here. The clear choice for preserving all your data and all the peculiarities of Unix filesystems is &man.dump.8;. Elizabeth created filesystems containing a large variety of unusual conditions (and some not so unusual ones) and tested each program by do a backup and restore of that filesystems. The peculiarities included: files with holes, files with holes and a block of nulls, files with funny characters in their names, unreadable and unwritable files, devices, files that change size during the backup, files that are created/deleted during the backup and more. She presented the results at LISA V in Oct. 1991. See torture-testing Backup and Archive Programs. Emergency Restore Procedure Before the Disaster There are only four steps that you need to perform in preparation for any disaster that may occur. First, print the disklabel from each of your disks (e.g. disklabel da0 | lpr), your filesystem table (/etc/fstab) and all boot messages, two copies of each. Second, determine that the boot and fixit floppies (boot.flp and fixit.flp) have all your devices. The easiest way to check is to reboot your machine with the boot floppy in the floppy drive and check the boot messages. If all your devices are listed and functional, skip on to step three. Otherwise, you have to create two custom bootable floppies which has a kernel that can mount your all of your disks and access your tape drive. These floppies must contain: &man.fdisk.8;, &man.disklabel.8;, &man.newfs.8;, &man.mount.8;, and whichever backup program you use. These programs must be statically linked. If you use &man.dump.8;, the floppy must contain &man.restore.8;. Third, create backup tapes regularly. Any changes that you make after your last backup may be irretrievably lost. Write-protect the backup tapes. Fourth, test the floppies (either boot.flp and fixit.flp or the two custom bootable floppies you made in step two.) and backup tapes. Make notes of the procedure. Store these notes with the bootable floppy, the printouts and the backup tapes. You will be so distraught when restoring that the notes may prevent you from destroying your backup tapes (How? In place of tar xvf /dev/rsa0, you might accidently type tar cvf /dev/rsa0 and over-write your backup tape). For an added measure of security, make bootable floppies and two backup tapes each time. Store one of each at a remote location. A remote location is NOT the basement of the same office building. A number of firms in the World Trade Center learned this lesson the hard way. A remote location should be physically separated from your computers and disk drives by a significant distance. An example script for creating a bootable floppy: /mnt/sbin/init gzip -c -best /sbin/fsck > /mnt/sbin/fsck gzip -c -best /sbin/mount > /mnt/sbin/mount gzip -c -best /sbin/halt > /mnt/sbin/halt gzip -c -best /sbin/restore > /mnt/sbin/restore gzip -c -best /bin/sh > /mnt/bin/sh gzip -c -best /bin/sync > /mnt/bin/sync cp /root/.profile /mnt/root cp -f /dev/MAKEDEV /mnt/dev chmod 755 /mnt/dev/MAKEDEV chmod 500 /mnt/sbin/init chmod 555 /mnt/sbin/fsck /mnt/sbin/mount /mnt/sbin/halt chmod 555 /mnt/bin/sh /mnt/bin/sync chmod 6555 /mnt/sbin/restore # # create the devices nodes # cd /mnt/dev ./MAKEDEV std ./MAKEDEV da0 ./MAKEDEV da1 ./MAKEDEV da2 ./MAKEDEV sa0 ./MAKEDEV pty0 cd / # # create minimum filesystem table # cat > /mnt/etc/fstab < /mnt/etc/passwd < /mnt/etc/master.passwd < After the Disaster The key question is: did your hardware survive? You have been doing regular backups so there is no need to worry about the software. If the hardware has been damaged. First, replace those parts that have been damaged. If your hardware is okay, check your floppies. If you are using a custom boot floppy, boot single-user (type -s at the boot: prompt). Skip the following paragraph. If you are using the boot.flp and fixit.flp floppies, keep reading. Insert the boot.flp floppy in the first floppy drive and boot the computer. The original install menu will be displayed on the screen. Select the Fixit--Repair mode with CDROM or floppy. option. Insert the fixit.flp when prompted. restore and the other programs that you need are located in /mnt2/stand. Recover each filesystem separately. Try to &man.mount.8; (e.g. mount /dev/da0a /mnt) the root partition of your first disk. If the disklabel was damaged, use &man.disklabel.8; to re-partition and label the disk to match the label that your printed and saved. Use &man.newfs.8; to re-create the filesystems. Re-mount the root partition of the floppy read-write (mount -u -o rw /mnt). Use your backup program and backup tapes to recover the data for this filesystem (e.g. restore vrf /dev/sa0). Unmount the filesystem (e.g. umount /mnt) Repeat for each filesystem that was damaged. Once your system is running, backup your data onto new tapes. Whatever caused the crash or data loss may strike again. An another hour spent now, may save you from further distress later. * I did not prepare for the Disaster, What Now? ]]> What about Backups to Floppies? Can I use floppies for backing up my data? Floppy disks are not really a suitable media for making backups as: The media is unreliable, especially over long periods of time Backing up and restoring is very slow They have a very limited capacity (the days of backing up an entire hard disk onto a dozen or so floppies has long since passed). However, if you have no other method of backing up your data then floppy disks are better than no backup at all. If you do have to use floppy disks then ensure that you use good quality ones. Floppies that have been lying around the office for a couple of years are a bad choice. Ideally use new ones from a reputable manufacturer. So how do I backup my data to floppies? The best way to backup to floppy disk is to use &man.tar.1; with the (multi volume) option, which allows backups to span multiple floppies. To backup all the files in the current directory and sub-directory use this (as root): &prompt.root; tar Mcvf /dev/rfd0 * When the first floppy is full &man.tar.1; will prompt you to insert the next volume (because &man.tar.1; is media independent it refers to volumes. In this context it means floppy disk) Prepare volume #2 for /dev/rfd0 and hit return: This is repeated (with the volume number incrementing) until all the specified files have been archived. Can I compress my backups? Unfortunately, &man.tar.1; will not allow the option to be used for multi-volume archives. You could, of course, &man.gzip.1; all the files, &man.tar.1; them to the floppies, then &man.gunzip.1; the files again! How do I restore my backups? To restore the entire archive use: &prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/rfd0 To restore only specific files you can either start with the first floppy and use: &prompt.root; tar Mxvf /dev/rfd0 filename &man.tar.1; will prompt you to insert subsequent floppies until it finds the required file. Alternatively, if you know which floppy the file is on then you can simply insert that floppy and use the same command as above. Note that if the first file on the floppy is a continuation from the previous one then &man.tar.1; will warn you that it cannot restore it, even if you have not asked it to! diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml index a430b5584a..65b507e785 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.sgml @@ -1,536 +1,536 @@ Unix Basics Synopsis Rewritten by Chris Shumway cshumway@cdrom.com, 10 Mar 2000. The following chapter will cover the basic commands and functionality of the FreeBSD operating system. If you are new to FreeBSD, you will definitely want to read through this chapter before asking for help. Permissions FreeBSD, having its history rooted in BSD UNIX, has its fundamentals based on several key UNIX concepts. The first, and most pronounced, is that FreeBSD is a multi-user operating system. The system can handle several users all working simultaneously on completely unrelated tasks. The system is responsible for properly sharing and managing requests for hardware devices, peripherals, memory, and CPU time evenly to each user. Because the system is capable of supporting multiple users, everything the system manages has a set of permissions governing who can read, write, and execute the resource. These permissions are stored as an octet broken into three pieces, one for the owner of the file, one for the group that the file belongs to, and one for everyone else. This numerical representation works like this: Value Permission Directory Listing 0 No read, no write, no execute --- 1 No read, no write, execute --x 2 No read, write, no execute -w- 3 No read, write, execute -wx 4 Read, no write, no execute r-- 5 Read, no write, execute r-x 6 Read, write, no execute rw- 7 Read, write, execute rwx For the long directory listing by ls -l, a column will show a file's permissions for the owner, group, and everyone else. Here's how it is broken up: -rw-r--r-- The first character, from left to right, is a special character that tells if this is a regular file, a directory, a special character or block device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file device. The next three characters, designated as rw- gives the permissions for the owner of the file. The next three characters, r-- gives the permissions for the group that the file belongs to. The final three characters, r--, gives the permissions for the rest of the world. A dash means that the permission is turned off. In the case of this file, the permissions are set so the owner can read and write to the file, the group can read the file, and the rest of the world can only read the file. According to the table above, the permissions for this file would be 644, where each digit represents the three parts of the file's permission. This is all well and good, but how does the system control permissions on devices? FreeBSD actually treats most hardware devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data to just like any other file. These special device files are stored on the /dev directory. Directories are also treated as files. They have read, write, and execute permissions. The executable bit for a directory has a slightly different meaning than that of files. When a directory is marked executable, it means it can be searched into, for example, a directory listing can be done in that directory. There are more to permissions, but they are primarily used in special circumstances such as setuid binaries and sticky directories. If you want more information on file permissions and how to set them, be sure to look at the &man.chmod.1; man page. Directory Structures Since FreeBSD uses its file systems to determine many fundamental system operations, the hierarchy of the file system is extremely important. Due to the fact that the &man.hier.7; man page provides a complete description of the directory structure, it will not be duplicated here. Please read &man.hier.7; for more information. Of significant importance is the root of all directories, the / directory. This directory is the first directory mounted at boot time and it contains the base system necessary at boot time. The root directory also contains mount points for every other file system that you want to mount. A mount point is a directory where additional file systems can be grafted onto the root file system. Standard mount points include /usr, /var, /mnt, and /cdrom. These directories are usually referenced to entries in the file /etc/fstab. /etc/fstab is a table of various file systems and mount points for reference by the system. Most of the file systems in /etc/fstab are mounted automatically at boot time from the script &man.rc.8; unless they contain the option. Consult the &man.fstab.5; manual page for more information on the format of the /etc/fstab file and the options it contains. Shells In FreeBSD, a lot of everyday work is done in a command line interface called a shell. A shell's main job is to take commands from the input channel and execute them. A lot of shells also have built in functions to help everyday tasks such a file management, file globing, command line editing, command macros, and environment variables. FreeBSD comes with a set of shells, such as sh, the Bourne Shell, and csh, the C-shell. Many other shells are available from the FreeBSD Ports Collection that have much more power, such as tcsh and bash. Which shell do you use? It is really a matter of taste. If you are a C programmer you might feel more comfortable with a C-like shell such as tcsh. If you've come from Linux or are new to a UNIX command line interface you might try bash. The point is that each shell has unique properties that may or may not work with your preferred working environment, and that you have a choice of what shell to use. One common feature in a shell is file-name completion. Given the typing of the first few letters of a command or filename, you can usually have the shell automatically complete the rest of the command or filename by hitting the TAB key on the keyboard. Here is an example. I have two files called foobar and foo.bar. I want to delete foo.bar. So what I would type on the keyboard is: rm fo[TAB].[TAB]. The shell would print out rm foo[BEEP].bar. The [BEEP] is the console bell, which is the shell telling me it was unable to totally complete the filename because there is more than one match. Both foobar and foo.bar start with fo, but it was able to complete to foo. Once I typed in ., then hit TAB again, the shell was able to fill in the rest of the filename for me. Another function of the shell is environment variables. Environment variables are a variable key pair stored in the shell's environment space. This space can be read by any program invoked by the shell, and thus contains a lot of program configuration. Here is a list of common environment variables and what they mean: Variable Description USER Current logged in user's name. PATH Colon separated list of directories to search for binaries. DISPLAY Network name of the X11 display to connect to, if available. SHELL The current shell. TERM The name of the user's terminal. Used to determine the capabilities of the terminal. TERMCAP Database entry of the terminal escape codes to perform various terminal functions. OSTYPE Type of operating system. E.g., FreeBSD. MACHTYPE The CPU architecture that the system is running on. EDITOR The user's preferred text editor. PAGER The user's preferred text pager. MANPATH Colon separated list of directories to search for manual pages. To view or set an environment variable differs somewhat from shell to shell. For example, in the C-Style shells such as tcsh and csh, you would use setenv to set and view environment variables. Under Bourne shells such as sh and bash, you would use set and export to view and set your current environment variables. For example, to set or modify the EDITOR environment variable, under csh or tcsh a command like this would set EDITOR to /usr/local/bin/emacs: setenv EDITOR /usr/local/bin/emacs Under Bourne shells: export EDITOR="/usr/local/bin/emacs" You can also make most shells expand the environment variable by placing a $ character in front of it on the command line. For example, echo $TERM would print out whatever $TERM is set to, because the shell expands $TERM and passes it on to echo. Shells treat a lot of special characters, called meta-characters as special representations of data. The most common one is the * character, which represents any number of characters in a filename. These special meta-characters can be used to do file name globing. For example, typing in echo * is almost the same as typing in ls because the shell takes all the files that match * and puts them on the command line for echo to see. To prevent the shell from interpreting these special characters, they can be escaped from the shell by putting a backslash (\) character in front of them. echo $TERM prints whatever your terminal is set to. echo \$TERM prints $TERM as is. Changing your shell The easiest way to change your shell is to use the chsh command. Running chsh will place you into the editor that is in your EDITOR environment variable; if it is not set, you will be placed in - vi. Change the “Shell:” line + vi. Change the Shell: line accordingly. You can also give chsh the option; this will set your shell for you, without requiring you to enter an editor. For example, if you wanted to change your shell to bash, the following should do the trick: &prompt.user; chsh -s /usr/local/bin/bash Running chsh with no parameters and editing the shell from there would work also. The shell that you wish to use must be present in the /etc/shells file. If you have installed a shell from the ports collection, then this should have been done for you already. If you installed the shell by hand, you must do this. For example, if you installed bash by hand and placed it into /usr/local/bin, you would want to: &prompt.root; echo "/usr/local/bin/bash" >> /etc/shells Then rerun chsh. Text Editors A lot of configuration in FreeBSD is done by editing a text file. Because of this, it would be a good idea to become familiar with a text editor. FreeBSD comes with a few as part of the base system, and many more are available in the ports collection. The easiest and simplest editor to learn is an editor called ee, which stands for easy editor. To start ee, one would type at the command line ee filename where filename is the name of the file to be edited. For example, to edit /etc/rc.conf, type in ee /etc/rc.conf. Once inside of ee, all of the commands for manipulating the editor's functions are listed at the top of the display. The caret ^ character means the control key on the keyboard, so ^e expands to pressing the control key plus the letter e. To leave ee, hit the escape key, then choose leave editor. The editor will prompt you to save any changes if the file has been modified. FreeBSD also comes with more powerful text editors such as vi as part of the base system, and emacs and vim as part of the FreeBSD ports collection. These editors offer much more functionality and power at the expense of being a little more complicated to learn. However if you plan on doing a lot of text editing, learning a more powerful editor such as vim or emacs will save you much more time in the long run. For more information... Manual pages The most comprehensive documentation on FreeBSD is in the form of man pages. Nearly every program on the system comes with a short reference manual explaining the basic operation and various arguments. These manuals can be viewed with the man command. Use of the man command is simple: &prompt.user; man command command is the name of the command you wish to learn about. For example, to learn more about ls command type: &prompt.user; man ls The online manual is divided up into numbered sections: User commands. System calls and error numbers. Functions in the C libraries. Device drivers. File formats. Games and other diversions. Miscellaneous information. System maintenance and operation commands. Kernel developers. In some cases, the same topic may appear in more than one section of the online manual. For example, there is a chmod user command and a chmod() system call. In this case, you can tell the man command which one you want by specifying the section: &prompt.user; man 1 chmod This will display the manual page for the user command chmod. References to a particular section of the online manual are traditionally placed in parenthesis in written documentation, so &man.chmod.1; refers to the chmod user command and &man.chmod.2; refers to the system call. This is fine if you know the name of the command and simply wish to know how to use it, but what if you cannot recall the command name? You can use man to search for keywords in the command descriptions by using the switch: &prompt.user; man -k mail With this command you will be presented with a list of - commands that have the keyword “mail” in their + commands that have the keyword mail in their descriptions. This is actually functionally equivalent to using the apropos command. So, you are looking at all those fancy commands in /usr/bin but do not have the faintest idea what most of them actually do? Simply do a &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin; man -f * or &prompt.user; cd /usr/bin; whatis * which does the same thing. GNU Info Files FreeBSD includes many applications and utilities produced by the Free Software Foundation (FSF). In addition to man pages, these programs come with more extensive hypertext documents called info files which can be viewed with the info command or, if you installed emacs, the info mode of emacs. To use the &man.info.1; command, simply type: &prompt.user; info For a brief introduction, type h. For a quick command reference, type ?. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/bibliography/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/bibliography/chapter.sgml index 8d62f217d8..44ce8ca23b 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/bibliography/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/bibliography/chapter.sgml @@ -1,478 +1,478 @@ Bibliography While the manual pages provide the definitive reference for individual pieces of the FreeBSD operating system, they are notorious for not illustrating how to put the pieces together to make the whole operating system run smoothly. For this, there is no substitute for a good book on UNIX system administration and a good users' manual. Books & Magazines Specific to FreeBSD International books & Magazines: Using FreeBSD (in Chinese). FreeBSD for PC 98'ers (in Japanese), published by SHUWA System Co, LTD. ISBN 4-87966-468-5 C3055 P2900E. FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by CUTT. ISBN 4-906391-22-2 C3055 P2400E. Complete Introduction to FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by Shoeisha Co., Ltd. ISBN 4-88135-473-6 P3600E. Personal UNIX Starter Kit FreeBSD (in Japanese), published by ASCII. ISBN 4-7561-1733-3 P3000E. FreeBSD Handbook (Japanese translation), published by ASCII. ISBN 4-7561-1580-2 P3800E. FreeBSD mit Methode (in German), published by Computer und Literatur Verlag/Vertrieb Hanser, 1998. ISBN 3-932311-31-0. FreeBSD Install and Utilization Manual (in Japanese), published by Mainichi Communications Inc.. English language books & Magazines: The Complete FreeBSD, published by Walnut Creek CDROM. Users' Guides Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD User's Reference Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-075-9 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD User's Supplementary Documents. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-076-7 UNIX in a Nutshell. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1990. ISBN 093717520X Mui, Linda. What You Need To Know When You Can't Find Your UNIX System Administrator. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-104-6 Ohio State University has written a UNIX Introductory Course which is available online in HTML and postscript format. Jpman Project, Japan FreeBSD Users Group. FreeBSD User's Reference Manual (Japanese translation). Mainichi Communications Inc., 1998. ISBN4-8399-0088-4 P3800E. Administrators' Guides Albitz, Paul and Liu, Cricket. DNS and BIND, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1997. ISBN 1-56592-236-0 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD System Manager's Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-080-5 Costales, Brian, et al. Sendmail, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1997. ISBN 1-56592-222-0 Frisch, Æleen. Essential System Administration, 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-127-5 Hunt, Craig. TCP/IP Network Administration. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1992. ISBN 0-937175-82-X Nemeth, Evi. UNIX System Administration Handbook. 2nd Ed. Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN 0131510517 Stern, Hal Managing NFS and NIS O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-937175-75-7 Jpman Project, Japan FreeBSD Users Group. FreeBSD System Administrator's Manual (Japanese translation). Mainichi Communications Inc., 1998. ISBN4-8399-0109-0 P3300E. Programmers' Guides Asente, Paul. X Window System Toolkit. Digital Press. ISBN 1-55558-051-3 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD Programmer's Reference Manual. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-078-3 Computer Systems Research Group, UC Berkeley. 4.4BSD Programmer's Supplementary Documents. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56592-079-1 Harbison, Samuel P. and Steele, Guy L. Jr. C: A Reference Manual. 4rd ed. Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN 0-13-326224-3 Kernighan, Brian and Dennis M. Ritchie. The C Programming Language.. PTR Prentice Hall, 1988. ISBN 0-13-110362-9 Lehey, Greg. Porting UNIX Software. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-126-7 Plauger, P. J. The Standard C Library. Prentice Hall, 1992. ISBN 0-13-131509-9 Stevens, W. Richard. Advanced Programming in the UNIX Environment. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1992 ISBN 0-201-56317-7 Stevens, W. Richard. UNIX Network Programming. 2nd Ed, PTR Prentice Hall, 1998. ISBN 0-13-490012-X - Wells, Bill. “Writing Serial Drivers for UNIX”. + Wells, Bill. Writing Serial Drivers for UNIX. Dr. Dobb's Journal. 19(15), December 1994. pp68-71, 97-99. Operating System Internals Andleigh, Prabhat K. UNIX System Architecture. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1990. ISBN 0-13-949843-5 - Jolitz, William. “Porting UNIX to the 386”. + Jolitz, William. Porting UNIX to the 386. Dr. Dobb's Journal. January 1991-July 1992. Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, Michael J Karels and John Quarterman The Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating System. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1989. ISBN 0-201-06196-1 Leffler, Samuel J., Marshall Kirk McKusick, The Design and Implementation of the 4.3BSD UNIX Operating System: Answer Book. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1991. ISBN 0-201-54629-9 McKusick, Marshall Kirk, Keith Bostic, Michael J Karels, and John Quarterman. The Design and Implementation of the 4.4BSD Operating System. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-54979-4 Stevens, W. Richard. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-63346-9 Schimmel, Curt. Unix Systems for Modern Architectures. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1994. ISBN 0-201-63338-8 Stevens, W. Richard. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP and the UNIX Domain Protocols. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. ISBN 0-201-63495-3 Vahalia, Uresh. UNIX Internals -- The New Frontiers. Prentice Hall, 1996. ISBN 0-13-101908-2 Wright, Gary R. and W. Richard Stevens. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-63354-X Security Reference Cheswick, William R. and Steven M. Bellovin. Firewalls and Internet Security: Repelling the Wily Hacker. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-63357-4 Garfinkel, Simson and Gene Spafford. Practical UNIX Security. 2nd Ed. O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1996. ISBN 1-56592-148-8 Garfinkel, Simson. PGP Pretty Good Privacy O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1995. ISBN 1-56592-098-8 Hardware Reference Anderson, Don and Tom Shanley. Pentium Processor System Architecture. 2nd Ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40992-5 Ferraro, Richard F. Programmer's Guide to the EGA, VGA, and Super VGA Cards. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-62490-7 Intel Corporation publishes documentation on their CPUs, chipsets and standards on their developer web site, usually as PDF files. Shanley, Tom. 80486 System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40994-1 Shanley, Tom. ISA System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40996-8 Shanley, Tom. PCI System Architecture. 3rd ed. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-40993-3 Van Gilluwe, Frank. The Undocumented PC. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1994. ISBN 0-201-62277-7 UNIX History Lion, John Lion's Commentary on UNIX, 6th Ed. With Source Code. ITP Media Group, 1996. ISBN 1573980137 Raymond, Eric S. The New Hacker's Dictionary, 3rd edition. MIT Press, 1996. ISBN 0-262-68092-0. Also known as the Jargon File Salus, Peter H. A quarter century of UNIX. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1994. ISBN 0-201-54777-5 Simon Garfinkel, Daniel Weise, Steven Strassmann. The UNIX-HATERS Handbook. IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., 1994. ISBN 1-56884-203-1 Don Libes, Sandy Ressler Life with UNIX — special edition. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1989. ISBN 0-13-536657-7 The BSD family tree. 1997. ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/src/share/misc/bsd-family-tree or local on a FreeBSD-current machine. The BSD Release Announcements collection. 1997. http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/de/ftp/releases/ Networked Computer Science Technical Reports Library. http://www.ncstrl.org/ Old BSD releases from the Computer Systems Research group (CSRG). http://www.mckusick.com/csrg/: The 4CD set covers all BSD versions from 1BSD to 4.4BSD and 4.4BSD-Lite2 (but not 2.11BSD, unfortunately). As well, the last disk holds the final sources plus the SCCS files. Magazines and Journals The C/C++ Users Journal. R&D Publications Inc. ISSN 1075-2838 Sys Admin — The Journal for UNIX System Administrators Miller Freeman, Inc., ISSN 1061-2688 diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml index a85ce56ffe..611d7cbf79 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/contrib/chapter.sgml @@ -1,5961 +1,5961 @@ Contributing to FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. So you want to contribute something to FreeBSD? That is great! We can always use the help, and FreeBSD is one of those systems that relies on the contributions of its user base in order to survive. Your contributions are not only appreciated, they are vital to FreeBSD's continued growth! Contrary to what some people might also have you believe, you do not need to be a hot-shot programmer or a close personal friend of the FreeBSD core team in order to have your contributions accepted. The FreeBSD Project's development is done by a large and growing number of international contributors whose ages and areas of technical expertise vary greatly, and there is always more work to be done than there are people available to do it. Since the FreeBSD project is responsible for an entire operating system environment (and its installation) rather than just a kernel or a few scattered utilities, our TODO list also spans a very wide range of tasks, from documentation, beta testing and presentation to highly specialized types of kernel development. No matter what your skill level, there is almost certainly something you can do to help the project! Commercial entities engaged in FreeBSD-related enterprises are also encouraged to contact us. Need a special extension to make your product work? You will find us receptive to your requests, given that they are not too outlandish. Working on a value-added product? Please let us know! We may be able to work cooperatively on some aspect of it. The free software world is challenging a lot of existing assumptions about how software is developed, sold, and maintained throughout its life cycle, and we urge you to at least give it a second look. What is Needed The following list of tasks and sub-projects represents something of an amalgam of the various core team TODO lists and user requests we have collected over the last couple of months. Where possible, tasks have been ranked by degree of urgency. If you are interested in working on one of the tasks you see here, send mail to the coordinator listed by clicking on their names. If no coordinator has been appointed, maybe you would like to volunteer? High priority tasks The following tasks are considered to be urgent, usually because they represent something that is badly broken or sorely needed: 3-stage boot issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Do WinNT compatible drive tagging so that the 3rd stage can provide an accurate mapping of BIOS geometries for disks. Filesystem problems. Overall coordination: &a.fs; Clean up and document the nullfs filesystem code. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Fix the union file system. Coordinator: &a.dg; Implement Int13 vm86 disk driver. Coordinator: &a.hackers; New bus architecture. Coordinator: &a.newbus; Port existing ISA drivers to new architecture. Move all interrupt-management code to appropriate parts of the bus drivers. Port PCI subsystem to new architecture. Coordinator: &a.dfr; Figure out the right way to handle removable devices and then use that as a substrate on which PC-Card and CardBus support can be implemented. Resolve the probe/attach priority issue once and for all. Move any remaining buses over to the new architecture. Kernel issues. Overall coordination: &a.hackers; Add more pro-active security infrastructure. Overall coordination: &a.security; Build something like Tripwire(TM) into the kernel, with a remote and local part. There are a number of cryptographic issues to getting this right; contact the coordinator for details. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Make the entire kernel use suser() instead of comparing to 0. It is presently using about half of each. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Split securelevels into different parts, to allow an administrator to throw away those privileges he can throw away. Setting the overall securelevel needs to have the same effect as now, obviously. Coordinator: &a.eivind; - Make it possible to upload a list of “allowed - program” to BPF, and then block BPF from accepting other + Make it possible to upload a list of allowed + program to BPF, and then block BPF from accepting other programs. This would allow BPF to be used e.g. for DHCP, without allowing an attacker to start snooping the local network. Update the security checker script. We should at least grab all the checks from the other BSD derivatives, and add checks that a system with securelevel increased also have reasonable flags on the relevant parts. Coordinator: &a.eivind; Add authorization infrastructure to the kernel, to allow different authorization policies. Part of this could be done by modifying suser(). Coordinator: &a.eivind; Add code to the NFS layer so that you cannot chdir("..") out of an NFS partition. E.g., /usr is a UFS partition with /usr/src NFS exported. Now it is possible to use the NFS filehandle for /usr/src to get access to /usr. Medium priority tasks The following tasks need to be done, but not with any particular urgency: Full KLD based driver support/Configuration Manager. Write a configuration manager (in the 3rd stage boot?) that probes your hardware in a sane manner, keeps only the KLDs required for your hardware, etc. PCMCIA/PCCARD. Coordinators: &a.msmith; and &a.imp; Documentation! Reliable operation of the pcic driver (needs testing). Recognizer and handler for sio.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ed.c (mostly done). Recognizer and handler for ep.c (mostly done). User-mode recognizer and handler (partially done). Advanced Power Management. Coordinators: &a.msmith; and &a.phk; APM sub-driver (mostly done). IDE/ATA disk sub-driver (partially done). syscons/pcvt sub-driver. Integration with the PCMCIA/PCCARD drivers (suspend/resume). Low priority tasks The following tasks are purely cosmetic or represent such an investment of work that it is not likely that anyone will get them done anytime soon: The first N items are from Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org NetWare Server (protected mode ODI driver) loader and subservices to allow the use of ODI card drivers supplied with network cards. The same thing for NDIS drivers and NetWare SCSI drivers. An "upgrade system" option that works on Linux boxes instead of just previous rev FreeBSD boxes. Symmetric Multiprocessing with kernel preemption (requires kernel preemption). A concerted effort at support for portable computers. This is somewhat handled by changing PCMCIA bridging rules and power management event handling. But there are things like detecting internal vs. external display and picking a different screen resolution based on that fact, not spinning down the disk if the machine is in dock, and allowing dock-based cards to disappear without affecting the machines ability to boot (same issue for PCMCIA). Smaller tasks Most of the tasks listed in the previous sections require either a considerable investment of time or an in-depth knowledge of the FreeBSD kernel (or both). However, there are also many useful tasks which are suitable for "weekend hackers", or people without programming skills. If you run FreeBSD-current and have a good Internet connection, there is a machine current.FreeBSD.org which builds a full release once a day — every now and again, try and install the latest release from it and report any failures in the process. Read the freebsd-bugs mailing list. There might be a problem you can comment constructively on or with patches you can test. Or you could even try to fix one of the problems yourself. Read through the FAQ and Handbook periodically. If anything is badly explained, out of date or even just completely wrong, let us know. Even better, send us a fix (SGML is not difficult to learn, but there is no objection to ASCII submissions). Help translate FreeBSD documentation into your native language (if not already available) — just send an email to &a.doc; asking if anyone is working on it. Note that you are not committing yourself to translating every single FreeBSD document by doing this — in fact, the documentation most in need of translation is the installation instructions. Read the freebsd-questions mailing list and &ng.misc occasionally (or even regularly). It can be very satisfying to share your expertise and help people solve their problems; sometimes you may even learn something new yourself! These forums can also be a source of ideas for things to work on. If you know of any bugfixes which have been successfully applied to -current but have not been merged into -stable after a decent interval (normally a couple of weeks), send the committer a polite reminder. Move contributed software to src/contrib in the source tree. Make sure code in src/contrib is up to date. Look for year 2000 bugs (and fix any you find!) Build the source tree (or just part of it) with extra warnings enabled and clean up the warnings. Fix warnings for ports which do deprecated things like using gets() or including malloc.h. If you have contributed any ports, send your patches back to the original author (this will make your life easier when they bring out the next version) Suggest further tasks for this list! Work through the PR database The FreeBSD PR list shows all the current active problem reports and requests for enhancement that have been submitted by FreeBSD users. Look through the open PRs, and see if anything there takes your interest. Some of these might be very simple tasks, that just need an extra pair of eyes to look over them and confirm that the fix in the PR is a good one. Others might be much more complex. Start with the PRs that have not been assigned to anyone else, but if one them is assigned to someone else, but it looks like something you can handle, e-mail the person it is assigned to and ask if you can work on it—they might already have a patch ready to be tested, or further ideas that you can discuss with them. How to Contribute Contributions to the system generally fall into one or more of the following 6 categories: Bug reports and general commentary An idea or suggestion of general technical interest should be mailed to the &a.hackers;. Likewise, people with an interest in such things (and a tolerance for a high volume of mail!) may subscribe to the hackers mailing list by sending mail to &a.majordomo;. See mailing lists for more information about this and other mailing lists. If you find a bug or are submitting a specific change, please report it using the &man.send-pr.1; program or its WEB-based equivalent. Try to fill-in each field of the bug report. Unless they exceed 65KB, include any patches directly in the report. When including patches, do not use cut-and-paste because cut-and-paste turns tabs into spaces and makes them unusable. Consider compressing patches and using &man.uuencode.1; if they exceed 20KB. Upload very large submissions to ftp.FreeBSD.org:/pub/FreeBSD/incoming/. After filing a report, you should receive confirmation along with a tracking number. Keep this tracking number so that you can update us with details about the problem by sending mail to bug-followup@FreeBSD.org. Use the number as the message subject, e.g. "Re: kern/3377". Additional information for any bug report should be submitted this way. If you do not receive confirmation in a timely fashion (3 days to a week, depending on your email connection) or are, for some reason, unable to use the &man.send-pr.1; command, then you may ask someone to file it for you by sending mail to the &a.bugs;. Changes to the documentation Changes to the documentation are overseen by the &a.doc;. Send submissions and changes (even small ones are welcome!) using send-pr as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Changes to existing source code An addition or change to the existing source code is a somewhat trickier affair and depends a lot on how far out of date you are with the current state of the core FreeBSD development. There is a special - on-going release of FreeBSD known as “FreeBSD-current” + on-going release of FreeBSD known as FreeBSD-current which is made available in a variety of ways for the convenience of developers working actively on the system. See Staying current with FreeBSD for more information about getting and using FreeBSD-current. Working from older sources unfortunately means that your changes may sometimes be too obsolete or too divergent for easy re-integration into FreeBSD. Chances of this can be minimized somewhat by subscribing to the &a.announce; and the &a.current; lists, where discussions on the current state of the system take place. Assuming that you can manage to secure fairly up-to-date sources to base your changes on, the next step is to produce a set of diffs to send to the FreeBSD maintainers. This is done with the &man.diff.1; - command, with the “context diff” form + command, with the context diff form being preferred. For example: &prompt.user; diff -c oldfile newfile or &prompt.user; diff -c -r olddir newdir would generate such a set of context diffs for the given source file or directory hierarchy. See the man page for &man.diff.1; for more details. Once you have a set of diffs (which you may test with the &man.patch.1; command), you should submit them for inclusion with FreeBSD. Use the &man.send-pr.1; program as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Do not just send the diffs to the &a.hackers; or they will get lost! We greatly appreciate your submission (this is a volunteer project!); because we are busy, we may not be able to address it immediately, but it will remain in the pr database until we do. If you feel it appropriate (e.g. you have added, deleted, or renamed files), bundle your changes into a tar file and run the &man.uuencode.1; program on it. Shar archives are also welcome. If your change is of a potentially sensitive nature, e.g. you are unsure of copyright issues governing its further distribution or you are simply not ready to release it without a tighter review first, then you should send it to &a.core; directly rather than submitting it with &man.send-pr.1;. The core mailing list reaches a much smaller group of people who do much of the day-to-day work on FreeBSD. Note that this group is also very busy and so you should only send mail to them where it is truly necessary. Please refer to man 9 intro and man 9 style for some information on coding style. We would appreciate it if you were at least aware of this information before submitting code. New code or major value-added packages In the rare case of a significant contribution of a large body work, or the addition of an important new feature to FreeBSD, it becomes almost always necessary to either send changes as uuencode'd tar files or upload them to our ftp site ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/incoming/. When working with large amounts of code, the touchy subject of copyrights also invariably comes up. Acceptable copyrights for code included in FreeBSD are: The BSD copyright. This copyright is most preferred due to - its “no strings attached” nature and general + its no strings attached nature and general attractiveness to commercial enterprises. Far from discouraging such commercial use, the FreeBSD Project actively encourages such participation by commercial interests who might eventually be inclined to invest something of their own into FreeBSD. - The GNU Public License, or “GPL”. This license is + The GNU Public License, or GPL. This license is not quite as popular with us due to the amount of extra effort demanded of anyone using the code for commercial purposes, but given the sheer quantity of GPL'd code we currently require (compiler, assembler, text formatter, etc) it would be silly to refuse additional contributions under this license. Code under the GPL also goes into a different part of the tree, that being /sys/gnu or /usr/src/gnu, and is therefore easily identifiable to anyone for whom the GPL presents a problem. Contributions coming under any other type of copyright must be carefully reviewed before their inclusion into FreeBSD will be considered. Contributions for which particularly restrictive commercial copyrights apply are generally rejected, though the authors are always encouraged to make such changes available through their own channels. - To place a “BSD-style” copyright on your work, include + To place a BSD-style copyright on your work, include the following text at the very beginning of every source code file you wish to protect, replacing the text between the %% with the appropriate information. Copyright (c) %%proper_years_here%% %%your_name_here%%, %%your_state%% %%your_zip%%. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer as the first lines of this file unmodified. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY %%your_name_here%% ``AS IS'' AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL %%your_name_here%% BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. $Id$ For your convenience, a copy of this text can be found in /usr/share/examples/etc/bsd-style-copyright. Money, Hardware or Internet access We are always very happy to accept donations to further the cause of the FreeBSD Project and, in a volunteer effort like ours, a little can go a long way! Donations of hardware are also very important to expanding our list of supported peripherals since we generally lack the funds to buy such items ourselves. <anchor id="donations">Donating funds While the FreeBSD Project is not a 501(c)(3) (charitable) corporation and hence cannot offer special tax incentives for any donations made, any such donations will be gratefully accepted on behalf of the project by FreeBSD, Inc. FreeBSD, Inc. was founded in early 1995 by &a.jkh; and &a.dg; with the goal of furthering the aims of the FreeBSD Project and giving it a minimal corporate presence. Any and all funds donated (as well as any profits that may eventually be realized by FreeBSD, Inc.) will be used exclusively to further the project's goals. Please make any checks payable to FreeBSD, Inc., sent in care of the following address:
FreeBSD, Inc. c/o Jordan Hubbard 4041 Pike Lane, Suite F Concord CA, 94520
(currently using the Walnut Creek CDROM address until a PO box can be opened) Wire transfers may also be sent directly to:
Bank Of America Concord Main Office P.O. Box 37176 San Francisco CA, 94137-5176 Routing #: 121-000-358 Account #: 01411-07441 (FreeBSD, Inc.)
Any correspondence related to donations should be sent to &a.jkh, either via email or to the FreeBSD, Inc. postal address given above. If you do not wish to be listed in our donors section, please specify this when making your donation. Thanks! Donating hardware Donations of hardware in any of the 3 following categories are also gladly accepted by the FreeBSD Project: General purpose hardware such as disk drives, memory or complete systems should be sent to the FreeBSD, Inc. address listed in the donating funds section. Hardware for which ongoing compliance testing is desired. We are currently trying to put together a testing lab of all components that FreeBSD supports so that proper regression testing can be done with each new release. We are still lacking many important pieces (network cards, motherboards, etc) and if you would like to make such a donation, please contact &a.dg; for information on which items are still required. Hardware currently unsupported by FreeBSD for which you would like to see such support added. Please contact the &a.core; before sending such items as we will need to find a developer willing to take on the task before we can accept delivery of new hardware. Donating Internet access We can always use new mirror sites for FTP, WWW or cvsup. If you would like to be such a mirror, please contact the FreeBSD project administrators hubs@FreeBSD.org for more information. Donors Gallery The FreeBSD Project is indebted to the following donors and would like to publically thank them here! Contributors to the central server project: The following individuals and businesses made it possible for the FreeBSD Project to build a new central server machine to eventually replace freefall.FreeBSD.org by donating the following items: &a.mbarkah and his employer, Hemisphere Online, donated a Pentium Pro (P6) 200Mhz CPU ASA Computers donated a Tyan 1662 motherboard. Joe McGuckin joe@via.net of ViaNet Communications donated a Kingston ethernet controller. Jack O'Neill jack@diamond.xtalwind.net donated an NCR 53C875 SCSI controller card. Ulf Zimmermann ulf@Alameda.net of Alameda Networks donated 128MB of memory, a 4 Gb disk drive and the case. Direct funding: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed direct funding to the project: Annelise Anderson ANDRSN@HOOVER.STANFORD.EDU &a.dillon Blue Mountain Arts Epilogue Technology Corporation &a.sef Global Technology Associates, Inc Don Scott Wilde Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@masternet.it Josef C. Grosch joeg@truenorth.org Robert T. Morris &a.chuckr Kenneth P. Stox ken@stox.sa.enteract.com of Imaginary Landscape, LLC. Dmitry S. Kohmanyuk dk@dog.farm.org Laser5 of Japan (a portion of the profits from sales of their various FreeBSD CD-ROMs). Fuki Shuppan Publishing Co. donated a portion of their profits from Hajimete no FreeBSD (FreeBSD, Getting started) to the FreeBSD and XFree86 projects. ASCII Corp. donated a portion of their profits from several FreeBSD-related books to the FreeBSD project. Yokogawa Electric Corp has generously donated significant funding to the FreeBSD project. BuffNET Pacific Solutions Siemens AG via Andre Albsmeier Chris Silva Hardware contributors: The following individuals and businesses have generously contributed hardware for testing and device driver development/support: Walnut Creek CDROM for providing the Pentium P5-90 and 486/DX2-66 EISA/VL systems that are being used for our development work, to say nothing of the network access and other donations of hardware resources. TRW Financial Systems, Inc. provided 130 PCs, three 68 GB fileservers, twelve Ethernets, two routers and an ATM switch for debugging the diskless code. Dermot McDonnell donated the Toshiba XM3401B CDROM drive currently used in freefall. &a.chuck; contributed his floppy tape streamer for experimental work. Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM, and &a.wilko;, provided Wangtek and Archive QIC-02 tape drives in order to improve the wt driver. Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de contributed a 2.88 MB floppy drive to the project. This will hopefully increase the pressure for rewriting the floppy disk driver. ;-) Tekram Technologies sent one each of their DC-390, DC-390U and DC-390F FAST and ULTRA SCSI host adapter cards for regression testing of the NCR and AMD drivers with their cards. They are also to be applauded for making driver sources for free operating systems available from their FTP server ftp://ftp.tekram.com/scsi/FreeBSD/. Larry M. Augustin contributed not only a Symbios Sym8751S SCSI card, but also a set of data books, including one about the forthcoming Sym53c895 chip with Ultra-2 and LVD support, and the latest programming manual with information on how to safely use the advanced features of the latest Symbios SCSI chips. Thanks a lot! Christoph Kukulies kuku@FreeBSD.org donated an FX120 12 speed Mitsumi CDROM drive for IDE CDROM driver development. Special contributors: Walnut Creek CDROM has donated almost more than we can say (see the history document for more details). In particular, we would like to thank them for the original hardware used for freefall.FreeBSD.org, our primary development machine, and for thud.FreeBSD.org, a testing and build box. We are also indebted to them for funding various contributors over the years and providing us with unrestricted use of their T1 connection to the Internet. The interface business GmbH, Dresden has been patiently supporting &a.joerg; who has often preferred FreeBSD work over paywork, and used to fall back to their (quite expensive) EUnet Internet connection whenever his private connection became too slow or flakey to work with it... Berkeley Software Design, Inc. has contributed their DOS emulator code to the remaining BSD world, which is used in the doscmd command. Core Team Alumni The following people were members of the FreeBSD core team during the periods indicated. We thank them for their past efforts in the service of the FreeBSD project. In rough chronological order: &a.jdp (1997 - 2000) &a.guido (1995 - 1999) &a.dyson (1993 - 1998) &a.nate (1992 - 1996) &a.rgrimes (1992 - 1995) Andreas Schulz (1992 - 1995) &a.csgr (1993 - 1995) &a.paul (1992 - 1995) &a.smace (1993 - 1994) Andrew Moore (1993 - 1994) Christoph Robitschko (1993 - 1994) J. T. Conklin (1992 - 1993) Derived Software Contributors This software was originally derived from William F. Jolitz's 386BSD release 0.1, though almost none of the original 386BSD specific code remains. This software has been essentially re-implemented from the 4.4BSD-Lite release provided by the Computer Science Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California, Berkeley and associated academic contributors. There are also portions of NetBSD and OpenBSD that have been integrated into FreeBSD as well, and we would therefore like to thank all the contributors to NetBSD and OpenBSD for their work. Additional FreeBSD Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): ABURAYA Ryushirou rewsirow@ff.iij4u.or.jp AMAGAI Yoshiji amagai@nue.org Aaron Bornstein aaronb@j51.com Aaron Smith aaron@mutex.org Achim Patzner ap@noses.com Ada T Lim ada@bsd.org Adam Baran badam@mw.mil.pl Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adam McDougall mcdouga9@egr.msu.edu Adam Strohl troll@digitalspark.net Adrian Chadd adrian@freebsd.org Adrian Colley aecolley@ois.ie Adrian Hall adrian@ibmpcug.co.uk Adrian Mariano adrian@cam.cornell.edu Adrian Steinmann ast@marabu.ch Adrian T. Filipi-Martin atf3r@agate.cs.virginia.edu Ajit Thyagarajan unknown Akio Morita amorita@meadow.scphys.kyoto-u.ac.jp Akira SAWADA unknown Akira Watanabe akira@myaw.ei.meisei-u.ac.jp Akito Fujita fujita@zoo.ncl.omron.co.jp Alain Kalker A.C.P.M.Kalker@student.utwente.nl Alan Bawden alan@curry.epilogue.com Alec Wolman wolman@cs.washington.edu Aled Morris aledm@routers.co.uk Aleksandr A Babaylov .@babolo.ru Alex garbanzo@hooked.net Alex D. Chen dhchen@Canvas.dorm7.nccu.edu.tw Alex G. Bulushev bag@demos.su Alex Le Heux alexlh@funk.org Alex Perel veers@disturbed.net Alex Varju varju@webct.com Alexander B. Povolotsky tarkhil@mgt.msk.ru Alexander Langer alex@cichlids.com Alexander Leidinger netchild@wurzelausix.CS.Uni-SB.DE Alexandre Snarskii snar@paranoia.ru Alistair G. Crooks agc@uts.amdahl.com Allan Saddi asaddi@philosophysw.com Allen Campbell allenc@verinet.com Amakawa Shuhei amakawa@hoh.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Amancio Hasty hasty@star-gate.com Amir Farah amir@comtrol.com Amy Baron amee@beer.org Anatoly A. Orehovsky tolik@mpeks.tomsk.su Anatoly Vorobey mellon@pobox.com Anders Nordby anders@fix.no Anders Thulin Anders.X.Thulin@telia.se Andras Olah olah@cs.utwente.nl Andre Albsmeier Andre.Albsmeier@mchp.siemens.de Andre Oppermann andre@pipeline.ch Andreas Haakh ah@alman.robin.de Andreas Kohout shanee@rabbit.augusta.de Andreas Lohr andreas@marvin.RoBIN.de Andreas Schulz unknown Andreas Wetzel mickey@deadline.snafu.de Andreas Wrede andreas@planix.com Andres Vega Garcia unknown Andrew Atrens atreand@statcan.ca Andrew Boothman andrew@cream.org Andrew Gillham gillham@andrews.edu Andrew Gordon andrew.gordon@net-tel.co.uk Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew J. Korty ajk@purdue.edu Andrew L. Moore alm@mclink.com Andrew L. Neporada andrew@chg.ru Andrew McRae amcrae@cisco.com Andrew Stevenson andrew@ugh.net.au Andrew Timonin tim@pool1.convey.ru Andrew V. Stesin stesin@elvisti.kiev.ua Andrew Webster awebster@dataradio.com Andrey Novikov andrey@novikov.com Andy Farkas andyf@speednet.com.au Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com Andy Whitcroft andy@sarc.city.ac.uk Angelo Turetta ATuretta@stylo.it Anthony C. Chavez magus@xmission.com Anthony Yee-Hang Chan yeehang@netcom.com Anton Berezin tobez@plab.ku.dk Anton N. Bruesov antonz@library.ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Antti Kaipila anttik@iki.fi arci vega@sophia.inria.fr Are Bryne are.bryne@communique.no Ari Suutari ari@suutari.iki.fi Arindum Mukerji rmukerji@execpc.com Arjan de Vet devet@IAEhv.nl Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Arun Sharma adsharma@sharmas.dhs.org Assar Westerlund assar@sics.se Atsushi Furuta furuta@sra.co.jp Atsushi Murai amurai@spec.co.jp Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Bierbauch pivrnec@vszbr.cz Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Ben Hutchinson benhutch@xfiles.org.uk Ben Jackson unknown Ben Smithurst ben@scientia.demon.co.uk Ben Walter bwalter@itachi.swcp.com Benjamin Lewis bhlewis@gte.net Benno Rice benno@netizen.com.au Berend de Boer berend@pobox.com Bernd Rosauer br@schiele-ct.de Bill Kish kish@osf.org Bill Trost trost@cloud.rain.com Blaz Zupan blaz@amis.net Bob Van Valzah Bob@whitebarn.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Bob Willcox bob@luke.pmr.com Boris Staeblow balu@dva.in-berlin.de Boyd Faulkner faulkner@mpd.tandem.com Boyd R. Faulkner faulkner@asgard.bga.com Brad Hendrickse bradh@uunet.co.za Brad Karp karp@eecs.harvard.edu Bradley Dunn bradley@dunn.org Brandon Fosdick bfoz@glue.umd.edu Brandon Gillespie brandon@roguetrader.com &a.wlloyd Brent J. Nordquist bjn@visi.com Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Brett Taylor brett@peloton.runet.edu Brian Campbell brianc@pobox.com Brian Clapper bmc@willscreek.com Brian Cully shmit@kublai.com Brian Handy handy@lambic.space.lockheed.com Brian Litzinger brian@MediaCity.com Brian McGovern bmcgover@cisco.com Brian Moore ziff@houdini.eecs.umich.edu Brian R. Haug haug@conterra.com Brian Tao taob@risc.org Brion Moss brion@queeg.com Bruce A. Mah bmah@ca.sandia.gov Bruce Albrecht bruce@zuhause.mn.org Bruce Gingery bgingery@gtcs.com Bruce J. Keeler loodvrij@gridpoint.com Bruce Murphy packrat@iinet.net.au Bruce Walter walter@fortean.com Carey Jones mcj@acquiesce.org Carl Fongheiser cmf@netins.net Carl Mascott cmascott@world.std.com Casper casper@acc.am Castor Fu castor@geocast.com Chain Lee chain@110.net Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Charles Henrich henrich@msu.edu Charles Mott cmott@scientech.com Charles Owens owensc@enc.edu Chet Ramey chet@odin.INS.CWRU.Edu Chia-liang Kao clkao@CirX.ORG Chiharu Shibata chi@bd.mbn.or.jp Chip Norkus unknown Choi Jun Ho junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr Chris Csanady cc@tarsier.ca.sandia.gov Chris Dabrowski chris@vader.org Chris Dillon cdillon@wolves.k12.mo.us Chris Shenton cshenton@angst.it.hq.nasa.gov Chris Stenton jacs@gnome.co.uk Chris Timmons skynyrd@opus.cts.cwu.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christian Gusenbauer cg@fimp01.fim.uni-linz.ac.at Christian Haury Christian.Haury@sagem.fr Christian Weisgerber naddy@mips.inka.de Christoph P. Kukulies kuku@FreeBSD.org Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Christoph Weber-Fahr wefa@callcenter.systemhaus.net Christopher G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Christopher T. Johnson cjohnson@neunacht.netgsi.com Chrisy Luke chrisy@flix.net Chuck Hein chein@cisco.com Cliff Rowley dozprompt@onsea.com Clive Lin clive@CiRX.ORG Colman Reilly careilly@tcd.ie Conrad Sabatier conrads@neosoft.com Coranth Gryphon gryphon@healer.com Cornelis van der Laan nils@guru.ims.uni-stuttgart.de Cove Schneider cove@brazil.nbn.com Craig Leres leres@ee.lbl.gov Craig Loomis unknown Craig Metz cmetz@inner.net Craig Spannring cts@internetcds.com Craig Struble cstruble@vt.edu Cristian Ferretti cfs@riemann.mat.puc.cl Curt Mayer curt@toad.com Cy Schubert cschuber@uumail.gov.bc.ca Dai Ishijima ishijima@tri.pref.osaka.jp Daisuke Watanabe NU7D-WTNB@asahi-net.or.jp Damian Hamill damian@cablenet.net Dan Cross tenser@spitfire.ecsel.psu.edu Dan Lukes dan@obluda.cz Dan Nelson dnelson@emsphone.com Dan Papasian bugg@bugg.strangled.net Dan Piponi wmtop@tanelorn.demon.co.uk Dan Walters hannibal@cyberstation.net Daniel Hagan dhagan@cs.vt.edu Daniel M. Eischen deischen@iworks.InterWorks.org Daniel O'Connor doconnor@gsoft.com.au Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Daniel Rock rock@cs.uni-sb.de Danny Egen unknown Danny J. Zerkel dzerkel@phofarm.com Darren Reed avalon@coombs.anu.edu.au Dave Adkins adkin003@tc.umn.edu Dave Andersen angio@aros.net Dave Blizzard dblizzar@sprynet.com Dave Bodenstab imdave@synet.net Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Chapeskie dchapes@ddm.on.ca Dave Cornejo dave@dogwood.com Dave Edmondson davided@sco.com Dave Glowacki dglo@ssec.wisc.edu Dave Marquardt marquard@austin.ibm.com Dave Tweten tweten@FreeBSD.org David A. Adkins adkin003@tc.umn.edu David A. Bader dbader@umiacs.umd.edu David Borman dab@bsdi.com David Dawes dawes@XFree86.org David Filo filo@yahoo.com David Holland dholland@eecs.harvard.edu David Holloway daveh@gwythaint.tamis.com David Horwitt dhorwitt@ucsd.edu David Hovemeyer daveho@infocom.com David Jones dej@qpoint.torfree.net David Kelly dkelly@tomcat1.tbe.com David Kulp dkulp@neomorphic.com David L. Nugent davidn@blaze.net.au David Leonard d@scry.dstc.edu.au David Malone dwmalone@maths.tcd.ie David Muir Sharnoff muir@idiom.com David S. Miller davem@jenolan.rutgers.edu David Wolfskill dhw@whistle.com Dean Gaudet dgaudet@arctic.org Dean Huxley dean@fsa.ca Denis Fortin unknown Dennis Glatting dennis.glatting@software-munitions.com Denton Gentry denny1@home.com der Mouse mouse@Collatz.McRCIM.McGill.EDU Derek Inksetter derek@saidev.com DI. Christian Gusenbauer cg@scotty.edvz.uni-linz.ac.at Dima Sivachenko dima@Chg.RU Dirk Keunecke dk@panda.rhein-main.de Dirk Nehrling nerle@pdv.de Dmitry Khrustalev dima@xyzzy.machaon.ru Dmitry Kohmanyuk dk@farm.org Dom Mitchell dom@myrddin.demon.co.uk Dominik Brettnacher domi@saargate.de Dominik Rother dr@domix.de Don Croyle croyle@gelemna.ft-wayne.in.us &a.whiteside; Don Morrison dmorrisn@u.washington.edu Don Yuniskis dgy@rtd.com Donald Maddox dmaddox@conterra.com Doug Barton Doug@gorean.org Douglas Ambrisko ambrisko@whistle.com Douglas Carmichael dcarmich@mcs.com Douglas Crosher dtc@scrooge.ee.swin.oz.au Drew Derbyshire ahd@kew.com Duncan Barclay dmlb@ragnet.demon.co.uk Dustin Sallings dustin@spy.net Eckart "Isegrim" Hofmann Isegrim@Wunder-Nett.org Ed Gold vegold01@starbase.spd.louisville.edu Ed Hudson elh@p5.spnet.com Edward Chuang edwardc@firebird.org.tw Edward Wang edward@edcom.com Edwin Groothus edwin@nwm.wan.philips.com Edwin Mons e@ik.nu Ege Rekk aagero@aage.priv.no Eiji-usagi-MATSUmoto usagi@clave.gr.jp ELISA Font Project Elmar Bartel bartel@informatik.tu-muenchen.de Eoin Lawless eoin@maths.tcd.ie Eric A. Griff eagriff@global2000.net Eric Blood eblood@cs.unr.edu Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Eric J. Schwertfeger eric@cybernut.com Eric L. Hernes erich@lodgenet.com Eric P. Scott eps@sirius.com Eric Sprinkle eric@ennovatenetworks.com Erich Stefan Boleyn erich@uruk.org Erik H. Bakke erikhb@bgnett.no Erik E. Rantapaa rantapaa@math.umn.edu Erik H. Moe ehm@cris.com Ernst Winter ewinter@lobo.muc.de Espen Skoglund esk@ira.uka.de Eugene M. Kim astralblue@usa.net Eugene Radchenko genie@qsar.chem.msu.su Eugeny Kuzakov CoreDumped@lab321.ru Evan Champion evanc@synapse.net Faried Nawaz fn@Hungry.COM Flemming Jacobsen fj@tfs.com Fong-Ching Liaw fong@juniper.net Francis M J Hsieh mjshieh@life.nthu.edu.tw Frank Bartels knarf@camelot.de Frank Chen Hsiung Chan frankch@waru.life.nthu.edu.tw Frank Durda IV uhclem@nemesis.lonestar.org Frank MacLachlan fpm@n2.net Frank Nobis fn@Radio-do.de Frank ten Wolde franky@pinewood.nl Frank van der Linden frank@fwi.uva.nl Frank Volf volf@oasis.IAEhv.nl Fred Cawthorne fcawth@jjarray.umn.edu Fred Gilham gilham@csl.sri.com Fred Templin templin@erg.sri.com Frederick Earl Gray fgray@rice.edu FUJIMOTO Kensaku fujimoto@oscar.elec.waseda.ac.jp FUJISHIMA Satsuki k5@respo.or.jp FURUSAWA Kazuhisa furusawa@com.cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp G. Adam Stanislavadam@whizkidtech.net Gabor Kincses gabor@acm.org Gabor Zahemszky zgabor@CoDe.hu Garance A Drosehn gad@eclipse.its.rpi.edu Gareth McCaughan gjm11@dpmms.cam.ac.uk Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Gary J. garyj@rks32.pcs.dec.com Gary Kline kline@thought.org Gaspar Chilingarov nightmar@lemming.acc.am Gea-Suan Lin gsl@tpts4.seed.net.tw Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Georg Wagner georg.wagner@ubs.com Gianlorenzo Masini masini@uniroma3.it Gianmarco Giovannelli gmarco@giovannelli.it Gil Kloepfer Jr. gil@limbic.ssdl.com Gilad Rom rom_glsa@ein-hashofet.co.il Giles Lean giles@nemeton.com.au Ginga Kawaguti ginga@amalthea.phys.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp Giorgos Keramidas keramida@ceid.upatras.gr Glen Foster gfoster@gfoster.com Glenn Johnson gljohns@bellsouth.net Godmar Back gback@facility.cs.utah.edu Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Gord Matzigkeit gord@enci.ucalgary.ca Gordon Greeff gvg@uunet.co.za Graham Wheeler gram@cdsec.com Greg A. Woods woods@zeus.leitch.com Greg Ansley gja@ansley.com Greg Troxel gdt@ir.bbn.com Greg Ungerer gerg@stallion.oz.au Gregory Bond gnb@itga.com.au Gregory D. Moncreaff moncrg@bt340707.res.ray.com Guy Harris guy@netapp.com Guy Helmer ghelmer@cs.iastate.edu HAMADA Naoki hamada@astec.co.jp Hannu Savolainen hannu@voxware.pp.fi Hans Huebner hans@artcom.de Hans Petter Bieker zerium@webindex.no Hans Zuidam hans@brandinnovators.com Harlan Stenn Harlan.Stenn@pfcs.com Harold Barker hbarker@dsms.com Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Heikki Suonsivu hsu@cs.hut.fi Heiko W. Rupp unknown Helmut F. Wirth hfwirth@ping.at Henrik Vestergaard Draboel hvd@terry.ping.dk Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@NetBSD.org Hideaki Ohmon ohmon@tom.sfc.keio.ac.jp Hidekazu Kuroki hidekazu@cs.titech.ac.jp Hideki Yamamoto hyama@acm.org Hideyuki Suzuki hideyuki@sat.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hirayama Issei iss@mail.wbs.ne.jp Hiroaki Sakai sakai@miya.ee.kagu.sut.ac.jp Hiroharu Tamaru tamaru@ap.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Hironori Ikura hikura@kaisei.org Hiroshi Nishikawa nis@pluto.dti.ne.jp Hiroya Tsubakimoto unknown Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Holm Tiffe holm@geophysik.tu-freiberg.de HONDA Yasuhiro honda@kashio.info.mie-u.ac.jp Horance Chou horance@freedom.ie.cycu.edu.tw Horihiro Kumagai kuma@jp.FreeBSD.org HOSOBUCHI Noriyuki hoso@buchi.tama.or.jp HOTARU-YA hotaru@tail.net Hr.Ladavac lada@ws2301.gud.siemens.co.at Hubert Feyrer hubertf@NetBSD.ORG Hugh F. Mahon hugh@nsmdserv.cnd.hp.com Hugh Mahon h_mahon@fc.hp.com Hung-Chi Chu hcchu@r350.ee.ntu.edu.tw Ian Dowse iedowse@maths.tcd.ie Ian Holland ianh@tortuga.com.au Ian Struble ian@broken.net Ian Vaudrey i.vaudrey@bigfoot.com Igor Khasilev igor@jabber.paco.odessa.ua Igor Roshchin str@giganda.komkon.org Igor Sviridov siac@ua.net Igor Vinokurov igor@zynaps.ru Ikuo Nakagawa ikuo@isl.intec.co.jp Ilya V. Komarov mur@lynx.ru IMAI Takeshi take-i@ceres.dti.ne.jp IMAMURA Tomoaki tomoak-i@is.aist-nara.ac.jp Issei Suzuki issei@jp.FreeBSD.org Itsuro Saito saito@miv.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp IWASHITA Yoji shuna@pop16.odn.ne.jp J. Bryant jbryant@argus.flash.net J. David Lowe lowe@saturn5.com J. Han hjh@photino.com J. Hawk jhawk@MIT.EDU J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com J.T. Jang keith@email.gcn.net.tw Jack jack@zeus.xtalwind.net Jacob Bohn Lorensen jacob@jblhome.ping.mk Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com Jake Hamby jehamby@lightside.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James D. Stewart jds@c4systm.com James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James Raynard fhackers@jraynard.demon.co.uk James T. Liu jtliu@phlebas.rockefeller.edu Jamie Heckford jamie@jamiesdomain.co.uk Jan Conard charly@fachschaften.tu-muenchen.de Jan Koum jkb@FreeBSD.org Janick Taillandier Janick.Taillandier@ratp.fr Janusz Kokot janek@gaja.ipan.lublin.pl Jarle Greipsland jarle@idt.unit.no Jason Garman init@risen.org Jason Thorpe thorpej@NetBSD.org Jason Wright jason@OpenBSD.org Jason Young doogie@forbidden-donut.anet-stl.com Javier Martin Rueda jmrueda@diatel.upm.es Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jaye Mathisen mrcpu@cdsnet.net Jeff Bartig jeffb@doit.wisc.edu Jeff Brown jabrown@caida.org Jeff Forys jeff@forys.cranbury.nj.us Jeff Kletsky Jeff@Wagsky.com Jeff Palmer jeff@isni.net Jeffrey Evans evans@scnc.k12.mi.us Jeffrey Wheat jeff@cetlink.net Jens Schweikhardt schweikh@noc.dfn.d Jeremy Allison jallison@whistle.com Jeremy Chadwick yoshi@parodius.com Jeremy Chatfield jdc@xinside.com Jeremy Prior unknown Jeremy Shaffner jeremy@external.org Jesse Rosenstock jmr@ugcs.caltech.edu Jian-Da Li jdli@csie.nctu.edu.tw Jim Babb babb@FreeBSD.org Jim Binkley jrb@cs.pdx.edu Jim Bloom bloom@acm.org Jim Carroll jim@carroll.com Jim Flowers jflowers@ezo.net Jim Leppek jleppek@harris.com Jim Lowe james@cs.uwm.edu Jim Mattson jmattson@sonic.net Jim Mercer jim@komodo.reptiles.org Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jimbo Bahooli griffin@blackhole.iceworld.org Jin Guojun jin@george.lbl.gov Joachim Kuebart unknown Joao Carlos Mendes Luis jonny@jonny.eng.br Jochen Pohl jpo.drs@sni.de Joe "Marcus" Clarke marcus@miami.edu Joe Abley jabley@clear.co.nz Joe Jih-Shian Lu jslu@dns.ntu.edu.tw Joe Orthoefer j_orthoefer@tia.net Joe Traister traister@mojozone.org Joel Faedi Joel.Faedi@esial.u-nancy.fr Joel Ray Holveck joelh@gnu.org Joel Sutton jsutton@bbcon.com.au Johan Granlund johan@granlund.nu Johan Karlsson k@numeri.campus.luth.se Johan Larsson johan@moon.campus.luth.se Johann Tonsing jtonsing@mikom.csir.co.za Johannes Helander unknown Johannes Stille unknown John Beckett jbeckett@southern.edu John Beukema jbeukema@hk.super.net John Brezak unknown John Capo jc@irbs.com John F. Woods jfw@jfwhome.funhouse.com John Goerzen jgoerzen@alexanderwohl.complete.org John Hay jhay@mikom.csir.co.za John Heidemann johnh@isi.edu John Hood cgull@owl.org John Kohl unknown John Lind john@starfire.mn.org John Mackin john@physiol.su.oz.au John P johnp@lodgenet.com John Perry perry@vishnu.alias.net John Preisler john@vapornet.com John Rochester jr@cs.mun.ca John Sadler john_sadler@alum.mit.edu John Saunders john@pacer.nlc.net.au John Wehle john@feith.com John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Jon Morgan morgan@terminus.trailblazer.com Jonathan H N Chin jc254@newton.cam.ac.uk Jonathan Hanna jh@pc-21490.bc.rogers.wave.ca Jorge Goncalves j@bug.fe.up.pt Jorge M. Goncalves ee96199@tom.fe.up.pt Jos Backus jbackus@plex.nl Jose M. Alcaide jose@we.lc.ehu.es Jose Marques jose@nobody.org Josef Grosch jgrosch@superior.mooseriver.com Joseph Stein joes@wstein.com Josh Gilliam josh@quick.net Josh Tiefenbach josh@ican.net Juergen Lock nox@jelal.hb.north.de Juha Inkari inkari@cc.hut.fi Jukka A. Ukkonen jua@iki.fi Julian Assange proff@suburbia.net Julian Coleman j.d.coleman@ncl.ac.uk &a.jhs Julian Jenkins kaveman@magna.com.au Junichi Satoh junichi@jp.FreeBSD.org Junji SAKAI sakai@jp.FreeBSD.org Junya WATANABE junya-w@remus.dti.ne.jp K.Higashino a00303@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Kai Vorma vode@snakemail.hut.fi Kaleb S. Keithley kaleb@ics.com Kaneda Hiloshi vanitas@ma3.seikyou.ne.jp Kapil Chowksey kchowksey@hss.hns.com Karl Denninger karl@mcs.com Karl Dietz Karl.Dietz@triplan.com Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com KATO Tsuguru tkato@prontomail.ne.jp Kawanobe Koh kawanobe@st.rim.or.jp Kazuhiko Kiriyama kiri@kiri.toba-cmt.ac.jp Kazuo Horikawa horikawa@jp.FreeBSD.org Kees Jan Koster kjk1@ukc.ac.uk Keith Bostic bostic@bostic.com Keith E. Walker unknown Keith Moore unknown Keith Sklower unknown Kelly Yancey kbyanc@posi.net Ken Hornstein unknown Ken Key key@cs.utk.edu Ken Mayer kmayer@freegate.com Kenji Saito marukun@mx2.nisiq.net Kenji Tomita tommyk@da2.so-net.or.jp Kenneth Furge kenneth.furge@us.endress.com Kenneth Monville desmo@bandwidth.org Kenneth R. Westerback krw@tcn.net Kenneth Stailey kstailey@gnu.ai.mit.edu Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kent Vander Velden graphix@iastate.edu Kentaro Inagaki JBD01226@niftyserve.ne.jp Kevin Bracey kbracey@art.acorn.co.uk Kevin Day toasty@dragondata.com Kevin Lahey kml@nas.nasa.gov Kevin Lokevlo@hello.com.tw Kevin Meltzer perlguy@perlguy.com Kevin Street street@iname.com Kevin Van Maren vanmaren@fast.cs.utah.edu Kiril Mitev kiril@ideaglobal.com Kiroh HARADA kiroh@kh.rim.or.jp Klaus Klein kleink@layla.inka.de Klaus-J. Wolf Yanestra@t-online.de Koichi Sato copan@ppp.fastnet.or.jp Kostya Lukin lukin@okbmei.msk.su Kouichi Hirabayashi kh@mogami-wire.co.jp Kris Dow kris@vilnya.demon.co.uk KUNISHIMA Takeo kunishi@c.oka-pu.ac.jp Kurt D. Zeilenga Kurt@Boolean.NET Kurt Olsen kurto@tiny.mcs.usu.edu L. Jonas Olsson ljo@ljo-slip.DIALIN.CWRU.Edu Larry Altneu larry@ALR.COM Lars Köller Lars.Koeller@Uni-Bielefeld.DE Laurence Lopez lopez@mv.mv.com Lee Cremeans lcremean@tidalwave.net Liang Tai-hwa avatar@www.mmlab.cse.yzu.edu.tw Lon Willett lon%softt.uucp@math.utah.edu Louis A. Mamakos louie@TransSys.COM Louis Mamakos loiue@TransSys.com Lowell Gilbert lowell@world.std.com Lucas James Lucas.James@ldjpc.apana.org.au Lyndon Nerenberg lyndon@orthanc.ab.ca M.C. Wong unknown Magnus Enbom dot@tinto.campus.luth.se Mahesh Neelakanta mahesh@gcomm.com Makoto MATSUSHITA matusita@jp.FreeBSD.org Makoto WATANABE watanabe@zlab.phys.nagoya-u.ac.jp Malte Lance malte.lance@gmx.net MANTANI Nobutaka nobutaka@nobutaka.com Manu Iyengar iyengar@grunthos.pscwa.psca.com Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Marc Ramirez mrami@mramirez.sy.yale.edu Marc Slemko marcs@znep.com Marc van Kempen wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl Marc van Woerkom van.woerkom@netcologne.de Marcin Cieslak saper@system.pl Mario Sergio Fujikawa Ferreira lioux@gns.com.br Mark Andrews unknown Mark Cammidge mark@gmtunx.ee.uct.ac.za Mark Diekhans markd@grizzly.com Mark Huizer xaa@stack.nl Mark J. Taylor mtaylor@cybernet.com Mark Krentel krentel@rice.edu Mark Mayo markm@vmunix.com Mark Thompson thompson@tgsoft.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu Mark Treacy unknown Mark Valentine mark@linus.demon.co.uk Markus Holmberg saska@acc.umu.se Martin Birgmeier Martin Blapp blapp@attic.ch Martin Ibert mib@ppe.bb-data.de Martin Kammerhofer dada@sbox.tu-graz.ac.at Martin Minkus diskiller@cnbinc.com Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Martti Kuparinen martti.kuparinen@ericsson.com Mas.TAKEMURA unknown Masachika ISHIZUKA ishizuka@isis.min.ntt.jp Masafumi NAKANE max@wide.ad.jp Masahiro Sekiguchi seki@sysrap.cs.fujitsu.co.jp Masanobu Saitoh msaitoh@spa.is.uec.ac.jp Masanori Kanaoka kana@saijo.mke.mei.co.jp Masanori Kiriake seiken@ARGV.AC Masatoshi TAMURA tamrin@shinzan.kuee.kyoto-u.ac.jp Mats Lofkvist mal@algonet.se Matt Bartley mbartley@lear35.cytex.com Matt Heckaman matt@LUCIDA.QC.CA Matt Thomas matt@3am-software.com Matt White mwhite+@CMU.EDU Matthew C. Mead mmead@Glock.COM Matthew Cashdollar mattc@rfcnet.com Matthew Flatt mflatt@cs.rice.edu Matthew Fuller fullermd@futuresouth.com Matthew Stein matt@bdd.net Matthew West mwest@uct.ac.za Matthias Pfaller leo@dachau.marco.de Matthias Scheler tron@netbsd.org Mattias Gronlund Mattias.Gronlund@sa.erisoft.se Mattias Pantzare pantzer@ludd.luth.se Maurice Castro maurice@planet.serc.rmit.edu.au Max Euston meuston@jmrodgers.com Max Khon fjoe@husky.iclub.nsu.ru Maxim Bolotin max@rsu.ru Micha Class michael_class@hpbbse.bbn.hp.com Michael Lucas mwlucas@blackhelicopters.org Michael Butler imb@scgt.oz.au Michael Butschky butsch@computi.erols.com Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Elbel me@FreeBSD.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Michael Hancock michaelh@cet.co.jp Michael Hohmuth hohmuth@inf.tu-dresden.de Michael Perlman canuck@caam.rice.edu Michael Petry petry@netwolf.NetMasters.com Michael Reifenberger root@totum.plaut.de Michael Sardo jaeger16@yahoo.com Michael Searle searle@longacre.demon.co.uk Michael Vasilenko acid@stu.cn.ua Michal Listos mcl@Amnesiac.123.org Michio Karl Jinbo karl@marcer.nagaokaut.ac.jp Miguel Angel Sagreras msagre@cactus.fi.uba.ar MIHIRA Sanpei Yoshiro sanpei@sanpei.org Mihoko Tanaka m_tonaka@pa.yokogawa.co.jp Mika Nystrom mika@cs.caltech.edu Mikael Hybsch micke@dynas.se Mikael Karpberg karpen@ocean.campus.luth.se Mike Del repenting@hotmail.com Mike Durian durian@plutotech.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Mike E. Matsnev mike@azog.cs.msu.su Mike Evans mevans@candle.com Mike Grupenhoff kashmir@umiacs.umd.edu Mike Hibler mike@marker.cs.utah.edu Mike Karels unknown Mike McGaughey mmcg@cs.monash.edu.au Mike Meyer mwm@shiva.the-park.com Mike Mitchell mitchell@ref.tfs.com Mike Murphy mrm@alpharel.com Mike Peck mike@binghamton.edu Mike Sherwood mike@fate.com Mike Spengler mks@msc.edu Mikhail A. Sokolov mishania@demos.su Mikhail Teterin mi@aldan.ziplink.net Ming-I Hseh PA@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW MITA Yoshio mita@jp.FreeBSD.org MITSUNAGA Noriaki mitchy@er.ams.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp Mitsuru Yoshida mitsuru@riken.go.jp Monte Mitzelfelt monte@gonefishing.org Morgan Davis root@io.cts.com MOROHOSHI Akihiko moro@race.u-tokyo.ac.jp Mostyn Lewis mostyn@mrl.com Motomichi Matsuzaki mzaki@e-mail.ne.jp Motoyuki Kasahara m-kasahr@sra.co.jp N.G.Smith ngs@sesame.hensa.ac.uk Nadav Eiron nadav@barcode.co.il NAGAO Tadaaki nagao@cs.titech.ac.jp NAKAJI Hiroyuki nakaji@tutrp.tut.ac.jp NAKAMURA Kazushi nkazushi@highway.or.jp NAKAMURA Motonori motonori@econ.kyoto-u.ac.jp Nanbor Wang nw1@cs.wustl.edu Naofumi Honda honda@Kururu.math.sci.hokudai.ac.jp Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Narvi narvi@haldjas.folklore.ee Nathan Ahlstrom nrahlstr@winternet.com Nathan Dorfman nathan@rtfm.net Neal Fachan kneel@ishiboo.com Niall Smart rotel@indigo.ie Nick Barnes Nick.Barnes@pobox.com Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com Nick Hilliard nick@foobar.org Nick Johnson freebsd@spatula.net &a.nsayer; Nick Williams njw@cs.city.ac.uk Nickolay N. Dudorov nnd@itfs.nsk.su NIIMI Satoshi sa2c@and.or.jp Niklas Hallqvist niklas@filippa.appli.se Nisha Talagala nisha@cs.berkeley.edu No Name adrian@virginia.edu No Name alex@elvisti.kiev.ua No Name anto@netscape.net No Name bobson@egg.ics.nitch.ac.jp No Name bovynf@awe.be No Name burg@is.ge.com No Name chris@gnome.co.uk No Name colsen@usa.net No Name coredump@nervosa.com No Name dannyman@arh0300.urh.uiuc.edu No Name davids@SECNET.COM No Name derek@free.org No Name devet@adv.IAEhv.nl No Name djv@bedford.net No Name dvv@sprint.net No Name enami@ba2.so-net.or.jp No Name flash@eru.tubank.msk.su No Name flash@hway.ru No Name fn@pain.csrv.uidaho.edu No Name frf@xocolatl.com No Name gclarkii@netport.neosoft.com No Name gordon@sheaky.lonestar.org No Name graaf@iae.nl No Name greg@greg.rim.or.jp No Name grossman@cygnus.com No Name gusw@fub46.zedat.fu-berlin.de No Name hfir@math.rochester.edu No Name hnokubi@yyy.or.jp No Name iaint@css.tuu.utas.edu.au No Name invis@visi.com No Name ishisone@sra.co.jp No Name iverson@lionheart.com No Name jpt@magic.net No Name junker@jazz.snu.ac.kr No Name k-sugyou@ccs.mt.nec.co.jp No Name kenji@reseau.toyonaka.osaka.jp No Name kfurge@worldnet.att.net No Name lh@aus.org No Name lhecking@nmrc.ucc.ie No Name mrgreen@mame.mu.oz.au No Name nakagawa@jp.FreeBSD.org No Name ohki@gssm.otsuka.tsukuba.ac.jp No Name owaki@st.rim.or.jp No Name pechter@shell.monmouth.com No Name pete@pelican.pelican.com No Name pritc003@maroon.tc.umn.edu No Name risner@stdio.com No Name roman@rpd.univ.kiev.ua No Name root@ns2.redline.ru No Name root@uglabgw.ug.cs.sunysb.edu No Name stephen.ma@jtec.com.au No Name sumii@is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp No Name takas-su@is.aist-nara.ac.jp No Name tamone@eig.unige.ch No Name tjevans@raleigh.ibm.com No Name tony-o@iij.ad.jp amurai@spec.co.jp No Name torii@tcd.hitachi.co.jp No Name uenami@imasy.or.jp No Name uhlar@netlab.sk No Name vode@hut.fi No Name wlloyd@mpd.ca No Name wlr@furball.wellsfargo.com No Name wmbfmk@urc.tue.nl No Name yamagata@nwgpc.kek.jp No Name ziggy@ryan.org No Name ZW6T-KND@j.asahi-net.or.jp Nobuhiro Yasutomi nobu@psrc.isac.co.jp Nobuyuki Koganemaru kogane@koganemaru.co.jp NOKUBI Hirotaka h-nokubi@yyy.or.jp Norio Suzuki nosuzuki@e-mail.ne.jp Noritaka Ishizumi graphite@jp.FreeBSD.org Noriyuki Soda soda@sra.co.jp Oh Junseon hollywar@mail.holywar.net Olaf Wagner wagner@luthien.in-berlin.de Oleg Semyonov os@altavista.net Oleg Sharoiko os@rsu.ru Oleg V. Volkov rover@lglobus.ru Oliver Breuninger ob@seicom.NET Oliver Friedrichs oliver@secnet.com Oliver Fromme oliver.fromme@heim3.tu-clausthal.de Oliver Laumann net@informatik.uni-bremen.de Oliver Oberdorf oly@world.std.com Olof Johansson offe@ludd.luth.se Osokin Sergey aka oZZ ozz@FreeBSD.org.ru Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paco Rosich rosich@modico.eleinf.uv.es Palle Girgensohn girgen@partitur.se Parag Patel parag@cgt.com Pascal Pederiva pascal@zuo.dec.com Pasvorn Boonmark boonmark@juniper.net Patrick Hausen unknown Patrick Seal patseal@hyperhost.net Paul Antonov apg@demos.su Paul F. Werkowski unknown Paul Fox pgf@foxharp.boston.ma.us Paul Koch koch@thehub.com.au Paul Kranenburg pk@NetBSD.org Paul M. Lambert plambert@plambert.net Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Paul S. LaFollette, Jr. unknown Paul Sandys myj@nyct.net Paul T. Root proot@horton.iaces.com Paul Vixie paul@vix.com Paulo Menezes paulo@isr.uc.pt Paulo Menezes pm@dee.uc.pt Pedro A M Vazquez vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR Pedro Giffuni giffunip@asme.org Pete Bentley pete@demon.net Peter Childs pjchilds@imforei.apana.org.au Peter Cornelius pc@inr.fzk.de Peter Haight peterh@prognet.com Peter Jeremy perer.jeremy@alcatel.com.au Peter M. Chen pmchen@eecs.umich.edu Peter Much peter@citylink.dinoex.sub.org Peter Olsson unknown Peter Philipp pjp@bsd-daemon.net Peter Stubbs PETERS@staidan.qld.edu.au Phil Maker pjm@cs.ntu.edu.au Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Phil Taylor phil@zipmail.co.uk Philip Musumeci philip@rmit.edu.au Pierre Y. Dampure pierre.dampure@k2c.co.uk Pius Fischer pius@ienet.com Pomegranate daver@flag.blackened.net Powerdog Industries kevin.ruddy@powerdog.com Priit Järv priit@cc.ttu.ee R Joseph Wright rjoseph@mammalia.org R. Kym Horsell Rajesh Vaidheeswarran rv@fore.com Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Randal S. Masutani randal@comtest.com Randall Hopper rhh@ct.picker.com Randall W. Dean rwd@osf.org Randy Bush rbush@bainbridge.verio.net Reinier Bezuidenhout rbezuide@mikom.csir.co.za Remy Card Remy.Card@masi.ibp.fr Ricardas Cepas rch@richard.eu.org Riccardo Veraldi veraldi@cs.unibo.it Rich Wood rich@FreeBSD.org.uk Richard Henderson richard@atheist.tamu.edu Richard Hwang rhwang@bigpanda.com Richard Kiss richard@homemail.com Richard J Kuhns rjk@watson.grauel.com Richard M. Neswold rneswold@drmemory.fnal.gov Richard Seaman, Jr. dick@tar.com Richard Stallman rms@gnu.ai.mit.edu Richard Straka straka@user1.inficad.com Richard Tobin richard@cogsci.ed.ac.uk Richard Wackerbarth rkw@Dataplex.NET Richard Winkel rich@math.missouri.edu Richard Wiwatowski rjwiwat@adelaide.on.net Rick Macklem rick@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Rick Macklin unknown Rob Austein sra@epilogue.com Rob Mallory rmallory@qualcomm.com Rob Snow rsnow@txdirect.net Robert Crowe bob@speakez.com Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Robert Eckardt roberte@MEP.Ruhr-Uni-Bochum.de Robert Sanders rsanders@mindspring.com Robert Sexton robert@kudra.com Robert Shady rls@id.net Robert Swindells swindellsr@genrad.co.uk Robert Withrow witr@rwwa.com Robert Yoder unknown Robin Carey robin@mailgate.dtc.rankxerox.co.uk Roger Hardiman roger@cs.strath.ac.uk Roland Jesse jesse@cs.uni-magdeburg.de Roman Shterenzon roman@xpert.com Ron Bickers rbickers@intercenter.net Ron Lenk rlenk@widget.xmission.com Ronald Kuehn kuehn@rz.tu-clausthal.de Rudolf Cejka cejkar@dcse.fee.vutbr.cz Ruslan Belkin rus@home2.UA.net Ruslan Shevchenko rssh@cam.grad.kiev.ua Russell L. Carter rcarter@pinyon.org Russell Vincent rv@groa.uct.ac.za Ryan Younce ryany@pobox.com Sakai Hiroaki sakai@miya.ee.kagu.sut.ac.jp Sakari Jalovaara sja@tekla.fi Sam Hartman hartmans@mit.edu Samuel Lam skl@ScalableNetwork.com Samuele Zannoli zannoli@cs.unibo.it Sander Janssen janssen@rendo.dekooi.nl Sander Vesik sander@haldjas.folklore.ee Sandro Sigala ssigala@globalnet.it SANETO Takanori sanewo@strg.sony.co.jp SASAKI Shunsuke ele@pop17.odn.ne.jp Sascha Blank blank@fox.uni-trier.de Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Satoh Junichi junichi@astec.co.jp SAWADA Mizuki miz@qb3.so-net.ne.jp Scot Elliott scot@poptart.org Scot W. Hetzel hetzels@westbend.net Scott A. Kenney saken@rmta.ml.org Scott Blachowicz scott.blachowicz@seaslug.org Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Hazen Mueller scott@zorch.sf-bay.org Scott Michel scottm@cs.ucla.edu Scott Mitchel scott@uk.FreeBSD.org Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sebastian Strollo seb@erix.ericsson.se Serge A. Babkin babkin@hq.icb.chel.su Serge V. Vakulenko vak@zebub.msk.su Sergei Chechetkin csl@whale.sunbay.crimea.ua Sergei S. Laskavy laskavy@pc759.cs.msu.su Sergey Gershtein sg@mplik.ru Sergey Kosyakov ks@itp.ac.ru Sergey Potapov sp@alkor.ru Sergey Shkonda serg@bcs.zp.ua Sergey V.Dorokhov svd@kbtelecom.nalnet.ru Sergio Lenzi lenzi@bsi.com.br Shaun Courtney shaun@emma.eng.uct.ac.za Shawn M. Carey smcarey@mailbox.syr.edu Shigio Yamaguchi shigio@tamacom.com Shinya Esu esu@yk.rim.or.jp Shuichi Tanaka stanaka@bb.mbn.or.jp Shunsuke Akiyama akiyama@jp.FreeBSD.org Simon simon@masi.ibp.fr Simon Burge simonb@telstra.com.au Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au Simon Marlow simonm@dcs.gla.ac.uk Simon Shapiro shimon@simon-shapiro.org Sin'ichiro MIYATANI siu@phaseone.co.jp Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de Soochon Radee slr@mitre.org Soren Dayton csdayton@midway.uchicago.edu Soren Dossing sauber@netcom.com Soren S. Jorvang soren@dt.dk Stefan Bethke stb@hanse.de Stefan Eggers seggers@semyam.dinoco.de Stefan Moeding s.moeding@ndh.net Stefan Petri unknown Stefan `Sec` Zehl sec@42.org Steinar Haug sthaug@nethelp.no Stephane E. Potvin sepotvin@videotron.ca Stephane Legrand stephane@lituus.fr Stephen Clawson sclawson@marker.cs.utah.edu Stephen F. Combs combssf@salem.ge.com Stephen Farrell stephen@farrell.org Stephen Hocking sysseh@devetir.qld.gov.au Stephen J. Roznowski sjr@home.net Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Stephen Melvin melvin@zytek.com Steve Bauer sbauer@rock.sdsmt.edu Steve Coltrin spcoltri@unm.edu Steve Deering unknown Steve Gerakines steve2@genesis.tiac.net Steve Gericke steveg@comtrol.com Steve Piette steve@simon.chi.il.US Steve Schwarz schwarz@alpharel.com Steven G. Kargl kargl@troutmask.apl.washington.edu Steven H. Samorodin samorodi@NUXI.com Steven McCanne mccanne@cs.berkeley.edu Steven Plite splite@purdue.edu Steven Wallace unknown Stuart Henderson stuart@internationalschool.co.uk Sue Blake sue@welearn.com.au Sugimoto Sadahiro ixtl@komaba.utmc.or.jp SUGIMURA Takashi sugimura@jp.FreeBSD.org Sugiura Shiro ssugiura@duo.co.jp Sujal Patel smpatel@wam.umd.edu Sune Stjerneby stjerneby@usa.net SURANYI Peter suranyip@jks.is.tsukuba.ac.jp Suzuki Yoshiaki zensyo@ann.tama.kawasaki.jp Tadashi Kumano kumano@strl.nhk.or.jp Taguchi Takeshi taguchi@tohoku.iij.ad.jp Takahiro Yugawa yugawa@orleans.rim.or.jp Takanori Watanabe takawata@shidahara1.planet.sci.kobe-u.ac.jp Takashi Mega mega@minz.org Takashi Uozu j1594016@ed.kagu.sut.ac.jp Takayuki Ariga a00821@cc.hc.keio.ac.jp Takeru NAIKI naiki@bfd.es.hokudai.ac.jp Takeshi Amaike amaike@iri.co.jp Takeshi MUTOH mutoh@info.nara-k.ac.jp Takeshi Ohashi ohashi@mickey.ai.kyutech.ac.jp Takeshi WATANABE watanabe@crayon.earth.s.kobe-u.ac.jp Takuya SHIOZAKI tshiozak@makino.ise.chuo-u.ac.jp Tatoku Ogaito tacha@tera.fukui-med.ac.jp Ted Buswell tbuswell@mediaone.net Ted Faber faber@isi.edu Ted Lemon mellon@isc.org Terry Lambert terry@lambert.org Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tetsuya Furukawa tetsuya@secom-sis.co.jp Theo de Raadt deraadt@OpenBSD.org Thomas thomas@mathematik.uni-Bremen.de Thomas D. Dean tomdean@ix.netcom.com Thomas David Rivers rivers@dignus.com Thomas G. McWilliams tgm@netcom.com Thomas Graichen graichen@omega.physik.fu-berlin.de Thomas König Thomas.Koenig@ciw.uni-karlsruhe.de Thomas Ptacek unknown Thomas A. Stephens tas@stephens.org Thomas Stromberg tstrombe@rtci.com Thomas Valentino Crimi tcrimi+@andrew.cmu.edu Thomas Wintergerst thomas@lemur.nord.de Þórður Ívarsson totii@est.is Timothy Jensen toast@blackened.com Tim Kientzle kientzle@netcom.com Tim Singletary tsingle@sunland.gsfc.nasa.gov Tim Wilkinson tim@sarc.city.ac.uk Timo J. Rinne tri@iki.fi Todd Miller millert@openbsd.org Tom root@majestix.cmr.no Tom tom@sdf.com Tom Gray - DCA dcasba@rain.org Tom Jobbins tom@tom.tj Tom Pusateri pusateri@juniper.net Tom Rush tarush@mindspring.com Tom Samplonius tom@misery.sdf.com Tomohiko Kurahashi kura@melchior.q.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp Tony Kimball alk@Think.COM Tony Li tli@jnx.com Tony Lynn wing@cc.nsysu.edu.tw Tony Maher Tony.Maher@eBioinformatics.com Torbjorn Granlund tege@matematik.su.se Toshihiko ARAI toshi@tenchi.ne.jp Toshihiko SHIMOKAWA toshi@tea.forus.or.jp Toshihiro Kanda candy@kgc.co.jp Toshiomi Moriki Toshiomi.Moriki@ma1.seikyou.ne.jp Trefor S. trefor@flevel.co.uk Trevor Blackwell tlb@viaweb.com Trevor Johnson trevor@jpj.net Udo Schweigert ust@cert.siemens.de Ugo Paternostro paterno@dsi.unifi.it Ulf Kieber kieber@sax.de Ulli Linzen ulli@perceval.camelot.de URATA Shuichiro s-urata@nmit.tmg.nec.co.jp Ustimenko Semen semen@iclub.nsu.ru Uwe Arndt arndt@mailhost.uni-koblenz.de Vadim Chekan vadim@gc.lviv.ua Vadim Kolontsov vadim@tversu.ac.ru Vadim Mikhailov mvp@braz.ru Valentin Nechayev netch@lucky.net Van Jacobson van@ee.lbl.gov Vasily V. Grechishnikov bazilio@ns1.ied-vorstu.ac.ru Vasim Valejev vasim@uddias.diaspro.com Vernon J. Schryver vjs@mica.denver.sgi.com Vic Abell abe@cc.purdue.edu Ville Eerola ve@sci.fi Vince Valenti vince@blue-box.net Vincent Poy vince@venus.gaianet.net Vincenzo Capuano VCAPUANO@vmprofs.esoc.esa.de Virgil Champlin champlin@pa.dec.com Vladimir A. Jakovenko vovik@ntu-kpi.kiev.ua Vladimir Kushnir kushn@mail.kar.net Vsevolod Lobko seva@alex-ua.com W. Gerald Hicks wghicks@bellsouth.net W. Richard Stevens rstevens@noao.edu Walt Howard howard@ee.utah.edu Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wayne Scott wscott@ichips.intel.com Werner Griessl werner@btp1da.phy.uni-bayreuth.de Wes Santee wsantee@wsantee.oz.net Wietse Venema wietse@wzv.win.tue.nl Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de Willem Jan Withagen wjw@surf.IAE.nl William Jolitz withheld William Liao william@tale.net Wojtek Pilorz wpilorz@celebris.bdk.lublin.pl Wolfgang Helbig helbig@ba-stuttgart.de Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@FreeBSD.org Wu Ching-hong woju@FreeBSD.ee.Ntu.edu.TW Yarema yds@ingress.com Yaroslav Terletsky ts@polynet.lviv.ua Yasuhiro Fukama yasuf@big.or.jp Yasuhito FUTATSUKI futatuki@fureai.or.jp Yen-Ming Lee leeym@bsd.ce.ntu.edu.tw Yen-Shuo Su yssu@CCCA.NCTU.edu.tw Yin-Jieh Chen yinjieh@Crazyman.Dorm13.NCTU.edu.tw Ying-Chieh Liao ijliao@csie.NCTU.edu.tw Yixin Jin yjin@rain.cs.ucla.edu Yoichi Asai yatt@msc.biglobe.ne.jp Yoshiaki Uchikawa yoshiaki@kt.rim.or.jp Yoshihiko OHTA yohta@bres.tsukuba.ac.jp Yoshihisa NAKAGAWA y-nakaga@ccs.mt.nec.co.jp Yoshikazu Goto gotoh@ae.anritsu.co.jp Yoshimasa Ohnishi ohnishi@isc.kyutech.ac.jp Yoshishige Arai ryo2@on.rim.or.jp Yuichi MATSUTAKA matutaka@osa.att.ne.jp Yujiro MIYATA miyata@bioele.nuee.nagoya-u.ac.jp Yu-Shun Wang yushunwa@isi.edu Yusuke Nawano azuki@azkey.org Yuu Yashiki s974123@cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp Yuuichi Narahara aconitum@po.teleway.ne.jp Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il Yves Fonk yves@cpcoup5.tn.tudelft.nl Yves Fonk yves@dutncp8.tn.tudelft.nl Zach Heilig zach@gaffaneys.com Zach Zurflu zach@pabst.bendnet.com Zahemszhky Gabor zgabor@code.hu Zhong Ming-Xun zmx@mail.CDPA.nsysu.edu.tw 386BSD Patch Kit Patch Contributors (in alphabetical order by first name): Adam Glass glass@postgres.berkeley.edu Adrian Hall adrian@ibmpcug.co.uk Andrey A. Chernov ache@astral.msk.su Andrew Herbert andrew@werple.apana.org.au Andrew Moore alm@netcom.com Andy Valencia ajv@csd.mot.com jtk@netcom.com Arne Henrik Juul arnej@Lise.Unit.NO Bakul Shah bvs@bitblocks.com Barry Lustig barry@ictv.com Bob Wilcox bob@obiwan.uucp Branko Lankester Brett Lymn blymn@mulga.awadi.com.AU Charles Hannum mycroft@ai.mit.edu Chris G. Demetriou cgd@postgres.berkeley.edu Chris Torek torek@ee.lbl.gov Christoph Robitschko chmr@edvz.tu-graz.ac.at Daniel Poirot poirot@aio.jsc.nasa.gov Dave Burgess burgess@hrd769.brooks.af.mil Dave Rivers rivers@ponds.uucp David Dawes dawes@physics.su.OZ.AU David Greenman dg@Root.COM Eric J. Haug ejh@slustl.slu.edu Felix Gaehtgens felix@escape.vsse.in-berlin.de Frank Maclachlan fpm@crash.cts.com Gary A. Browning gab10@griffcd.amdahl.com Gary Howland gary@hotlava.com Geoff Rehmet csgr@alpha.ru.ac.za Goran Hammarback goran@astro.uu.se Guido van Rooij guido@gvr.org Guy Harris guy@auspex.com Havard Eidnes Havard.Eidnes@runit.sintef.no Herb Peyerl hpeyerl@novatel.cuc.ab.ca Holger Veit Holger.Veit@gmd.de Ishii Masahiro, R. Kym Horsell J.T. Conklin jtc@cygnus.com Jagane D Sundar jagane@netcom.com James Clark jjc@jclark.com James Jegers jimj@miller.cs.uwm.edu James W. Dolter James da Silva jds@cs.umd.edu et al Jay Fenlason hack@datacube.com Jim Wilson wilson@moria.cygnus.com Jörg Lohse lohse@tech7.informatik.uni-hamburg.de Jörg Wunsch joerg_wunsch@uriah.heep.sax.de John Dyson John Woods jfw@eddie.mit.edu Jordan K. Hubbard jkh@whisker.hubbard.ie Julian Elischer julian@dialix.oz.au Julian Stacey jhs@FreeBSD.org Karl Dietz Karl.Dietz@triplan.com Karl Lehenbauer karl@NeoSoft.com karl@one.neosoft.com Keith Bostic bostic@toe.CS.Berkeley.EDU Ken Hughes Kent Talarico kent@shipwreck.tsoft.net Kevin Lahey kml%rokkaku.UUCP@mathcs.emory.edu kml@mosquito.cis.ufl.edu Marc Frajola marc@dev.com Mark Tinguely tinguely@plains.nodak.edu tinguely@hookie.cs.ndsu.NoDak.edu Martin Renters martin@tdc.on.ca Michael Clay mclay@weareb.org Michael Galassi nerd@percival.rain.com Mike Durkin mdurkin@tsoft.sf-bay.org Naoki Hamada nao@tom-yam.or.jp Nate Williams nate@bsd.coe.montana.edu Nick Handel nhandel@NeoSoft.com nick@madhouse.neosoft.com Pace Willisson pace@blitz.com Paul Kranenburg pk@cs.few.eur.nl Paul Mackerras paulus@cs.anu.edu.au Paul Popelka paulp@uts.amdahl.com Peter da Silva peter@NeoSoft.com Phil Sutherland philsuth@mycroft.dialix.oz.au Poul-Henning Kampphk@FreeBSD.org Ralf Friedl friedl@informatik.uni-kl.de Rick Macklem root@snowhite.cis.uoguelph.ca Robert D. Thrush rd@phoenix.aii.com Rod Taylor rod@idiotswitch.org Rodney W. Grimes rgrimes@cdrom.com Sascha Wildner swildner@channelz.GUN.de Scott Burris scott@pita.cns.ucla.edu Scott Reynolds scott@clmqt.marquette.mi.us Sean Eric Fagan sef@kithrup.com Simon J Gerraty sjg@melb.bull.oz.au sjg@zen.void.oz.au Stephen McKay syssgm@devetir.qld.gov.au Terry Lambert terry@icarus.weber.edu Terry Lee terry@uivlsi.csl.uiuc.edu Tor Egge Tor.Egge@idi.ntnu.no Warren Toomey wkt@csadfa.cs.adfa.oz.au Wiljo Heinen wiljo@freeside.ki.open.de William Jolitz withheld Wolfgang Solfrank ws@tools.de Wolfgang Stanglmeier wolf@dentaro.GUN.de Yuuki SAWADA mami@whale.cc.muroran-it.ac.jp Yuval Yarom yval@cs.huji.ac.il diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml index ecbdd35156..009aae8860 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/cutting-edge/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3213 +1,3213 @@ The Cutting Edge Restructured, reorganized, and parts updated by &a.jim; March 2000. Original work by &a.jkh;, &a.phk;, &a.jdp;, and &a.nik; with feedback from various others. Synopsis FreeBSD is under constant development between releases. For people who want to be on the cutting edge, there are several easy mechanisms for keeping your system in sync with the latest developments. Be warned—the cutting edge is not for everyone! This chapter will help you decide if you want to track the development system, or stick with one of the released versions. -CURRENT vs. -STABLE There are two development branches to FreeBSD; -CURRENT and -STABLE. This section will explain a bit about each and describe how to keep your system up-to-date with each respective tree. -CURRENT will be discussed first, then -STABLE. Staying Current with FreeBSD As you are reading this, keep in mind that -CURRENT is the - “bleeding edge” of FreeBSD development and that if you + bleeding edge of FreeBSD development and that if you are new to FreeBSD, you are most likely going to want to think twice about running it. What is FreeBSD-CURRENT? FreeBSD-CURRENT is, quite literally, nothing more than a daily snapshot of the working sources for FreeBSD. These include work in progress, experimental changes and transitional mechanisms that may or may not be present in the next official release of the software. While many of us compile almost daily from FreeBSD-CURRENT sources, there are periods of time when the sources are literally un-compilable. These problems are generally resolved as expeditiously as possible, but whether or not FreeBSD-CURRENT sources bring disaster or greatly desired functionality can literally be a matter of which part of any given 24 hour period you grabbed them in! Who needs FreeBSD-CURRENT? FreeBSD-CURRENT is made generally available for 3 primary interest groups: Members of the FreeBSD group who are actively working on some part of the source tree and for whom keeping - “current” is an absolute requirement. + current is an absolute requirement. Members of the FreeBSD group who are active testers, willing to spend time working through problems in order to ensure that FreeBSD-CURRENT remains as sane as possible. These are also people who wish to make topical suggestions on changes and the general direction of FreeBSD. Peripheral members of the FreeBSD (or some other) group who merely wish to keep an eye on things and use the current sources for reference purposes (e.g. for reading, not running). These people also make the occasional comment or contribute code. What is FreeBSD-CURRENT <emphasis>not</emphasis>? A fast-track to getting pre-release bits because you heard there is some cool new feature in there and you want to be the first on your block to have it. A quick way of getting bug fixes. - In any way “officially supported” by us. + In any way officially supported by us. We do our best to help people genuinely in one of the 3 - “legitimate” FreeBSD-CURRENT categories, but we + legitimate FreeBSD-CURRENT categories, but we simply do not have the time to provide tech support for it. This is not because we are mean and nasty people who do not like helping people out (we would not even be doing FreeBSD if we were), it is literally because we cannot answer 400 messages a day and actually work on FreeBSD! I am sure that, if given the choice between having us answer lots of questions or continuing to improve FreeBSD, most of you would vote for us improving it. Using FreeBSD-CURRENT Join the &a.current; and the &a.cvsall; . This is not just a good idea, it is essential. If you are not on the FreeBSD-CURRENT mailing list, you will not see the comments that people are making about the current state of the system and thus will probably end up stumbling over a lot of problems that others have already found and solved. Even more importantly, you will miss out on important bulletins which may be critical to your system's continued health. The &a.cvsall; mailing list will allow you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects. To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify the following in the body of your message: subscribe freebsd-current subscribe cvs-all Optionally, you can also say help and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we support. Grab the sources from ftp.FreeBSD.org. You can do this in one of three ways: Use the CTM facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection at a flat rate, this is the way to do it. Use the cvsup program with this supfile. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron and keep their sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy interface to this, simply type:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -f \ ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupit.tgz
 Use ftp. The source tree for - FreeBSD-CURRENT is always “exported” on: + FreeBSD-CURRENT is always exported on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-current/. We also use wu-ftpd which allows compressed/tar'd grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do the following to get the whole directory as a tar file: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration, use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM. If you are grabbing the sources to run, and not just look at, then grab all of current, not just selected portions. The reason for this is that various parts of the source depend on updates elsewhere, and trying to compile just a subset is almost guaranteed to get you into trouble. Before compiling current, read the Makefilein /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a make world the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.current; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. Be active! If you are running FreeBSD-CURRENT, we want to know what you have to say about it, especially if you have suggestions for enhancements or bug fixes. Suggestions with accompanying code are received most enthusiastically! Staying Stable with FreeBSD If you are using FreeBSD in a production environment and want to make sure you have the latest fixes from the -CURRENT branch, you want to be running -STABLE. This is the tree that -RELEASEs are branched from when we are putting together a new release. For example, if you have a copy of 3.4-RELEASE, that is really just a - “snapshot” from the -STABLE branch that we put on + snapshot from the -STABLE branch that we put on CDROM. In order to get any changes merged into -STABLE after the - -RELEASE, you need to “track” the -STABLE + -RELEASE, you need to track the -STABLE branch. What is FreeBSD-STABLE? FreeBSD-STABLE is our development branch for a more low-key and conservative set of changes intended for our next mainstream release. Changes of an experimental or untested nature do not go into this branch (see FreeBSD-CURRENT). Who needs FreeBSD-STABLE? If you are a commercial user or someone who puts maximum stability of their FreeBSD system before all other concerns, you should consider tracking stable. This is especially true if you have installed the most recent release (&rel.current;-RELEASE at the time of this writing) since the stable branch is effectively a bug-fix stream relative to the previous release. The stable tree endeavors, above all, to be fully compilable and stable at all times, but we do occasionally make mistakes (these are still active sources with quickly-transmitted updates, after all). We also do our best to thoroughly test fixes in current before bringing them into stable, but sometimes our tests fail to catch every case. If something breaks for you in stable, please let us know immediately! (see next section). Using FreeBSD-STABLE Join the &a.stable;. This will keep you informed of build-dependencies that may appear in stable or any other issues requiring special attention. Developers will also make announcements in this mailing list when they are contemplating some controversial fix or update, giving the users a chance to respond if they have any issues to raise concerning the proposed change. The &a.cvsall; mailing list will allow you to see the commit log entry for each change as it is made along with any pertinent information on possible side-effects. To join these lists, send mail to &a.majordomo; and specify the following in the body of your message: subscribe freebsd-stable subscribe cvs-all Optionally, you can also say help and Majordomo will send you full help on how to subscribe and unsubscribe to the various other mailing lists we support. If you are installing a new system and want it to be as stable as possible, you can simply grab the latest dated branch snapshot from ftp://releng4.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ and install it like any other release. If you are already running a previous release of FreeBSD and wish to upgrade via sources then you can easily do so from ftp.FreeBSD.org. This can be done in one of three ways: Use the CTM facility. Unless you have a good TCP/IP connection at a flat rate, this is the way to do it. Use the cvsup program with this supfile. This is the second most recommended method, since it allows you to grab the entire collection once and then only what has changed from then on. Many people run cvsup from cron to keep their sources up-to-date automatically. For a fairly easy interface to this, simply type:
&prompt.root; pkg_add -f \ ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/development/CVSup/cvsupit.tgz
 Use ftp. The source tree for - FreeBSD-STABLE is always “exported” on: + FreeBSD-STABLE is always exported on: ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/FreeBSD-stable/ We also use wu-ftpd which allows compressed/tar'd grabbing of whole trees. e.g. you see: usr.bin/lex You can do the following to get the whole directory for you as a tar file: ftp> cd usr.bin ftp> get lex.tar Essentially, if you need rapid on-demand access to the source and communications bandwidth is not a consideration, use cvsup or ftp. Otherwise, use CTM. Before compiling stable, read the Makefile in /usr/src carefully. You should at least run a make world the first time through as part of the upgrading process. Reading the &a.stable; will keep you up-to-date on other bootstrapping procedures that sometimes become necessary as we move towards the next release. Synchronizing Your Source There are various ways of using an Internet (or email) connection to stay up-to-date with any given area of the FreeBSD project sources, or all areas, depending on what interests you. The primary services we offer are Anonymous CVS, CVSup, and CTM. Anonymous CVS and CVSup use the pull model of updating sources. In the case of CVSup the user (or a cron script) invokes the cvsup program, and it interacts with a cvsupd server somewhere to bring your files up-to-date. The updates you receive are up-to-the-minute and you get them when, and only when, you want them. You can easily restrict your updates to the specific files or directories that are of interest to you. Updates are generated on the fly by the server, according to what you have and what you want to have. Anonymous CVS is quite a bit more simplistic than CVSup in that it's just an extension to CVS which allows it to pull changes directly from a remote CVS repository. CVSup can do this far more efficiently, but Anonymous CVS is easier to use. CTM, on the other hand, does not interactively compare the sources you have with those on the master archive or otherwise pull them across.. Instead, a script which identifies changes in files since its previous run is executed several times a day on the master CTM machine, any detected changes being compressed, stamped with a sequence-number and encoded for transmission over email (in printable ASCII only). Once received, - these “CTM deltas” can then be handed to the + these CTM deltas can then be handed to the &man.ctm.rmail.1; utility which will automatically decode, verify and apply the changes to the user's copy of the sources. This process is far more efficient than CVSup, and places less strain on our server resources since it is a push rather than a pull model. There are other trade-offs, of course. If you inadvertently wipe out portions of your archive, CVSup will detect and rebuild the damaged portions for you. CTM won't do this, and if you wipe some portion of your source tree out (and don't have it backed up) then you will have to start from scratch (from the most recent CVS - “base delta”) and rebuild it all with CTM or, with + base delta) and rebuild it all with CTM or, with anoncvs, simply delete the bad bits and resync. More information about Anonymous CVS, CTM, and CVSup is available further down in this section. Anonymous CVS <anchor id="anoncvs-intro">Introduction Anonymous CVS (or, as it is otherwise known, anoncvs) is a feature provided by the CVS utilities bundled with FreeBSD for synchronizing with a remote CVS repository. Among other things, it allows users of FreeBSD to perform, with no special privileges, read-only CVS operations against one of the FreeBSD project's official anoncvs servers. To use it, one simply sets the CVSROOT environment variable to point at the appropriate anoncvs server, provides the well-known password anoncvs with the cvs login command, and then uses the &man.cvs.1; command to access it like any local repository. While it can also be said that the CVSup and anoncvs services both perform essentially the same function, there are various trade-offs which can influence the user's choice of synchronization methods. In a nutshell, CVSup is much more efficient in its usage of network resources and is by far the most technically sophisticated of the two, but at a price. To use CVSup, a special client must first be installed and configured before any bits can be grabbed, and then only in the fairly large chunks which CVSup calls collections. Anoncvs, by contrast, can be used to examine anything from an individual file to a specific program (like ls or grep) by referencing the CVS module name. Of course, anoncvs is also only good for read-only operations on the CVS repository, so if it's your intention to support local development in one repository shared with the FreeBSD project bits then CVSup is really your only option. <anchor id="anoncvs-usage">Using Anonymous CVS Configuring &man.cvs.1; to use an Anonymous CVS repository is a simple matter of setting the CVSROOT environment variable to point to one of the FreeBSD project's anoncvs servers. At the time of this writing, the following servers are available: USA: :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs (Use cvs login and enter the password anoncvs when prompted.) - Since CVS allows one to “check out” virtually + Since CVS allows one to check out virtually any version of the FreeBSD sources that ever existed (or, in some cases, will exist :-), you need to be familiar with the revision () flag to &man.cvs.1; and what some of the permissible values for it in the FreeBSD Project repository are. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today. Here are the branch tags that users might be interested in (keep in mind that the only tags valid for the ports collection is HEAD). HEAD Symbolic name for the main line, or FreeBSD-CURRENT. Also the default when no revision is specified. RELENG_3 The line of development for FreeBSD-3.X, also known as FreeBSD-STABLE. RELENG_2_2 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.X, also known as 2.2-STABLE. This branch is mostly obsolete. Here are the revision tags that users might be interested in. Again, none of these are valid for the ports collection since the ports collection does not have multiple revisions. RELENG_3_4_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.4. RELENG_3_3_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.3. RELENG_3_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.2. RELENG_3_1_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.1. RELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.0. RELENG_2_2_8_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.8. RELENG_2_2_7_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.7. RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.6. RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.5. RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.2. RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.1. RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.0. When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the flag. See the &man.cvs.1; man page for more details. Examples While it really is recommended that you read the manual page for &man.cvs.1; thoroughly before doing anything, here are some quick examples which essentially show how to use Anonymous CVS: Checking out something from -CURRENT (&man.ls.1;) and deleting it again: &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs co ls &prompt.user; cvs release -d ls &prompt.user; cvs logout Checking out the version of &man.ls.1; in the 2.2-STABLE branch: &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs co -rRELENG_2_2 ls &prompt.user; cvs release -d ls &prompt.user; cvs logout Creating a list of changes (as unidiffs) to &man.ls.1; &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs rdiff -u -rRELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE -rRELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE ls &prompt.user; cvs logout Finding out what other module names can be used: &prompt.user; setenv CVSROOT :pserver:anoncvs@anoncvs.FreeBSD.org:/home/ncvs &prompt.user; cvs login At the prompt, enter the password anoncvs. &prompt.user; cvs co modules &prompt.user; more modules/modules &prompt.user; cvs release -d modules &prompt.user; cvs logout Other Resources The following additional resources may be helpful in learning CVS: CVS Tutorial from Cal Poly. Cyclic Software, commercial maintainers of CVS. CVSWeb is the FreeBSD Project web interface for CVS. <application>CVSup</application> Introduction CVSup is a software package for distributing and updating source trees from a master CVS repository on a remote server host. The FreeBSD sources are maintained in a CVS repository on a central development machine in California. With CVSup, FreeBSD users can easily keep their own source trees up to date. CVSup uses the so-called pull model of updating. Under the pull model, each client asks the server for updates, if and when they are wanted. The server waits passively for update requests from its clients. Thus all updates are instigated by the client. The server never sends unsolicited updates. Users must either run the CVSup client manually to get an update, or they must set up a cron job to run it automatically on a regular basis. The term CVSup, capitalized just so, refers to the entire software package. Its main components are the client cvsup which runs on each user's machine, and the server cvsupd which runs at each of the FreeBSD mirror sites. As you read the FreeBSD documentation and mailing lists, you may see references to sup. Sup was the predecessor of CVSup, and it served a similar purpose.CVSup is in used in much the same way as sup and, in fact, uses configuration files which are backward-compatible with sup's. Sup is no longer used in the FreeBSD project, because CVSup is both faster and more flexible. Installation The easiest way to install CVSup is to use the net/cvsup-bin port from the FreeBSD ports collection. If you prefer to build CVSup from source, you can use the net/cvsup port instead. But be forewarned: the net/cvsup port depends on the Modula-3 system, which takes a substantial amount of time, memory, and disk space to build. If you do not know anything about cvsup at all and want a single package which will install it, set up the configuration file and start the transfer via a pointy-clicky type of interface, then get the cvsupit package. Just hand it to &man.pkg.add.1; and it will lead you through the configuration process in a menu-oriented fashion. CVSup Configuration CVSup's operation is controlled by a configuration file called the supfile. There are some sample supfiles in the directory /usr/share/examples/cvsup/. The information in a supfile answers the following questions for cvsup: Which files do you want to receive? Which versions of them do you want? Where do you want to get them from? Where do you want to put them on your own machine? Where do you want to put your status files? In the following sections, we will construct a typical supfile by answering each of these questions in turn. First, we describe the overall structure of a supfile. A supfile is a text file. Comments begin with # and extend to the end of the line. Lines that are blank and lines that contain only comments are ignored. Each remaining line describes a set of files that the user wishes to receive. The line begins with the name of a - “collection”, a logical grouping of files defined by + collection, a logical grouping of files defined by the server. The name of the collection tells the server which files you want. After the collection name come zero or more fields, separated by white space. These fields answer the questions listed above. There are two types of fields: flag fields and value fields. A flag field consists of a keyword standing alone, e.g., delete or compress. A value field also begins with a keyword, but the keyword is followed without intervening white space by = and a second word. For example, release=cvs is a value field. A supfile typically specifies more than one collection to receive. One way to structure a supfile is to specify all of the relevant fields explicitly for each collection. However, that tends to make the supfile lines quite long, and it is inconvenient because most fields are the same for all of the collections in a supfile. CVSup provides a defaulting mechanism to avoid these problems. Lines beginning with the special pseudo-collection name *default can be used to set flags and values which will be used as defaults for the subsequent collections in the supfile. A default value can be overridden for an individual collection, by specifying a different value with the collection itself. Defaults can also be changed or augmented in mid-supfile by additional *default lines. With this background, we will now proceed to construct a supfile for receiving and updating the main source tree of FreeBSD-CURRENT. Which files do you want to receive? The files available via CVSup are organized into named groups called - “collections”. The collections that are + collections. The collections that are available are described here. In this example, we wish to receive the entire main source tree for the FreeBSD system. There is a single large collection src-all which will give us all of that, except the export-controlled cryptography support. Let us assume for this example that we are in the USA or Canada. Then we can get the cryptography code with one additional collection, cvs-crypto. As a first step toward constructing our supfile, we simply list these collections, one per line: src-all cvs-crypto Which version(s) of them do you want? With CVSup, you can receive virtually any version of the sources that ever existed. That is possible because the cvsupd server works directly from the CVS repository, which contains all of the versions. You specify which one of them you want using the tag= and value fields. Be very careful to specify any tag= fields correctly. Some tags are valid only for certain collections of files. If you specify an incorrect or misspelled tag, CVSup will delete files which you probably do not want deleted. In particular, use only tag=. for the ports-* collections. The tag= field names a symbolic tag in the repository. There are two kinds of tags, revision tags and branch tags. A revision tag refers to a specific revision. Its meaning stays the same from day to day. A branch tag, on the other hand, refers to the latest revision on a given line of development, at any given time. Because a branch tag does not refer to a specific revision, it may mean something different tomorrow than it means today. Here are the branch tags that users might be interested in. Keep in mind that only the tag=. is relevant for the ports collection. tag=. The main line of development, also known as FreeBSD-CURRENT. The . is not punctuation; it is the name of the tag. Valid for all collections. RELENG_3 The line of development for FreeBSD-3.X, also known as FreeBSD-STABLE. RELENG_2_2 The line of development for FreeBSD-2.2.X, also known as 2.2-STABLE. Here are the revision tags that users might be interested in. Again, these are not valid for the ports collection. RELENG_3_4_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.4. tag=RELENG_3_3_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.3. tag=RELENG_3_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.2. tag=RELENG_3_1_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.1. tag=RELENG_3_0_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-3.0. tag=RELENG_2_2_8_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.8. tag=RELENG_2_2_7_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.7. tag=RELENG_2_2_6_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.6. tag=RELENG_2_2_5_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.5. tag=RELENG_2_2_2_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.2. tag=RELENG_2_2_1_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.1. tag=RELENG_2_2_0_RELEASE FreeBSD-2.2.0. Be very careful to type the tag name exactly as shown. CVSup cannot distinguish between valid and invalid tags. If you misspell the tag, CVSup will behave as though you had specified a valid tag which happens to refer to no files at all. It will delete your existing sources in that case. When you specify a branch tag, you normally receive the latest versions of the files on that line of development. If you wish to receive some past version, you can do so by specifying a date with the value field. The &man.cvsup.1; manual page explains how to do that. For our example, we wish to receive FreeBSD-CURRENT. We add this line at the beginning of our supfile: *default tag=. There is an important special case that comes into play if you specify neither a tag= field nor a date= field. In that case, you receive the actual RCS files directly from the server's CVS repository, rather than receiving a particular version. Developers generally prefer this mode of operation. By maintaining a copy of the repository itself on their systems, they gain the ability to browse the revision histories and examine past versions of files. This gain is achieved at a large cost in terms of disk space, however. Where do you want to get them from? We use the host= field to tell cvsup where to obtain its updates. Any of the CVSup mirror sites will do, though you should try to select one that is close to you in cyberspace. In this example we will use a fictional FreeBSD distribution site, cvsup666.FreeBSD.org: *default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org You will need to change the host to one that actually exists before running CVSup. On any particular run of cvsup, you can override the host setting on the command line, with . Where do you want to put them on your own machine? The prefix= field tells cvsup where to put the files it receives. In this example, we will put the source files directly into our main source tree, /usr/src. The src directory is already implicit in the collections we have chosen to receive, so this is the correct specification: *default prefix=/usr Where should cvsup maintain its status files? The cvsup client maintains certain status files in what - is called the “base” directory. These files + is called the base directory. These files help CVSup to work more efficiently, by keeping track of which updates you have already received. We will use the standard base directory, /usr/local/etc/cvsup: *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup This setting is used by default if it is not specified in the supfile, so we actually do not need the above line. If your base directory does not already exist, now would be a good time to create it. The cvsup client will refuse to run if the base directory does not exist. Miscellaneous supfile settings: There is one more line of boiler plate that normally needs to be present in the supfile: *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress release=cvs indicates that the server should get its information out of the main FreeBSD CVS repository. This is virtually always the case, but there are other possibilities which are beyond the scope of this discussion. delete gives CVSup permission to delete files. You should always specify this, so that CVSup can keep your source tree fully up-to-date. CVSup is careful to delete only those files for which it is responsible. Any extra files you happen to have will be left strictly alone. use-rel-suffix is ... arcane. If you really want to know about it, see the &man.cvsup.1; manual page. Otherwise, just specify it and do not worry about it. compress enables the use of gzip-style compression on the communication channel. If your network link is T1 speed or faster, you probably should not use compression. Otherwise, it helps substantially. Putting it all together: Here is the entire supfile for our example: *default tag=. *default host=cvsup666.FreeBSD.org *default prefix=/usr *default base=/usr/local/etc/cvsup *default release=cvs delete use-rel-suffix compress src-all cvs-crypto Running <application>CVSup</application> You are now ready to try an update. The command line for doing this is quite simple: &prompt.root; cvsup supfile where supfile is of course the name of the supfile you have just created. Assuming you are running under X11, cvsup will display a GUI window with some buttons to do the usual - things. Press the “go” button, and watch it + things. Press the go button, and watch it run. Since you are updating your actual /usr/src tree in this example, you will need to run the program as root so that cvsup has the permissions it needs to update your files. Having just created your configuration file, and having never used this program before, that might understandably make you nervous. There is an easy way to do a trial run without touching your precious files. Just create an empty directory somewhere convenient, and name it as an extra argument on the command line: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/dest &prompt.root; cvsup supfile /var/tmp/dest The directory you specify will be used as the destination directory for all file updates. CVSup will examine your usual files in /usr/src, but it will not modify or delete any of them. Any file updates will instead land in /var/tmp/dest/usr/src. CVSup will also leave its base directory status files untouched when run this way. The new versions of those files will be written into the specified directory. As long as you have read access to /usr/src, you do not even need to be root to perform this kind of trial run. If you are not running X11 or if you just do not like GUIs, you should add a couple of options to the command line when you run cvsup: &prompt.root; cvsup -g -L 2 supfile The tells cvsup not to use its GUI. This is automatic if you are not running X11, but otherwise you have to specify it. The tells cvsup to print out the details of all the file updates it is doing. There are three levels of verbosity, from to . The default is 0, which means total silence except for error messages. There are plenty of other options available. For a brief list of them, type cvsup -H. For more detailed descriptions, see the manual page. Once you are satisfied with the way updates are working, you can arrange for regular runs of cvsup using &man.cron.8;. Obviously, you should not let cvsup use its GUI when running it from cron. <application>CVSup</application> File Collections The file collections available via CVSup are organized hierarchically. There are a few large collections, and they are divided into smaller sub-collections. Receiving a large collection is equivalent to receiving each of its sub-collections. The hierarchical relationships among collections are reflected by the use of indentation in the list below. The most commonly used collections are src-all, cvs-crypto, and ports-all. The other collections are used only by small groups of people for specialized purposes, and some mirror sites may not carry all of them. cvs-all release=cvs The main FreeBSD CVS repository, excluding the export-restricted cryptography code. distrib release=cvs Files related to the distribution and mirroring of FreeBSD. doc-all release=cvs Sources for the FreeBSD handbook and other documentation. ports-all release=cvs The FreeBSD ports collection. ports-archivers release=cvs Archiving tools. ports-astro release=cvs Astronomical ports. ports-audio release=cvs Sound support. ports-base release=cvs Miscellaneous files at the top of /usr/ports. ports-benchmarks release=cvs Benchmarks. ports-biology release=cvs Biology. ports-cad release=cvs Computer aided design tools. ports-chinese release=cvs Chinese language support. ports-comms release=cvs Communication software. ports-converters release=cvs character code converters. ports-databases release=cvs Databases. ports-deskutils release=cvs Things that used to be on the desktop before computers were invented. ports-devel release=cvs Development utilities. ports-editors release=cvs Editors. ports-emulators release=cvs Emulators for other operating systems. ports-ftp release=cvs FTP client and server utilities. ports-games release=cvs Games. ports-german release=cvs German language support. ports-graphics release=cvs Graphics utilities. ports-irc release=cvs Internet Relay Chat utilities. ports-japanese release=cvs Japanese language support. ports-java release=cvs Java utilities. ports-korean release=cvs Korean language support. ports-lang release=cvs Programming languages. ports-mail release=cvs Mail software. ports-math release=cvs Numerical computation software. ports-mbone release=cvs MBone applications. ports-misc release=cvs Miscellaneous utilities. ports-net release=cvs Networking software. ports-news release=cvs USENET news software. ports-palm release=cvs Software support for 3Com Palm(tm) series. ports-print release=cvs Printing software. ports-russian release=cvs Russian language support. ports-security release=cvs Security utilities. ports-shells release=cvs Command line shells. ports-sysutils release=cvs System utilities. ports-textproc release=cvs text processing utilities (does not include desktop publishing). ports-vietnamese release=cvs Vietnamese language support. ports-www release=cvs Software related to the World Wide Web. ports-x11 release=cvs Ports to support the X window system. ports-x11-clocks release=cvs X11 clocks. ports-x11-fm release=cvs X11 file managers. ports-x11-fonts release=cvs X11 fonts and font utilities. ports-x11-toolkits release=cvs X11 toolkits. ports-x11-servers X11 servers. ports-x11-wm X11 window managers. src-all release=cvs The main FreeBSD sources, excluding the export-restricted cryptography code. src-base release=cvs Miscellaneous files at the top of /usr/src. src-bin release=cvs User utilities that may be needed in single-user mode (/usr/src/bin). src-contrib release=cvs Utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/contrib). src-etc release=cvs System configuration files (/usr/src/etc). src-games release=cvs Games (/usr/src/games). src-gnu release=cvs Utilities covered by the GNU Public License (/usr/src/gnu). src-include release=cvs Header files (/usr/src/include). src-kerberos5 release=cvs Kerberos5 security package (/usr/src/kerberos5). src-kerberosIV release=cvs KerberosIV security package (/usr/src/kerberosIV). src-lib release=cvs Libraries (/usr/src/lib). src-libexec release=cvs System programs normally executed by other programs (/usr/src/libexec). src-release release=cvs Files required to produce a FreeBSD release (/usr/src/release). src-sbin release=cvs System utilities for single-user mode (/usr/src/sbin). src-share release=cvs Files that can be shared across multiple systems (/usr/src/share). src-sys release=cvs The kernel (/usr/src/sys). src-tools release=cvs Various tools for the maintenance of FreeBSD (/usr/src/tools). src-usrbin release=cvs User utilities (/usr/src/usr.bin). src-usrsbin release=cvs System utilities (/usr/src/usr.sbin). www release=cvs The sources for the World Wide Web data. cvs-crypto release=cvs The export-restricted cryptography code. src-crypto release=cvs Export-restricted utilities and libraries from outside the FreeBSD project, used relatively unmodified (/usr/src/crypto). src-eBones release=cvs Kerberos and DES (/usr/src/eBones). Not used in current releases of FreeBSD. src-secure release=cvs DES (/usr/src/secure). src-sys-crypto release=cvs Kernel cryptography code (/usr/src/sys/crypto). distrib release=self The CVSup server's own configuration files. Used by CVSup mirror sites. gnats release=current The GNATS bug-tracking database. mail-archive release=current FreeBSD mailing list archive. www release=current The installed World Wide Web data. Used by WWW mirror sites. For more information For the CVSup FAQ and other information about CVSup, see The CVSup Home Page. Most FreeBSD-related discussion of CVSup takes place on the &a.hackers;. New versions of the software are announced there, as well as on the &a.announce;. Questions and bug reports should be addressed to the author of the program at cvsup-bugs@polstra.com. Using <command>make world</command> Once you have synchronised your local source tree against a particular version of FreeBSD (stable, current and so on) you must then use the source tree to rebuild the system. Take a backup I cannot stress highly enough how important it is to take a backup of your system before you do this. While remaking the world is (as long as you follow these instructions) an easy task to do, there will inevitably be times when you make mistakes, or when mistakes made by others in the source tree render your system unbootable. Make sure you have taken a backup. And have a fixit floppy to hand. I have never needed to use them, and, touch wood, I never will, but it is always better to be safe than sorry. Subscribe to the right mailing list The -STABLE and -CURRENT FreeBSD code branches are, by their nature, in development. People that contribute to FreeBSD are human, and mistakes occasionally happen. Sometimes these mistakes can be quite harmless, just causing your system to print a new diagnostic warning. Or the change may be catastrophic, and render your system unbootable or destroy your filesystems (or worse). If problems like these occur, a heads up is posted to the appropriate mailing list, explaining the nature of the problem and which systems it affects. And an all clear announcement is posted when the problem has been solved. If you try and track -STABLE or -CURRENT and do not read the stable@FreeBSD.org or current@FreeBSD.org mailing lists then you are asking for trouble. Read <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> Before you do anything else, read /usr/src/UPDATING (or the equivalent file wherever you have a copy of the source code). This file should contain important information about problems you might encounter, or specify the order in which you might have to run certain commands. If UPDATING contradicts something you read here, UPDATING takes precedence. Reading UPDATING is not an acceptable substitute for subscribing to the correct mailing list, as described previously. The two requirements are complementary, not exclusive. Check <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> Examine the file /etc/make.conf. This contains some default defines for Everything is, by default, commented out. Uncomment those entries that look useful. For a typical user (not a developer), you will probably want to uncomment the CFLAGS and NOPROFILE definitions. If your machine has a floating point unit (386DX, 486DX, Pentium and up class machines) then you can also uncomment the HAVE_FPU line.</para> <para>This definition was removed for version 2.2.2 and up of FreeBSD.</para> </note> <para>Examine the other definitions (COPTFLAGS, NOPORTDOCS and so on) and decide if they are relevant to you.</para> </sect2> <sect2> <title>Update <filename>/etc/group</filename> The /etc directory contains a large part of your system's configuration information, as well as scripts that are run at system startup. Some of these scripts change from version to version of FreeBSD. Some of the configuration files are also used in the day to day running of the system. In particular, /etc/group. There have been occasions when the installation part of make world has expected certain usernames or groups to exist. When performing an upgrade it is likely that these groups did not exist. This caused problems when upgrading. The most recent example of this is when the ppp subsystem were installed using a non-existent (for them) group name. The solution is to examine /usr/src/etc/group and compare its list of groups with your own. If they are any groups in the new file that are not in your file then copy them over. Similarly, you should rename any groups in /etc/group which have the same GID but a different name to those in /usr/src/etc/group. If you are feeling particularly paranoid, you can check your system to see which files are owned by the group you are renaming or deleting. &prompt.root; find / -group GID -print will show all files owned by group GID (which can be either a group name or a numeric group ID). You may want to compile the system in single user mode. Apart from the obvious benefit of making things go slightly faster, reinstalling the system will touch a lot of important system files, all the standard system binaries, libraries, include files and so on. Changing these on a running system (particularly if you have active users on their at the time) is asking for trouble.</para> <para>That said, if you are confident, you can omit this step.</para> <note> <title>Version 2.2.5 and above As described in more detail below, versions 2.2.5 and above of FreeBSD have separated the building process from the installing process. You can therefore build the new system in multi-user mode, and then drop to single user mode to do the installation. As the superuser, you can execute &prompt.root; from a running system, which will drop it to single user mode. Alternatively, reboot the system, and at the boot prompt, enter the flag. The system will then boot single user. At the shell prompt you should then run: &prompt.root; fsck -p &prompt.root; mount -u / &prompt.root; mount -a -t ufs &prompt.root; swapon -a This checks the filesystems, remounts / read/write, mounts all the other UFS filesystems referenced in /etc/fstab and then turns swapping on. Remove <filename>/usr/obj</filename> As parts of the system are rebuilt they are placed in directories which (by default) go under /usr/obj. The directories shadow those under /usr/src. You can speed up the make world process, and possibly save yourself some dependency headaches by removing this directory as well. Some files below /usr/obj will have the immutable flag set (see &man.chflags.1; for more information) which must be removed first. &prompt.root; cd /usr/obj &prompt.root; chflags -R noschg * &prompt.root; rm -rf * <title>All versions You must be in the /usr/src directory... &prompt.root; cd /usr/src (unless, of course, your source code is elsewhere, in which case change to that directory instead). To rebuild the world you use the &man.make.1; command. This command reads instructions from the Makefile which describes how the programs that comprise FreeBSD should be rebuilt, the order they should be built in, and so on. The general format of the command line you will type is as follows: &prompt.root; make In this example, is an option that you would pass to &man.make.1;. See the &man.make.1; manual page for an example of the options you can pass. passes a variable to the Makefile. The behavior of the Makefile is controlled by these variables. These are the same variables as are set in /etc/make.conf, and this provides another way of setting them. &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true target is another way of specifying that profiled libaries should not be built, and corresponds with the NOPROFILE= true # Avoid compiling profiled libraries lines in /etc/make.conf. target tells &man.make.1; what you want to do. Each Makefile defines a number of different targets, and your choice of target determines what happens. Some targets are listed in the Makefile, but are not meant for you to run. Instead, they are used by the build process to break out the steps necessary to rebuild the system into a number of sub-steps. Most of the time you won't need to pass any parameters to &man.make.1;, and so your command like will look like this: &prompt.root; make target Saving the output It's a good idea to save the output you get from running &man.make.1; to another file. If something goes wrong you will have a copy of the error message, and a complete list of where the process had got to. While this might not help you in diagnosing what has gone wrong, it can help others if you post your problem to one of the FreeBSD mailing lists. The easiest way to do this is to use the &man.script.1; command, with a parameter that specifies the name of the file to save all output to. You would do this immediately before remaking the world, and then type exit when the process has finished. &prompt.root; script /var/tmp/mw.out Script started, output file is /var/tmp/mw.out &prompt.root; make world … compile, compile, compile … &prompt.root; exit Script done, … If you do this, do not save the output in /tmp. This directory may be cleared next time you reboot. A better place to store it is in /var/tmp (as in the previous example) or in root's home directory. Version 2.2.2 and below /usr/src/Makefile contains the world target, which will rebuild the entire system and then install it. Use it like this: &prompt.root; make world Version 2.2.5 and above Beginning with version 2.2.5 of FreeBSD (actually, it was first created on the -CURRENT branch, and then retrofitted to -STABLE midway between 2.2.2 and 2.2.5) the world target has been split in two. buildworld and installworld. As the names imply, buildworld builds a complete new tree under /usr/obj, and installworld installs this tree on the current machine. This is very useful for 2 reasons. First, it allows you to do the build safe in the knowledge that no components of your running system will be affected. The build is self hosted. Because of this, you can safely run buildworld on a machine running in multi-user mode with no fear of ill-effects. I still recommend you run the installworld part in single user mode though. Secondly, it allows you to use NFS mounts to upgrade multiple machines on your network. If you have three machines, A, B and C that you want to upgrade, run make buildworld and make installworld on A. B and C should then NFS mount /usr/src and /usr/obj from A, and you can then run make installworld to install the results of the build on B and C. The world target still exists, and you can use it exactly as shown for version 2.2.2. make world runs make buildworld followed by make installworld. If you do the make buildworld and make installworld commands separately, you must pass the same parameters to &man.make.1; each time. If you run: &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true buildworld you must install the results with: &prompt.root; make -DNOPROFILE=true installworld otherwise it would try and install profiled libraries that had not been built during the make buildworld phase. -CURRENT and above If you are tracking -CURRENT you can also pass the option to make. This lets make spawn several simultaneous processes. This is most useful on true multi-CPU machines. However, since much of the compiling process is IO bound rather than CPU bound it is also useful on single CPU machines. On a typical single-CPU machine you would run: &prompt.root; make -j4 target &man.make.1; will then have up to 4 processes running at any one time. Empirical evidence posted to the mailing lists shows this generally gives the best performance benefit. If you have a multi-CPU machine and you are using an SMP configured kernel try values between 6 and 10 and see how they speed things up. Be aware that (at the time of writing) this is still experimental, and commits to the source tree may occasionally break this feature. If the world fails to compile using this parameter try again without it before you report any problems. Timings Assuming everything goes well you have anywhere between an hour and a half and a day or so to wait. As a general rule of thumb, a 200MHz P6 with more than 32MB of RAM and reasonable SCSI disks will complete make world in about an hour and a half. A 32MB P133 will take 5 or 6 hours. Revise these figures down if your machines are slower… Update <filename>/etc</filename> Remaking the world will not update certain directories (in particular, /etc, /var and /usr) with new or changed configuration files. This is something you have to do by hand, eyeball, and judicious use of &man.diff.1;. You cannot just copy over the files from /usr/src/etc to /etc and have it work. Some of these files must be installed first. This is because the /usr/src/etc directory is not a copy of what your /etc directory should look like. In addition, there are files that should be in /etc that are not in /usr/src/etc. The simplest way to do this is to install the files into a new directory, and then work through them looking for differences. Backup your existing <filename>/etc</filename> Although, in theory, nothing is going to touch this directory automatically, it is always better to be sure. So copy your existing /etc directory somewhere safe. Something like: &prompt.root; cp -Rp /etc /etc.old does a recursive copy, preserves times, ownerships on files and suchlike. You need to build a dummy set of directories to install the new /etc and other files into. I generally choose to put this dummy directory in /var/tmp/root, and there are a number of subdirectories required under this as well. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/etc &prompt.root; make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root distrib-dirs distribution This will build the necessary directory structure and install the files. A lot of the subdirectories that have been created under /var/tmp/root are empty and should be deleted. The simplest way to do this is to: &prompt.root; cd /var/tmp/root &prompt.root; find -d . -type d | /usr/bin/perl -lne \ 'opendir(D,$_);@f=readdir(D);rmdir if $#f == 1;closedir(D);' This does a depth first search, examines each directory, and if the number of files in that directory is 2 ( /var/tmp/root now contains all the files that should be placed in appropriate locations below /. You now have to go through each of these files, determining how they differ with your existing files. Note that some of the files that will have been installed in /var/tmp/root have a leading /var/tmp/root/ and /var/tmp/root/root/, although there may be others (depending on when you are reading this. Make sure you use The simplest way to do this is to use &man.diff.1; to compare the two files. &prompt.root; diff /etc/shells /var/tmp/root/etc/shells This will show you the differences between your /etc/shells file and the new /etc/shells file. Use these to decide whether to merge in changes that you have made or whether to copy over your old file. Name the new root directory (<filename>/var/tmp/root</filename>)with a timestamp, so you can easily compare differences between versions Frequently remaking the world means that you have to update /etc frequently as well, which can be a bit of a chore. You can speed this process up by keeping a copy of the last set of changed files that you merged into /etc. The following procedure gives one idea of how to do this. Make the world as normal. When you want to update /etc and the other directories, give the target directory a name based on the current date. If you were doing this on the 14th of February 1998 you could do the following. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root-19980214 &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/etc &prompt.root; make DESTDIR=/var/tmp/root-19980214 \ distrib-dirs distribution Merge in the changes from this directory as outlined above. Do not remove the /var/tmp/root-19980214 directory when you have finished. When you have downloaded the latest version of the source and remade it, follow step 1. This will give you a new directory, which might be called /var/tmp/root-19980221 (if you wait a week between doing updates). You can now see the differences that have been made in the intervening week using &man.diff.1; to create a recursive diff between the two directories. &prompt.root; cd /var/tmp &prompt.root; diff -r root-19980214 root-19980221 Typically, this will be a much smaller set of differences than those between /var/tmp/root-19980221/etc and /etc. Because the set of differences is smaller, it is easier to migrate those changes across into your /etc directory. You can now remove the older of the two /var/tmp/root-* directories. &prompt.root; rm -rf /var/tmp/root-19980214 Repeat this process every time you need to merge in changes to /etc. You can use &man.date.1; to automate the generation of the directory names. &prompt.root; mkdir /var/tmp/root-`date "+%Y%m%d"` Update <filename>/dev</filename> DEVFS If you are using DEVFS then this is probably unnecessary. For safety's sake, this is a multistep process. Copy /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV to /dev. &prompt.root; cp /var/tmp/root/dev/MAKEDEV /dev Now, take a snapshot of your current /dev. This snapshot needs to contain the permissions, ownerships, major and minor numbers of each filename, but it should not contain the timestamps. The easiest way to do this is to use &man.awk.1; to strip out some of the information. &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ls -l | awk '{print $1, $2, $3, $4, $5, $6, $NF}' > /var/tmp/dev.out Remake all the devices. &prompt.root; Write another snapshot of the directory, this time to /var/tmp/dev2.out. Now look through these two files for any devices that you missed creating. There should not be any, but it is better to be safe than sorry. &prompt.root; diff /var/tmp/dev.out /var/tmp/dev2.out You are most likely to notice disk slice discrepancies which will involve commands such as &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV sd0s1 to recreate the slice entries. Your precise circumstances may vary. Update <filename>/stand</filename> This step is included only for completeness, it can safely be omitted. For completenesses sake you may want to update the files in /stand as well. These files consist of hard links to the /stand/sysinstall binary. This binary should be statically linked, so that it can work when no other filesystems (and in particular /usr) have been mounted. &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/release/sysinstall &prompt.root; make all install Source older than 2 April 1998 If your source code is older than 2nd April 1998, or the Makefile version is not 1.68 or higher (for FreeBSD current and 3.X systems) or 1.48.2.21 or higher (for 2.2.X systems) you will need to add the NOSHARED=yes option, like so; &prompt.root; make NOSHARED=yes all install Compile and install a new kernel To take full advantage of your new system you should recompile the kernel. This is practically a necessity, as certain memory structures may have changed, and programs like &man.ps.1; and &man.top.1; will fail to work until the kernel and source code versions are the same. Follow the handbook instructions for compiling a new kernel. If you have previously built a custom kernel then carefully examine the LINT config file to see if there are any new options which you should take advantage of. A previous version of this document suggested rebooting before rebuilding the kernel. This is wrong because: Commands like &man.ps.1;, &man.ifconfig.8;, and &man.sysctl.8; may fail. This could leave your machine unable to connect to the network. Basic utilities like &man.mount.8; could fail, making it impossible to mount /, /usr and so on. This is unlikely if you are tracking a -STABLE candidate, but more likely if you are tracking -CURRENT during a large merge. Loadable kernel modules (LKMs on pre-3.X systems, KLDs on 3.X systems and above) built as part of the world may crash an older kernel. For these reasons, it is always best to rebuild and install a new kernel before rebooting. You should build your new kernel after you have completed make world (or make installworld). If you do not want to do this (perhaps you want to confirm that the kernel builds before updating your system) you may have problems. These may be because your &man.config.8; command is out of date with respect to your kernel sources. In this case you could build your kernel with the new version of &man.config.8; &prompt.root; /usr/obj/usr/src/usr.sbin/config/config KERNELNAME This may not work in all cases. It is recommended that you complete make world (or make installworld) before compiling a new kernel. You are now done. After you have verified that everything appears to be in the right place you can reboot the system. A simple &man.fastboot.8; should do it.</para> <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>fastboot</userinput></screen> </sect2> <sect2> <title>Finished You should now have successfully upgraded your FreeBSD system. Congratulations. You may notice small problems due to things that you have missed. For example, I once deleted /etc/magic as part of the upgrade and merge to /etc, and the file command stopped working. A moment's thought meant that &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/usr.bin/file &prompt.root; was sufficient to fix that one. <qandaentry> <question> <para>Do I need to re-make the world for every change?</para> </question> <answer> <para>There is no easy answer to this one, as it depends on the nature of the change. For example, I have just run CVSup, and it has shown the following files as being updated since I last ran it;</para> <screen><filename>src/games/cribbage/instr.c</filename> <filename>src/games/sail/pl_main.c</filename> <filename>src/release/sysinstall/config.c</filename> <filename>src/release/sysinstall/media.c</filename> <filename>src/share/mk/bsd.port.mk</filename></screen> <para>There is nothing in there that I would re-make the world for. I would go to the appropriate sub-directories and <command>make all install</command>, and that's about it. But if something major changed, for example <filename>src/lib/libc/stdlib</filename> then I would either re-make the world, or at least those parts of it that are statically linked (as well as anything else I might have added that is statically linked).</para> <para>At the end of the day, it is your call. You might be happy re-making the world every fortnight say, and let changes accumulate over that fortnight. Or you might want to re-make just those things that have changed, and are confident you can spot all the dependencies.</para> <para>And, of course, this all depends on how often you want to upgrade, and whether you are tracking -STABLE or -CURRENT.</para> </answer> </qandaentry> <qandaentry> <question> <para>My compile failed with lots of signal 12 (or other signal number) errors. What has happened?</para> </question> <answer> <para>This is normally indicative of hardware problems. (Re)making the world is an effective way to stress test your hardware, and will frequently throw up memory problems. These normally manifest themselves as the compiler mysteriously dying on receipt of strange signals.</para> <para>A sure indicator of this is if you can restart the make and it dies at a different point in the process.</para> <para>In this instance there is little you can do except start swapping around the components in your machine to determine which one is failing.</para> </answer> </qandaentry> <qandaentry> <question> <para>Can I remove <filename>/usr/obj</filename> when I have finished?</para> </question> <answer> <para>That depends on how you want to make the world on future occasions.</para> <para><filename>/usr/obj</filename> contains all the object files that were produced during the compilation phase. Normally, one of the first steps in the <quote/make world/ process is to remove this directory and start afresh. In this case, keeping <filename>/usr/obj</filename> around after you have finished makes little sense, and will free up a large chunk of disk space (currently about 150MB).</para> <para>However, if you know what you are doing you can have <quote/make world/ skip this step. This will make subsequent builds run much faster, since most of sources will not need to be recompiled. The flip side of this is that subtle dependency problems can creep in, causing your build to fail in odd ways. This frequently generates noise on the FreeBSD mailing lists, when one person complains that their build has failed, not realising that it is because they have tried to cut corners.</para> <para>If you want to live dangerously then make the world, passing the <makevar>NOCLEAN</makevar> definition to make, like this:</para> <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>make -DNOCLEAN world</userinput></screen> </answer> </qandaentry> <qandaentry> <question> <para>Can interrupted builds be resumed?</para> </question> <answer> <para>This depends on how far through the process you got before you found a problem.</para> <para><emphasis>In general</emphasis> (and this is not a hard and fast rule) the <quote>make world</quote> process builds new copies of essential tools (such as &man.gcc.1;, and &man.make.1;>) and the system libraries. These tools and libraries are then installed. The new tools and libraries are then used to rebuild themselves, and are installed again. The entire system (now including regular user programs, such as &man.ls.1; or &man.grep.1;) is then rebuilt with the new system files.</para> <para>If you are at the last state, and you know it (because you have looked through the output that you were storing) then you can (fairly safely) do</para> <screen><emphasis>… fix the problem …</emphasis> &prompt.root; <userinput>cd /usr/src</userinput> &prompt.root; <userinput>make -DNOCLEAN all</userinput></screen> <para>This will not undo the work of the previous <quote>make world</quote>.</para> <para>If you see the message <screen>-------------------------------------------------------------- Building everything.. --------------------------------------------------------------</screen> in the <quote>make world</quote> output then it is probably fairly safe to do so.</para> <para>If you do not see that message, or you are not sure, then it is always better to be safe than sorry, and restart the build from scratch.</para> </answer> </qandaentry> <qandaentry> <question> <para>Can I use one machine as a <emphasis/master/ to upgrade lots of machines (NFS)?</para> </question> <answer> <para>People often ask on the FreeBSD mailing lists whether they can do all the compiling on one machine, and then use the results of that compile to <command>make install</command> on to other machines around the network.</para> <para>This is not something I have done, so the suggestions below are either from other people, or deduced from the Makefiles.</para> <para>The precise approach to take depends on your version of FreeBSD</para> <para>You must still upgrade <filename>/etc</filename> and <filename>/dev</filename> on the target machines after doing this.</para> <para>For 2.1.7 and below, Antonio Bemfica suggested the following approach:</para> <screen>Date: Thu, 20 Feb 1997 14:05:01 -0400 (AST) From: Antonio Bemfica <bemfica@militzer.me.tuns.ca> To: freebsd-questions@FreeBSD.org Message-ID: <Pine.BSI.3.94.970220135725.245C-100000@militzer.me.tuns.ca> Josef Karthauser asked: > Has anybody got a good method for upgrading machines on a network First make world, etc. on your main machine Second, mount / and /usr from the remote machine: main_machine% mount remote_machine:/ /mnt main_machine% mount remote_machine:/usr /mnt/usr Third, do a 'make install' with /mnt as the destination: main_machine% make install DESTDIR=/mnt Repeat for every other remote machine on your network. It works fine for me. Antonio</screen> <para>This mechanism will only work (to the best of my knowledge) if you can write to <filename>/usr/src</filename> on the NFS server, as the <maketarget>install</maketarget> target in 2.1.7 and below needed to do this.</para> <para>Midway between 2.1.7 and 2.2.0 the <quote>reinstall</quote> target was committed. You can use the approach exactly as outlined above for 2.1.7, but use <quote>reinstall</quote> instead of <quote>install</quote>.</para> <para>This approach <emphasis>does not</emphasis> require write access to the <filename>/usr/src</filename> directory on the NFS server.</para> <para>There was a bug introduced in this target between versions 1.68 and 1.107 of the Makefile, which meant that write access to the NFS server <emphasis>was</emphasis> required. This bug was fixed before version 2.2.0 of FreeBSD was released, but may be an issue of you have an old server still running -STABLE from this era.</para> <para>For version 2.2.5 and above, you can use the <quote>buildworld</quote> and <quote>installworld</quote> targets. Use them to build a source tree on one machine, and then NFS mount <filename>/usr/src</filename> and <filename>/usr/obj</filename> on the remote machine and install it there.</para> </answer> </qandaentry> <qandaentry> <question> <para>How can I speed up making the world?</para> <itemizedlist> <listitem> <para>Run in single user mode.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Put the <filename>/usr/src</filename> and <filename>/usr/obj</filename> directories on separate filesystems held on separate disks. If possible, put these disks on separate disk controllers.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Better still, put these filesystems across separate disks using the <quote>ccd</quote> (concatenated disk driver) device.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Turn off profiling (set <quote>NOPROFILE=true</quote> in <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>). You almost certainly do not need it.</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Also in <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>, set <quote>CFLAGS</quote> to something like <quote>-O -pipe</quote>. The optimisation <quote>-O2</quote> is much slower, and the optimisation difference between <quote>-O</quote> and <quote>-O2</quote> is normally negligible. <quote>-pipe</quote> lets the compiler use pipes rather than temporary files for communication, which saves disk access (at the expense of memory).</para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>Pass the <option>-j<n></option> option to make (if you are running a sufficiently recent version of FreeBSD) to run multiple processes in parallel. This helps regardless of whether you have a single or a multi processor machine.</para> </listitem> <listitem><para>The filesystem holding <filename>/usr/src</filename> can be mounted (or remounted) with the <quote>noatime</quote> option. This stops the time files in the filesystem were last accessed from being written to the disk. You probably do not need this information anyway. <note> <para><quote>noatime</quote> is in version 2.2.0 and above.</para> </note> <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -u -o noatime /usr/src</userinput></screen> <warning> <para>The example assumes <filename>/usr/src</filename> is on its own filesystem. If it is not (if it is a part of <filename>/usr</filename> for example) then you will need to use that filesystem mount point, and not <filename>/usr/src</filename>.</para> </warning> </para> </listitem> <listitem> <para>The filesystem holding <filename>/usr/obj</filename> can be mounted (or remounted) with the <quote>async</quote> option. This causes disk writes to happen asynchronously. In other words, the write completes immediately, and the data is written to the disk a few seconds later. This allows writes to be clustered together, and can be a dramatic performance boost.</para> <warning> <para>Keep in mind that this option makes your filesystem more fragile. With this option there is an increased chance that, should power fail, the filesystem will be in an unrecoverable state when the machine restarts.</para> <para>If <filename>/usr/obj</filename> is the only thing on this filesystem then it is not a problem. If you have other, valuable data on the same filesystem then ensure your backups are fresh before you enable this option.</para> </warning> <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -u -o async /usr/obj</userinput></screen> <warning> <para>As above, if <filename>/usr/obj</filename> is not on its own filesystem, replace it in the example with the name of the appropriate mount point.</para> </warning> </listitem> </itemizedlist> </question> </qandaentry> </qandaset> </sect2> </sect1> </chapter> <!-- Local Variables: mode: sgml sgml-declaration: "../chapter.decl" sgml-indent-data: t sgml-omittag: nil sgml-always-quote-attributes: t sgml-parent-document: ("../book.sgml" "part" "chapter") End: --> diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml index 4bcdeb6a17..24c97212b4 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml @@ -1,882 +1,882 @@ <!-- The FreeBSD Documentation Project - $FreeBSD: doc/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml,v 1.17 2000/04/03 02:15:38 chris Exp $ + $FreeBSD: doc/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml,v 1.18 2000/04/30 22:10:06 nik Exp $ --> <chapter id="disks"> <title>Disks Synopsis This chapter covers how to use disks, whether physical, memory, or networked, on FreeBSD. BIOS Drive Numbering Before you install and configure FreeBSD on your system, there is an important subject that you should be aware of if, especially if you have multiple hard drives. In a PC running DOS or any of the BIOS-dependent operating systems (WINxxx), the BIOS is able to abstract the normal disk drive order, and the operating system goes along with the change. This allows the user to boot from a disk drive other than the so-called primary master. This is especially convenient for some users who have found that the simplest and cheapest way to keep a system backup is to buy an identical second hard drive, and perform routine copies of the first drive to the second drive using Ghost or XCOPY. Then, if the first drive fails, or is attacked by a virus, or is scribbled upon by an operating system defect, he can easily recover by instructing the BIOS to logically swap the drives. It's like switching the cables on the drives, but without having to open the case. More expensive systems with SCSI controllers often include BIOS extensions which allow the SCSI drives to be re-ordered in a similar fashion for up to seven drives. A user who is accustomed to taking advantage of these features may become surprised when the results with FreeBSD are not as expected. FreeBSD does not use the BIOS, and does not know the logical BIOS drive mapping. This can lead to very perplexing situations, especially when drives are physically identical in geometry, and have also been made as data clones of one another. When using FreeBSD, always restore the BIOS to natural drive numbering before installing FreeBSD, and then leave it that way. If you need to switch drives around, then do so, but do it the hard way, and open the case and move the jumpers and cables. An illustration from the files of Bill and Fred's Exceptional Adventures: Bill breaks-down an older WIntel box to make another FreeBSD box for Fred. Bill installs a single SCSI drive as SCSI unit zero, and installs FreeBSD on it. Fred begins using the system, but after several days notices that the older SCSI drive is reporting numerous soft errors, and reports this fact to Bill. After several more days, Bill decides it's time to address the situation, so he grabs an identical SCSI drive from the disk drive "archive" in the back room. An initial surface scan indicates that this drive is functioning well, so Bill installs this drive as SCSI unit four, and makes an image copy from drive zero to drive four. Now that the new drive is installed and functioning nicely, Bill decides that it's a good idea to start using it, so he uses features in the SCSI BIOS to re-order the disk drives so that the system boots from SCSI unit four. FreeBSD boots and runs just fine. Fred continues his work for several days, and soon Bill and Fred decide that it's time for a new adventure -- time to upgrade to a newer version of FreeBSD. Bill removes SCSI unit zero because it was a bit flakey, and replaces it with another identical disk drive from the "archive." Bill then installs the new version of FreeBSD onto the new SCSI unit zero using Fred's magic internet FTP floppies. The installation goes well. Fred uses the new version of FreeBSD for a few days, and certifies that it is good enough for use in the engineering department...it's time to copy all of his work from the old version. So Fred mounts SCSI unit four (the latest copy of the older FreeBSD version). Fred is dismayed to find that none of his precious work is present on SCSI unit four. Where did the data go? When Bill made an image copy of the original SCSI unit zero onto SCSI unit four, unit four became the "new clone," When Bill re-ordered the SCSI BIOS so that he could boot from SCSI unit four, he was only fooling himself. FreeBSD was still running on SCSI unit zero. Making this kind of BIOS change will cause some or all of the Boot and Loader code to be fetched from the selected BIOS drive, but when the FreeBSD kernel drivers take-over, the BIOS drive numbering will be ignored, and FreeBSD will transition back to normal drive numbering. In the illustration at hand, the system continued to operate on the original SCSI unit zero, and all of Fred's data was there, not on SCSI unit four. The fact that the system appeared to be running on SCSI unit four was simply an artifact of human expectations. We are delighted to mention that no data bytes were killed or harmed in any way by our discovery of this phenomenon. The older SCSI unit zero was retrieved from the bonepile, and all of Fred's work was returned to him, (and now Bill knows that he can count as high as zero). Although SCSI drives were used in this illustration, the concepts apply equally to IDE drives. Disk Naming Physical drives come in two main flavours, IDE, or SCSI; but there are also drives backed by RAID controllers, flash memory, and so forth. Since these behave quite differently, they have their own drivers and devices. Physical Disk Naming Conventions Drive type Drive device name IDE hard drives ad in 4.0-RELEASE, wd before 4.0-RELEASE. IDE CDROM drives acd in 3.1-RELEASE, wcd before 4.0-RELEASE. SCSI hard drives da from 3.0-RELEASE, sd before 3.0-RELEASE. SCSI CDROM drives cd Assorted non-standard CDROM drives mcd for Mitsumi CD-ROM, scd for Sony CD-ROM, matcd for Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM Floppy drives fd SCSI tape drives sa from 3.0-RELEASE, st before 3.0-RELEASE. IDE tape drives ast from 4.0-RELEASE, wst before 4.0-RELEASE. Flash drives fla for DiskOnChip Flash device from 3.3-RELEASE. RAID drives myxd for Mylex, and amrd for AMI MegaRAID, idad for Compaq Smart RAID. from 4.0-RELEASE. id between 3.2-RELEASE and 4.0-RELEASE.
Slices and Partitions Physical disks usually contain slices, unless they are dangerously dedicated. Slice numbers follow the device name, prefixed with an s: da0s1. Slices, dangerously dedicated physical drives, and other drives contain partitions, which represented as letters from a to h. b is reserved for swap partitions, and c is an unused partition the size of the entire slice or drive. This is explained in . Mounting and Unmounting Filesystems The filesystem is best visualized as a tree, rooted, as it were, at /. /dev, /usr, and the other directories in the root directory are branches, which may have their own branches, such as /usr/local, and so on. There are various reasons to house certain of these directories on separate filesystems. /var contains log, spool, and various types of temporary files, and as such, may get filled up. Filling up the root filesystem isn't a good idea, so splitting /var from / is often a good idea. Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on other filesystems is if they are to be housed on separate physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, or CDROM drives. The fstab File During the boot process, filesystems listed in /etc/fstab are automatically mounted (unless they are listed with ). The /etc/fstab file contains a list of lines of the following format: device /mount-point fstype options dumpfreq passno device is a device name (which should exist), as explained in the Disk naming conventions above. mount-point is a directory (which should exist), on which to mount the filesystem. fstype is the filesystem type to pass to &man.mount.8;. The default FreeBSD filesystem is ufs. options is either for read-write filesystems, or for read-only filesystems, followed by any other options that may be needed. A common option is for filesystems not normally mounted during the boot sequence. Other options in the &man.mount.8; manual page. dumpfreq is the number of days the filesystem should be dumped, and passno is the pass number during which the filesystem is mounted during the boot sequence. The mount Command The &man.mount.8; command is what is ultimately used to mount filesystems. In its most basic form, you use: &prompt.root; mount device mountpoint There are plenty of options, as mentioned in the &man.mount.8; manual page, but the most common are: mount options Mount all filesystems in /etc/fstab, as modified by , if given. Do everything but actually mount the filesystem. Force the mounting the filesystem. Mount the filesystem read-only. fstype Mount the given filesystem as the given filesystem type, or mount only filesystems of the given type, if given the option. ufs is the default filesystem type. Update mount options on the filesystem. Be verbose. Mount the filesystem read-write. The takes a comma-separated list of the options, including the following: nodev Do not interpret special devices on the filesystem. Useful security option. noexec Do not allow execution of binaries on this filesystem. Useful security option. nosuid Do not interpret setuid or setgid flags on the filesystem. Useful security option. The umount Command The umount command takes, as a parameter, one of a mountpoint, a device name, or the or option. All forms take to force unmounting, and for verbosity. and are used to unmount all mounted filesystems, possibly modified by the filesystem types listed after . , however, doesn't attempt to unmount the root filesystem. Adding Disks Originally contributed by &a.obrien; 26 April 1998 Lets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that currently only has a single drive. First turn off the computer and install the drive in the computer following the instructions of the computer, controller, and drive manufacturer. Due the wide variations of procedures to do this, the details are beyond the scope of this document. Login as user root. After you've installed the drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will be da1 and we want to mount it on /1. (if you are adding an IDE drive substitute wd for da) Because FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must take into account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different from the traditional BSD partitions. A PC disk has up to four BIOS partition entries. If the disk is going to be truly dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the dedicated mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will have to live with in one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD calls the PC BIOS partitions, slices so as not to confuse them with traditional BSD partitions. You may also use slices on a disk that is dedicated to FreeBSD, but used in a computer that also has another operating system installed. This is to not confuse the fdisk utility of the other operating system. In the slice case the drive will be added as /dev/da1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk, unit number 1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1), and e BSD partition. In the dedicated case, the drive will be added simply as /dev/da1e. Using sysinstall You may use /stand/sysinstall to partition and label a new disk using its easy to use menus. Either login as user root or use the su command. Run /stand/sysinstall and enter the Configure menu. With in the FreeBSD Configuration Menu, scroll down and select the Partition item. Next you should be presented with a list of hard drives installed in your system. If you do not see da1 listed, you need to recheck your physical installation and dmesg output in the file /var/run/dmesg.boot. Select da1 to enter the FDISK Partition Editor. Choose A to use the entire disk for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to remain cooperative with any future possible operating systems, answer YES. Write the changes to the disk using W. Now exit the FDISK editor using q. Next you will be asked about the Master Boot Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system, choose None. Next enter the Disk Label Editor. This is where you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A disk can have up to eight partitions, labeled a-h. A few of the partition labels have special uses. The a partition is used for the root partition (/). Thus only your system disk (e.g, the disk you boot from) should have an a partition. The b partition is used for swap partitions, and you may have many disks with swap partitions. The c partition addresses the entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire FreeBSD slice in slice mode. The other partitions are for general use. Sysinstall's Label editor favors the e partition for non-root, non-swap partitions. With in the Label editor, create a single file system using C. When prompted if this will be a FS (file system) or swap, choose FS and give a mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a disk in post-install mode, Sysinstall will not create entries in /etc/fstab for you, so the mount point you specify isn't important. You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and create a file system on it. Do this by hitting W. Ignore any errors from Sysinstall that it could not mount the new partition. Exit the Label Editor and Sysinstall completely. The last step is to edit /etc/fstab to add an entry for your new disk. Using Command Line Utilities * Using Slices Dedicated If you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage will be done by them. IBM's OS/2 however, will - “appropriate” any partition it finds which it doesn't + appropriate any partition it finds which it doesn't understand. &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 bs=1k count=1 &prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da1 auto &prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # create the `e' partition &prompt.root; newfs -d0 /dev/rda1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 An alternate method is: &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 count=2 &prompt.root; disklabel /dev/rda1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin &prompt.root; newfs /dev/rda1e &prompt.root; mkdir -p /1 &prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e &prompt.root; mount /1 Virtual Disks: Network, Memory, and File-Based Filesystems Besides the disks you physically insert into your computer; floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth, other forms of disks are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual disks. These include network filesystems such as the Network Filesystem and Coda, memory-based filesystems such as md and file-backed filesystems created by vnconfig. vnconfig: file-backed filesystem &man.vnconfig.8; configures and enables vnode pseudo disk devices. A vnode is a representation of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that &man.vnconfig.8; uses files to create and operate a filesystem. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD images kept in files. To mount an existing filesystem image: Using vnconfig to mount an existing filesystem image &prompt.root; vnconfig vn0 diskimage &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt To create a new filesystem image with vnconfig: Creating a New File-Backed Disk with vnconfig &prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; vnconfig -s labels -c vn0 newimage &prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0 auto &prompt.root; newfs vn0c Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated /dev/rvn0c: 10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors 5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g) super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at: 32 &prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/vn0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt md: Memory Filesystem md is a simple, efficient means to do memory filesystems. Simply take a filesystem you've prepared with, for example, &man.vnconfig.8;, and: md memory disk &prompt.root; dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0 5120+0 records in 5120+0 records out &prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c /mnt &prompt.root; df /mnt Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on /dev/md0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mnt Disk Quotas Quotas are an optional feature of the operating system that allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user, or members of a group, may allocate on a per-file system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user from consuming all of the available disk space. Configuring Your System to Enable Disk Quotas Before attempting to use disk quotas it is necessary to make sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by adding the following line to your kernel configuration file: options QUOTA The stock GENERIC kernel does not have this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer to the Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel section for more information on kernel configuration. Next you will need to enable disk quotas in /etc/rc.conf. This is done by adding the line: -enable_quotas=“YES” +enable_quotas=YES For finer control over your quota startup, there is an additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup, the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the quotacheck program. The quotacheck facility insures that the data in the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system. This is a very time consuming process that will significantly affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to skip this step, a variable is made available for the purpose: -check_quotas=“NO” +check_quotas=NO If you are running FreeBSD prior to 3.2-RELEASE, the configuration is simpler, and consists of only one variable. Set the following in your /etc/rc.conf: -check_quotas=“YES” +check_quotas=YES Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your file systems. To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the userquota option to the options field in the /etc/fstab entry for the file system you want to to enable quotas on. For example: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2 Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the groupquota option instead of the userquota keyword. To enable both user and group quotas, change the entry as follows: /dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2 By default the quota files are stored in the root directory of the file system with the names quota.user and quota.group for user and group quotas respectively. See man fstab for more information. Even though that man page says that you can specify an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this properly. At this point you should reboot your system with your new kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so there is no need to manually create any zero length quota files. In the normal course of operations you should not be required to run the quotacheck, quotaon, or quotaoff commands manually. However, you may want to read their man pages just to be familiar with their operation. Setting Quota Limits Once you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to run: &prompt.root; quota -v You should see a one line summary of disk usage and current quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled on. You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the edquota command. You have several options on how to enforce limits on the amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down into two categories; hard and soft limits. A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches their hard limit they may not make any further allocations on the file system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of 500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail. Soft limits on the other hand can be exceeded for a limited amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period, which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her soft limit longer than their grace period, the soft limit will turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed. When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period will be reset. The following is an example of what you might see when you run the edquota command. When the edquota command is invoked, you are placed into the editor specified by the EDITOR environment variable, or in the vi editor if the EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit the quota limits. &prompt.root; edquota -u test Quotas for user test: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) /usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60) You will normally see two lines for each file system that has quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify the quota limit. For example, to raise this users block limit from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of 500 and a hard limit of 600, change: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75) to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600) The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the editor. Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of uids. This can be done by use of the option on the edquota command. First, assign the desired quota limit to a user, and then run edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For example, if user test has the desired quota limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota limits for uids 10,000 through 19,999: &prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999 See man edquota for more detailed information. Checking Quota Limits and Disk Usage You can use either the quota or the repquota commands to check quota limits and disk usage. The quota command can be used to check individual user and group quotas and disk usage. Only the super-user may examine quotas and usage for other users, or for groups that they are not a member of. The repquota command can be used to get a summary of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas enabled. The following is some sample output from the quota -v command for a user that has quota limits on two file systems. Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002): Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace /usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60 /usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60 On the /usr file system in the above example this user is currently 15 blocks over their soft limit of 50 blocks and has 5 days of their grace period left. Note the asterisk * which indicates that the user is currently over their quota limit. Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk space on will not show up in the output from the quota command, even if they have a quota limit assigned for that file system. The option will display those file systems, such as the /usr/var file system in the above example. Quotas over NFS Quotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server. The &man.rpc.rquotad.8; daemon makes quota information available to the &man.quota.1; command on NFS clients, allowing users on those machines to see their quota statistics. Enable rpc.rquotad in /etc/inetd.conf like so: rquotad/1 dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotad Now restart inetd: &prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid` diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml index 50ee7da00a..4a90d4b5d9 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/eresources/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1454 +1,1454 @@ Resources on the Internet Contributed by &a.jkh;. The rapid pace of FreeBSD progress makes print media impractical as a means of following the latest developments. Electronic resources are the best, if not often the only, way stay informed of the latest advances. Since FreeBSD is a volunteer effort, the user community itself also - generally serves as a “technical support department” of sorts, + generally serves as a technical support department of sorts, with electronic mail and USENET news being the most effective way of reaching that community. The most important points of contact with the FreeBSD user community are outlined below. If you are aware of other resources not mentioned here, please send them to the &a.doc;so that they may also be included. Mailing Lists Though many of the FreeBSD development members read USENET, we cannot always guarantee that we will get to your questions in a timely fashion (or at all) if you post them only to one of the comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.* groups. By addressing your questions to the appropriate mailing list you will reach both us and a concentrated FreeBSD audience, invariably assuring a better (or at least faster) response. The charters for the various lists are given at the bottom of this document. Please read the charter before joining or sending mail to any list. Most of our list subscribers now receive many hundreds of FreeBSD related messages every day, and by setting down charters and rules for proper use we are striving to keep the signal-to-noise ratio of the lists high. To do less would see the mailing lists ultimately fail as an effective communications medium for the project. Archives are kept for all of the mailing lists and can be searched using the FreeBSD World Wide Web server. The keyword searchable archive offers an excellent way of finding answers to frequently asked questions and should be consulted before posting a question. List Summary General lists: The following are general lists which anyone is free (and encouraged) to join: List Purpose freebsd-advocacy FreeBSD Evangelism freebsd-announce Important events and project milestones freebsd-arch Architecture and design discussions freebsd-bugs Bug reports freebsd-chat Non-technical items related to the FreeBSD community freebsd-current Discussion concerning the use of FreeBSD-current freebsd-isp Issues for Internet Service Providers using FreeBSD freebsd-jobs FreeBSD employment and consulting opportunities freebsd-newbies New FreeBSD users activities and discussions freebsd-policy FreeBSD Core team policy decisions. Low volume, and read-only freebsd-questions User questions and technical support freebsd-stable Discussion concerning the use of FreeBSD-stable Technical lists: The following lists are for technical discussion. You should read the charter for each list carefully before joining or sending mail to one as there are firm guidelines for their use and content. List Purpose freebsd-afs Porting AFS to FreeBSD freebsd-alpha Porting FreeBSD to the Alpha freebsd-database Discussing database use and development under FreeBSD freebsd-doc Creating FreeBSD related documents freebsd-emulation Emulation of other systems such as Linux/DOS/Windows freebsd-fs Filesystems freebsd-hackers General technical discussion freebsd-hardware General discussion of hardware for running FreeBSD freebsd-i18n FreeBSD Internationalization freebsd-ipfw Technical discussion concerning the redesign of the IP firewall code freebsd-isdn ISDN developers freebsd-java Java developers and people porting JDKs to FreeBSD freebsd-mobile Discussions about mobile computing freebsd-mozilla Porting mozilla to FreeBSD freebsd-net Networking discussion and TCP/IP/source code freebsd-platforms Concerning ports to non-Intel architecture platforms freebsd-ports Discussion of the ports collection freebsd-ppc Porting FreeBSD to the PowerPC freebsd-scsi The SCSI subsystem freebsd-security Security issues freebsd-security-notifications Security notifications freebsd-small Using FreeBSD in embedded applications freebsd-smp Design discussions for [A]Symmetric MultiProcessing freebsd-sparc Porting FreeBSD to Sparc systems freebsd-tokenring Support Token Ring in FreeBSD Limited lists: The following lists are for more specialized (and demanding) audiences and are probably not of interest to the general public. It is also a good idea to establish a presence in the technical lists before joining one of these limited lists so that you'll understand the communications etiquette involved. List Purpose freebsd-core FreeBSD core team freebsd-hubs People running mirror sites (infrastructural support) freebsd-install Installation development freebsd-user-groups User group coordination freebsd-www Maintainers of www.freebsd.org CVS lists: The following lists are for people interested in seeing the log messages for changes to various areas of the source tree. They are Read-Only lists and should not have mail sent to them. List Source area Area Description (source for) cvs-all /usr/src All changes to the tree (superset) How to Subscribe All mailing lists live on FreeBSD.org, so to post to a given list you simply mail to <listname@FreeBSD.org>. It will then be redistributed to mailing list members world-wide. To subscribe to a list, send mail to &a.majordomo; and include subscribe <listname> [<optional address>] in the body of your message. For example, to subscribe yourself to freebsd-announce, you'd do: &prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.org subscribe freebsd-announce ^D If you want to subscribe yourself under a different name, or submit a subscription request for a local mailing list (this is more efficient if you have several interested parties at one site, and highly appreciated by us!), you would do something like: &prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.org subscribe freebsd-announce local-announce@somesite.com ^D Finally, it is also possible to unsubscribe yourself from a list, get a list of other list members or see the list of mailing lists again by sending other types of control messages to majordomo. For a complete list of available commands, do this: &prompt.user; mail majordomo@FreeBSD.org help ^D Again, we would like to request that you keep discussion in the technical mailing lists on a technical track. If you are only interested in important announcements then it is suggested that you join freebsd-announce, which is intended only for infrequent traffic. List Charters All FreeBSD mailing lists have certain basic rules which must be adhered to by anyone using them. Failure to comply with these guidelines will result in two (2) written warnings from the FreeBSD Postmaster postmaster@FreeBSD.org, after which, on a third offense, the poster will removed from all FreeBSD mailing lists and filtered from further posting to them. We regret that such rules and measures are necessary at all, but today's Internet is a pretty harsh environment, it would seem, and many fail to appreciate just how fragile some of its mechanisms are. Rules of the road: The topic of any posting should adhere to the basic charter of the list it is posted to, e.g. if the list is about technical issues then your posting should contain technical discussion. Ongoing irrelevant chatter or flaming only detracts from the value of the mailing list for everyone on it and will not be tolerated. For free-form discussion on no particular topic, the freebsd-chat freebsd-chat@FreeBSD.org mailing list is freely available and should be used instead. No posting should be made to more than 2 mailing lists, and only to 2 when a clear and obvious need to post to both lists exists. For most lists, there is already a great deal of subscriber overlap and except for the most esoteric mixes (say "-stable & -scsi"), there really is no reason to post to more than one list at a time. If a message is sent to you in such a way that multiple mailing lists appear on the Cc line then the cc line should also be trimmed before sending it out again. You are still responsible for your own cross-postings, no matter who the originator might have been. Personal attacks and profanity (in the context of an argument) are not allowed, and that includes users and developers alike. Gross breaches of netiquette, like excerpting or reposting private mail when permission to do so was not and would not be forthcoming, are frowned upon but not specifically enforced. However, there are also very few cases where such content would fit within the charter of a list and it would therefore probably rate a warning (or ban) on that basis alone. Advertising of non-FreeBSD related products or services is strictly prohibited and will result in an immediate ban if it is clear that the offender is advertising by spam. Individual list charters: FREEBSD-AFS Andrew File System This list is for discussion on porting and using AFS from CMU/Transarc FREEBSD-ANNOUNCE Important events / milestones This is the mailing list for people interested only in occasional announcements of significant FreeBSD events. This includes announcements about snapshots and other releases. It contains announcements of new FreeBSD capabilities. It may contain calls for volunteers etc. This is a low volume, strictly moderated mailing list. FREEBSD-ARCH Architecture and design discussions This is a moderated list for discussion of FreeBSD architecture. Messages will mostly be kept technical in nature, with (rare) exceptions for other messages the moderator deems need to reach all the subscribers of the list. Examples of suitable topics; How to re-vamp the build system to have several customized builds running at the same time. What needs to be fixed with VFS to make Heidemann layers work. How do we change the device driver interface to be able to use the ame drivers cleanly on many buses and architectures? How do I write a network driver? The moderator reserves the right to do minor editing (spell-checking, grammar correction, trimming) of messages that are posted to the list. The volume of the list will be kept low, which may involve having to delay topics until an active discussion has been resolved. FREEBSD-BUGS Bug reports This is the mailing list for reporting bugs in FreeBSD Whenever possible, bugs should be submitted using the &man.send-pr.1; command or the WEB interface to it. FREEBSD-CHAT Non technical items related to the FreeBSD community This list contains the overflow from the other lists about non-technical, social information. It includes discussion about whether Jordan looks like a toon ferret or not, whether or not to type in capitals, who is drinking too much coffee, where the best beer is brewed, who is brewing beer in their basement, and so on. Occasional announcements of important events (such as upcoming parties, weddings, births, new jobs, etc) can be made to the technical lists, but the follow ups should be directed to this -chat list. FREEBSD-CORE FreeBSD core team This is an internal mailing list for use by the core members. Messages can be sent to it when a serious FreeBSD-related matter requires arbitration or high-level scrutiny. FREEBSD-CURRENT Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-current This is the mailing list for users of freebsd-current. It includes warnings about new features coming out in -current that will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must be - taken to remain -current. Anyone running “current” + taken to remain -current. Anyone running current must subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-CURRENT-DIGEST Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-current This is the digest version of the freebsd-current mailing list. The digest consists of all messages sent to freebsd-current bundled together and mailed out as a single message. The average digest size is about 40kB. This list is Read-Only and should not be posted to. FREEBSD-DOC Documentation project This mailing list is for the discussion of issues and projects related to the creation of documentation for FreeBSD. The members of this mailing list are collectively referred to as - “The FreeBSD Documentation Project”. It is an open + The FreeBSD Documentation Project. It is an open list; feel free to join and contribute! FREEBSD-FS Filesystems Discussions concerning FreeBSD filesystems. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-IPFW IP Firewall This is the forum for technical discussions concerning the redesign of the IP firewall code in FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-ISDN ISDN Communications This is the mailing list for people discussing the development of ISDN support for FreeBSD. FREEBSD-JAVA Java Development This is the mailing list for people discussing the development of significant Java applications for FreeBSD and the porting and maintenance of JDKs. FREEBSD-HACKERS Technical discussions This is a forum for technical discussions related to FreeBSD. This is the primary technical mailing list. It is for individuals actively working on FreeBSD, to bring up problems or discuss alternative solutions. Individuals interested in following the technical discussion are also welcome. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-HACKERS-DIGEST Technical discussions This is the digest version of the freebsd-hackers mailing list. The digest consists of all messages sent to freebsd-hackers bundled together and mailed out as a single message. The average digest size is about 40kB. This list is Read-Only and should not be posted to. FREEBSD-HARDWARE General discussion of FreeBSD hardware General discussion about the types of hardware that FreeBSD runs on, various problems and suggestions concerning what to buy or avoid. FREEBSD-HUBS Mirror sites Announcements and discussion for people who run FreeBSD mirror sites. FREEBSD-INSTALL Installation discussion This mailing list is for discussing FreeBSD installation development for the future releases. FREEBSD-ISP Issues for Internet Service Providers This mailing list is for discussing topics relevant to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) using FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-NEWBIES Newbies activities discussion We cover any of the activities of newbies that are not already dealt with elsewhere, including: independent learning and problem solving techniques, finding and using resources and asking for help elsewhere, how to use mailing lists and which lists to use, general chat, making mistakes, boasting, sharing ideas, stories, moral (but not technical) support, and taking an active part in the FreeBSD community. We take our problems and support questions to freebsd-questions, and use freebsd-newbies to meet others who are doing the same things that we do as newbies. FREEBSD-PLATFORMS Porting to Non-Intel platforms Cross-platform FreeBSD issues, general discussion and proposals for non-Intel FreeBSD ports. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-POLICY Core team policy decisions This is a low volume, read-only mailing list for FreeBSD Core Team Policy decisions. FREEBSD-PORTS Discussion of - “ports” + ports - Discussions concerning FreeBSD's “ports - collection” (/usr/ports), proposed + Discussions concerning FreeBSD's ports + collection (/usr/ports), proposed ports, modifications to ports collection infrastructure and general coordination efforts. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-QUESTIONS User questions This is the mailing list for questions about FreeBSD. You - should not send “how to” questions to the technical + should not send how to questions to the technical lists unless you consider the question to be pretty technical. FREEBSD-QUESTIONS-DIGEST User questions This is the digest version of the freebsd-questions mailing list. The digest consists of all messages sent to freebsd-questions bundled together and mailed out as a single message. The average digest size is about 40kB. FREEBSD-SCSI SCSI subsystem This is the mailing list for people working on the scsi subsystem for FreeBSD. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-SECURITY Security issues FreeBSD computer security issues (DES, Kerberos, known security holes and fixes, etc). This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-SECURITY-NOTIFICATIONS Security Notifications Notifications of FreeBSD security problems and fixes. This is not a discussion list. The discussion list is FreeBSD-security. FREEBSD-SMALL This list discusses topics related to unusually small and embedded FreeBSD installations. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-STABLE Discussions about the use of FreeBSD-stable This is the mailing list for users of freebsd-stable. It includes warnings about new features coming out in -stable that will affect the users, and instructions on steps that must be - taken to remain -stable. Anyone running “stable” + taken to remain -stable. Anyone running stable should subscribe to this list. This is a technical mailing list for which strictly technical content is expected. FREEBSD-USER-GROUPS User Group Coordination List This is the mailing list for the coordinators from each of the local area Users Groups to discuss matters with each other and a designated individual from the Core Team. This mail list should be limited to meeting synopsis and coordination of projects that span User Groups. Usenet Newsgroups In addition to two FreeBSD specific newsgroups, there are many others in which FreeBSD is discussed or are otherwise relevant to FreeBSD users. Keyword searchable archives are available for some of these newsgroups from courtesy of Warren Toomey wkt@cs.adfa.edu.au. BSD Specific Newsgroups comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.announce comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc Other Unix Newsgroups of Interest comp.unix comp.unix.questions comp.unix.admin comp.unix.programmer comp.unix.shell comp.unix.user-friendly comp.security.unix comp.sources.unix comp.unix.advocacy comp.unix.misc comp.bugs.4bsd comp.bugs.4bsd.ucb-fixes comp.unix.bsd X Window System comp.windows.x.i386unix comp.windows.x comp.windows.x.apps comp.windows.x.announce comp.windows.x.intrinsics comp.windows.x.motif comp.windows.x.pex comp.emulators.ms-windows.wine World Wide Web Servers http://www.FreeBSD.org/ — Central Server. http://www.au.FreeBSD.org/ — Australia/1. http://www2.au.FreeBSD.org/ — Australia/2. http://www3.au.FreeBSD.org/ — Australia/3. http://freebsd.itworks.com.au/ — Australia/4. http://www.br.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/ — Brazil/1. http://www2.br.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/ — Brazil/2. http://www3.br.FreeBSD.org/ — Brazil/3. http://www.bg.FreeBSD.org/ — Bulgaria. http://www.ca.FreeBSD.org/ — Canada/1. http://www2.ca.FreeBSD.org/ — Canada/2. http://www3.ca.FreeBSD.org/ — Canada/3. http://www.cn.FreeBSD.org/ — China. http://www.cz.FreeBSD.org/ — Czech Republic/1. http://www2.cz.FreeBSD.org/ — Czech Republic/2. http://www.dk.FreeBSD.org/ — Denmark. http://www.ee.FreeBSD.org/ — Estonia. http://www.fi.FreeBSD.org/ — Finland. http://www.fr.FreeBSD.org/ — France. http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/ — Germany/1. http://www1.de.FreeBSD.org/ — Germany/2. http://www2.de.FreeBSD.org/ — Germany/3. http://www.gr.FreeBSD.org/ — Greece. http://www.hu.FreeBSD.org/ — Hungary. http://www.is.FreeBSD.org/ — Iceland. http://www.ie.FreeBSD.org/ — Ireland. http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/www.FreeBSD.org/ — Japan. http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/ — Korea/1. http://www2.kr.FreeBSD.org/ — Korea/2. http://www.lv.FreeBSD.org/ — Latvia. http://rama.asiapac.net/freebsd/ — Malaysia. http://www.nl.FreeBSD.org/ — Netherlands/1. http://www2.nl.FreeBSD.org/ — Netherlands/2. http://www.no.FreeBSD.org/ — Norway. http://www.nz.FreeBSD.org/ — New Zeland. http://www.pl.FreeBSD.org/ — Poland/1. http://www2.pl.FreeBSD.org/ — Poland/2. http://www.pt.FreeBSD.org/ — Portugal/1. http://www2.pt.FreeBSD.org/ — Portugal/2. http://www3.pt.FreeBSD.org/ — Portugal/3. http://www.ro.FreeBSD.org/ — Romania. http://www.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/1. http://www2.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/2. http://www3.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/3. http://www4.ru.FreeBSD.org/ — Russia/4. http://freebsd.s1web.com/ — Singapore. http://www.sk.FreeBSD.org/ — Slovak Republic. http://www.si.FreeBSD.org/ — Slovenia. http://www.es.FreeBSD.org/ — Spain. http://www.za.FreeBSD.org/ — South Africa/1. http://www2.za.FreeBSD.org/ — South Africa/2. http://www.se.FreeBSD.org/ — Sweden. http://www.ch.FreeBSD.org/ — Switzerland. http://www.tw.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/data/ — Taiwan. http://www.tr.FreeBSD.org/ — Turkey. http://www.ua.FreeBSD.org/www.freebsd.org/ — Ukraine/1. http://www2.ua.FreeBSD.org/ — Ukraine/2. http://www4.ua.FreeBSD.org/ — Ukraine/Crimea. http://www.uk.FreeBSD.org/ — United Kingdom. http://www6.FreeBSD.org/ — USA/Oregon. http://www2.FreeBSD.org/ — USA/Texas. Email Addresses The following user groups provide FreeBSD related email addresses for their members. The listed administrator reserves the right to revoke the address if it is abused in any way. Domain Facilities User Group Administrator ukug.uk.FreeBSD.org Forwarding only freebsd-users@uk.FreeBSD.org Lee Johnston lee@uk.FreeBSD.org Shell Accounts The following user groups provide shell accounts for people who are actively supporting the FreeBSD project. The listed administrator reserves the right to cancel the account if it is abused in any way. Host Access Facilities Administrator storm.uk.FreeBSD.org ssh only Read-only cvs, personal webspace, email &a.brian dogma.freebsd-uk.eu.org Telnet/FTP/SSH E-Mail, Webspace, Anonymous FTP Lee Johnston lee@uk.FreeBSD.org diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/hw/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/hw/chapter.sgml index 834fd1ec8a..b2f9347a91 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/hw/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/hw/chapter.sgml @@ -1,5874 +1,5874 @@ PC Hardware compatibility Issues of hardware compatibility are among the most troublesome in the computer industry today and FreeBSD is by no means immune to trouble. In this respect, FreeBSD's advantage of being able to run on inexpensive commodity PC hardware is also its liability when it comes to support for the amazing variety of components on the market. While it would be impossible to provide a exhaustive listing of hardware that FreeBSD supports, this section serves as a catalog of the device drivers included with FreeBSD and the hardware each drivers supports. Where possible and appropriate, notes about specific products are included. You may also want to refer to the kernel configuration file section in this handbook for a list of supported devices. As FreeBSD is a volunteer project without a funded testing department, we depend on you, the user, for much of the information contained in this catalog. If you have direct experience of hardware that does or does not work with FreeBSD, please let us know by sending e-mail to the &a.doc;. Questions about supported hardware should be directed to the &a.questions; (see Mailing Lists for more information). When submitting information or asking a question, please remember to specify exactly what version of FreeBSD you are using and include as many details of your hardware as possible. Resources on the Internet The following links have proven useful in selecting hardware. Though some of what you see won't necessarily be specific (or even applicable) to FreeBSD, most of the hardware information out there is OS independent. Please check with the FreeBSD hardware guide to make sure that your chosen configuration is supported before making any purchases. The Pentium Systems Hardware Performance Guide Sample Configurations The following list of sample hardware configurations by no means constitutes an endorsement of a given hardware vendor or product by The FreeBSD Project. This information is provided only as a public service and merely catalogs some of the experiences that various individuals have had with different hardware combinations. Your mileage may vary. Slippery when wet. Beware of dog. Jordan's Picks I have had fairly good luck building workstation and server configurations with the following components. I can't guarantee that you will too, nor that any of the companies here will remain - “best buys” forever. I will try, when I can, to keep this + best buys forever. I will try, when I can, to keep this list up-to-date but cannot obviously guarantee that it will be at any given time. Motherboards For Pentium Pro (P6) systems, I'm quite fond of the Tyan S1668 dual-processor motherboard as well as the Intel PR440FX motherboard with on-board SCSI WIDE and 100/10MB Intel Etherexpress NIC. You can build a dandy little single or dual processor system (which is supported in FreeBSD 3.0) for very little cost now that the Pentium Pro 180/256K chips have fallen so greatly in price, but no telling how much longer this will last. For the Pentium II, I'm rather partial to the ASUS P2l97-S motherboard with the on-board Adaptec SCSI WIDE controller. For Pentium machines, the ASUS P55T2P4 motherboard appears to be a good choice for mid-to-high range Pentium server and workstation systems. Those wishing to build more fault-tolerant systems should also be sure to use Parity memory or, for truly 24/7 applications, ECC memory. ECC memory does involve a slight performance trade-off (which may or may not be noticeable depending on your application) but buys you significantly increased fault-tolerance to memory errors. Disk Controllers This one is a bit trickier, and while I used to recommend the Buslogic controllers unilaterally for everything from ISA to PCI, now I tend to lean towards the Adaptec 1542CF for ISA, Buslogic Bt747c for EISA and Adaptec 2940UW for PCI. The NCR/Symbios cards for PCI have also worked well for me, though you need to make sure that your motherboard supports the BIOS-less model if you're using one of those (if your card has nothing which looks even vaguely like a ROM chip on it, you've probably got one which expects its BIOS to be on your motherboard). If you should find that you need more than one SCSI controller in a PCI machine, you may wish to consider conserving your scarce PCI bus resources by buying the Adaptec 3940 card, which puts two SCSI controllers (and internal busses) in a single slot. There are two types of 3940 on the market—the older model with AIC 7880 chips on it, and the newer one with AIC 7895 chips. The newer model requires CAM support which is not yet part of FreeBSD—you have to add it, or install from one of the CAM binary snapshot release. Disk drives In this particular game of Russian roulette, I'll make few - specific recommendations except to say “SCSI over IDE whenever - you can afford it.” Even in small desktop configurations, SCSI + specific recommendations except to say SCSI over IDE whenever + you can afford it. Even in small desktop configurations, SCSI often makes more sense since it allows you to easily migrate drives from server to desktop as falling drive prices make it economical to do so. If you have more than one machine to administer then think of it not simply as storage, think of it as a food chain! For a serious server configuration, there's not even any argument—use SCSI equipment and good cables. CDROM drives My SCSI preferences extend to SCSI CDROM drives as well, and while the Toshiba drives have always been favourites of mine (in whatever speed is hot that week), I'm still fond of my good old Plextor PX-12CS drive. It's only a 12 speed, but it's offered excellent performance and reliability. Generally speaking, most SCSI CDROM drives I've seen have been of pretty solid construction and you probably won't go wrong with an HP or NEC SCSI CDROM drive either. SCSI CDROM prices also appear to have dropped considerably in the last few months and are now quite competitive with IDE CDROMs while remaining a technically superior solution. I now see no reason whatsoever to settle for an IDE CDROM drive if given a choice between the two. CD Recordable (WORM) drives At the time of this writing, FreeBSD supports 3 types of CDR drives (though I believe they all ultimately come from Phillips anyway): The Phillips CDD 522 (Acts like a Plasmon), the PLASMON RF4100 and the HP 6020i. I myself use the HP 6020i for burning CDROMs (in 2.2 and alter releases—it does not work with earlier releases of the SCSI code) and it works very well. See /usr/share/examples/worm on your 2.2 system for example scripts used to created ISO9660 filesystem images (with RockRidge extensions) and burn them onto an HP6020i CDR. Tape drives I've had pretty good luck with both 8mm drives from Exabyte and 4mm (DAT) drives from HP. For backup purposes, I'd have to give the higher recommendation to the Exabyte due to the more robust nature (and higher storage capacity) of 8mm tape. Video Cards If you can also afford to buy a commercial X server for US$99 from Xi Graphics, Inc. (formerly X Inside, Inc) then I can heartily recommend the Matrox Millenium II card. Note that support for this card is also excellent with the XFree86 server, which is now at version 3.3.2. You also certainly can't go wrong with one of Number 9's cards — their S3 Vision 868 and 968 based cards (the 9FX series) also being quite fast and very well supported by XFree86's S3 server. You can also pick up their Revolution 3D cards very cheaply these days, especially if you require a lot of video memory. Monitors I have had very good luck with the Sony Multiscan 17seII monitors, as have I with the Viewsonic offering in the same (Trinitron) tube. For larger than 17", all I can recommend at the time of this writing is to not spend any less than U.S. $2,000 for a 21" monitor or $1,700 for a 20" monitor if that's what you really need. There are good monitors available in the >=20" range and there are also cheap monitors in the >=20" range. Unfortunately, very few are both cheap and good! Networking I can recommend the Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B card first and foremost, followed by the SMC Ultra 16 controller for any ISA application and the SMC EtherPower or Compex ENET32 cards for slightly cheaper PCI based networking. In general, any PCI NIC based around DEC's DC21041 Ethernet controller chip, such as the Znyx ZX342 or DEC DE435/450, will generally work quite well and can frequently be found in 2-port and 4-port version (useful for firewalls and routers), though the Pro/100MB card has the edge when it comes to providing the best performance with lower overhead. If what you're looking for is the cheapest possible solution then almost any NE2000 clone will do a fine job for very little cost. Serial If you're looking for high-speed serial networking solutions, then Digi International makes the SYNC/570 series, with drivers now in FreeBSD-current. Emerging Technologies also manufactures a board with T1/E1 capabilities, using software they provide. I have no direct experience using either product, however. Multiport card options are somewhat more numerous, though it has to be said that FreeBSD's support for Cyclades's products is probably the tightest, primarily as a result of that company's commitment to making sure that we are adequately supplied with evaluation boards and technical specs. I've heard that the Cyclom-16Ye offers the best price/performance, though I've not checked the prices lately. Other multiport cards I've heard good things about are the BOCA and AST cards, and Stallion Technologies apparently offers an unofficial driver for their cards at this location. Audio I currently use a Creative Labs AWE32 though just about anything from Creative Labs will generally work these days. This is not to say that other types of sound cards don't also work, simply that I have little experience with them (I was a former GUS fan, but Gravis's soundcard situation has been dire for some time). Video For video capture, there are two good choices — any card based on the Brooktree BT848 chip, such as the Hauppage or WinTV boards, will work very nicely with FreeBSD. Another board which works for me is the Matrox Meteor card. FreeBSD also supports the older video spigot card from Creative Labs, but those are getting somewhat difficult to find. Note that the Meteor frame grabber card will not work with motherboards based on the 440FX chipset! See the motherboard reference section for details. In such cases, it's better to go with a BT848 based board. Core/Processing Motherboards, busses, and chipsets * ISA * EISA * VLB PCI Contributed by &a.obrien; from postings by &a.rgrimes;. 25 April 1995. Continuing updates by &a.jkh;. Last update on 26 August 1996. Of the Intel PCI chip sets, the following list describes various types of known-brokenness and the degree of breakage, listed from worst to best. Mercury: Cache coherency problems, especially if there are ISA bus masters behind the ISA to PCI bridge chip. Hardware flaw, only known work around is to turn the cache off. Saturn-I (ie, 82424ZX at rev 0, 1 or 2): Write back cache coherency problems. Hardware flaw, only known work around is to set the external cache to write-through mode. Upgrade to Saturn-II. Saturn-II (ie, 82424ZX at rev 3 or 4): Works fine, but many MB manufactures leave out the external dirty bit SRAM needed for write back operation. Work arounds are either run it in write through mode, or get the dirty bit SRAM installed. (I have these for the ASUS PCI/I-486SP3G rev 1.6 and later boards). Neptune: Can not run more than 2 bus master devices. Admitted Intel design flaw. Workarounds include do not run more than 2 bus masters, special hardware design to replace the PCI bus arbiter (appears on Intel Altair board and several other Intel server group MB's). And of course Intel's official answer, - move to the Triton chip set, we “fixed it - there”. + move to the Triton chip set, we fixed it + there. Triton (ie, 430FX): No known cache coherency or bus master problems, chip set does not implement parity checking. Workaround for parity issue. Use Triton-II based motherboards if you have the choice. Triton-II (ie, 430HX): All reports on motherboards using this chipset have been favorable so far. No known problems. Orion: Early versions of this chipset suffered from a PCI write-posting bug which can cause noticeable performance degradation in applications where large amounts of PCI bus traffic is involved. B0 stepping or later revisions of the chipset fixed this problem. 440FX: This Pentium Pro support chipset seems to work well, and does not suffer from any of the early Orion chipset problems. It also supports a wider variety of memory, including ECC and parity. The only known problem with it is that the Matrox Meteor frame grabber card doesn't like it. CPUs/FPUs Contributed by &a.asami;. 26 December 1997. P6 class (Pentium Pro/Pentium II) Both the Pentium Pro and Pentium II work fine with FreeBSD. In fact, our main ftp site ftp.FreeBSD.org (also known as "ftp.cdrom.com", world's largest ftp site) runs FreeBSD on a Pentium Pro. Configurations details are available for interested parties. Pentium class The Intel Pentium (P54C), Pentium MMX (P55C), AMD K6 and Cyrix/IBM 6x86MX processors are all reported to work with FreeBSD. I will not go into details of which processor is faster than what, there are zillions of web sites on the Internet that tells you one way or another. :) Various CPUs have different voltage/cooling requirements. Make sure your motherboard can supply the exact voltage needed by the CPU. For instance, many recent MMX chips require split voltage (e.g., 2.9V core, 3.3V I/O). Also, some AMD and Cyrix/IBM chips run hotter than Intel chips. In that case, make sure you have good heatsink/fans (you can get the list of certified parts from their web pages). Clock speeds Contributed by &a.rgrimes;. 1 October 1996. Updated by &a.asami;. 27 December 1997. Pentium class machines use different clock speeds for the various parts of the system. These being the speed of the CPU, external memory bus, and the PCI bus. It is not always true that - a “faster” processor will make a system faster than a - “slower” one, due to the various clock speeds used. + a faster processor will make a system faster than a + slower one, due to the various clock speeds used. Below is a table showing the differences: Rated CPU MHz External Clock and Memory Bus MHz External to Internal Clock Multiplier PCI Bus Clock MHz 60 60 1.0 30 66 66 1.0 33 75 50 1.5 25 90 60 1.5 30 100 50 2 25 100 66 1.5 33 120 60 2 30 133 66 2 33 150 60 2.5 30 (Intel, AMD) 150 75 2 37.5 (Cyrix/IBM 6x86MX) 166 66 2.5 33 180 60 3 30 200 66 3 33 233 66 3.5 33 66MHz may actually be 66.667MHz, but don't assume so. The Pentium 100 can be run at either 50MHz external clock with a multiplier of 2 or at 66MHz and a multiplier of 1.5. As can be seen the best parts to be using are the 100, 133, 166, 200 and 233, with the exception that at a multiplier of 3 or more the CPU starves for memory. The AMD K6 Bug In 1997, there have been reports of the AMD K6 seg faulting during heavy compilation. That problem has been fixed in 3Q '97. - According to reports, K6 chips with date mark “9733” + According to reports, K6 chips with date mark 9733 or larger (i.e., manufactured in the 33rd week of '97 or later) do not have this bug. * 486 class * 386 class 286 class Sorry, FreeBSD does not run on 80286 machines. It is nearly impossible to run today's large full-featured UNIXes on such hardware. * Memory The minimum amount of memory you must have to install FreeBSD is 5 MB. Once your system is up and running you can build a custom kernel that will use less memory. If you use the boot4.flp you can get away with having only 4 MB. * BIOS Input/Output Devices * Video cards * Sound cards Serial ports and multiport cards The UART: What it is and how it works Copyright © 1996 &a.uhclem;, All Rights Reserved. 13 January 1996. The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) controller is the key component of the serial communications subsystem of a computer. The UART takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete bytes. Serial transmission is commonly used with modems and for non-networked communication between computers, terminals and other devices. There are two primary forms of serial transmission: Synchronous and Asynchronous. Depending on the modes that are supported by the hardware, the name of the communication sub-system will usually include a A if it supports Asynchronous communications, and a S if it supports Synchronous communications. Both forms are described below. Some common acronyms are:
UART Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
USART Universal Synchronous-Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
Synchronous Serial Transmission Synchronous serial transmission requires that the sender and receiver share a clock with one another, or that the sender provide a strobe or other timing signal so that the receiver knows - when to “read” the next bit of the data. In most + when to read the next bit of the data. In most forms of serial Synchronous communication, if there is no data available at a given instant to transmit, a fill character must be sent instead so that data is always being transmitted. Synchronous communication is usually more efficient because only data bits are transmitted between sender and receiver, and synchronous communication can be more more costly if extra wiring and circuits are required to share a clock signal between the sender and receiver. A form of Synchronous transmission is used with printers and fixed disk devices in that the data is sent on one set of wires while a clock or strobe is sent on a different wire. Printers and fixed disk devices are not normally serial devices because most fixed disk interface standards send an entire word of data for each clock or strobe signal by using a separate wire for each bit of the word. In the PC industry, these are known as Parallel devices. The standard serial communications hardware in the PC does not support Synchronous operations. This mode is described here for comparison purposes only. Asynchronous Serial Transmission Asynchronous transmission allows data to be transmitted without the sender having to send a clock signal to the receiver. Instead, the sender and receiver must agree on timing parameters in advance and special bits are added to each word which are used to synchronize the sending and receiving units. When a word is given to the UART for Asynchronous transmissions, a bit called the "Start Bit" is added to the beginning of each word that is to be transmitted. The Start Bit is used to alert the receiver that a word of data is about to be sent, and to force the clock in the receiver into synchronization with the clock in the transmitter. These two clocks must be accurate enough to not have the frequency drift by more than 10% during the transmission of the remaining bits in the word. (This requirement was set in the days of mechanical teleprinters and is easily met by modern electronic equipment.) After the Start Bit, the individual bits of the word of data are sent, with the Least Significant Bit (LSB) being sent first. Each bit in the transmission is transmitted for exactly the same amount of time as all of the other bits, and the receiver - “looks” at the wire at approximately halfway through + looks at the wire at approximately halfway through the period assigned to each bit to determine if the bit is a 1 or a 0. For example, if it takes two seconds to send each bit, the receiver will examine the signal to determine if it is a 1 or a 0 after one second has passed, then it will wait two seconds and then examine the value of the next bit, and so on. The sender does not know when the receiver has - “looked” at the value of the bit. The sender only + looked at the value of the bit. The sender only knows when the clock says to begin transmitting the next bit of the word. When the entire data word has been sent, the transmitter may add a Parity Bit that the transmitter generates. The Parity Bit may be used by the receiver to perform simple error checking. Then at least one Stop Bit is sent by the transmitter. When the receiver has received all of the bits in the data word, it may check for the Parity Bits (both sender and receiver must agree on whether a Parity Bit is to be used), and then the receiver looks for a Stop Bit. If the Stop Bit does not appear when it is supposed to, the UART considers the entire word to be garbled and will report a Framing Error to the host processor when the data word is read. The usual cause of a Framing Error is that the sender and receiver clocks were not running at the same speed, or that the signal was interrupted. Regardless of whether the data was received correctly or not, the UART automatically discards the Start, Parity and Stop bits. If the sender and receiver are configured identically, these bits are not passed to the host. If another word is ready for transmission, the Start Bit for the new word can be sent as soon as the Stop Bit for the previous word has been sent. - Because asynchronous data is “self synchronizing”, + Because asynchronous data is self synchronizing, if there is no data to transmit, the transmission line can be idle. Other UART Functions In addition to the basic job of converting data from parallel to serial for transmission and from serial to parallel on reception, a UART will usually provide additional circuits for signals that can be used to indicate the state of the transmission media, and to regulate the flow of data in the event that the remote device is not prepared to accept more data. For example, when the device connected to the UART is a modem, the modem may report the presence of a carrier on the phone line while the computer may be able to instruct the modem to reset itself or to not take calls by asserting or deasserting one more more of these extra signals. The function of each of these additional signals is defined in the EIA RS232-C standard. The RS232-C and V.24 Standards In most computer systems, the UART is connected to circuitry that generates signals that comply with the EIA RS232-C specification. There is also a CCITT standard named V.24 that mirrors the specifications included in RS232-C. RS232-C Bit Assignments (Marks and Spaces) In RS232-C, a value of 1 is called a Mark and a value of 0 is called a Space. When a communication line is - idle, the line is said to be “Marking”, or + idle, the line is said to be Marking, or transmitting continuous 1 values. The Start bit always has a value of 0 (a Space). The Stop Bit always has a value of 1 (a Mark). This means that there will always be a Mark (1) to Space (0) transition on the line at the start of every word, even when multiple word are transmitted back to back. This guarantees that sender and receiver can resynchronize their clocks regardless of the content of the data bits that are being transmitted. The idle time between Stop and Start bits does not have to be an exact multiple (including zero) of the bit rate of the communication link, but most UARTs are designed this way for simplicity. In RS232-C, the "Marking" signal (a 1) is represented by a voltage between -2 VDC and -12 VDC, and a "Spacing" signal (a 0) is represented by a voltage between 0 and +12 VDC. The transmitter is supposed to send +12 VDC or -12 VDC, and the receiver is supposed to allow for some voltage loss in long cables. Some transmitters in low power devices (like portable computers) sometimes use only +5 VDC and -5 VDC, but these values are still acceptable to a RS232-C receiver, provided that the cable lengths are short. RS232-C Break Signal RS232-C also specifies a signal called a Break, which is caused by sending continuous Spacing values (no Start or Stop bits). When there is no electricity present on the data circuit, the line is considered to be sending Break. The Break signal must be of a duration longer than the time it takes to send a complete byte plus Start, Stop and Parity bits. Most UARTs can distinguish between a Framing Error and a Break, but if the UART cannot do this, the Framing Error detection can be used to identify Breaks. In the days of teleprinters, when numerous printers around the country were wired in series (such as news services), any unit could cause a Break by temporarily opening the entire circuit so that no current flowed. This was used to allow a location with urgent news to interrupt some other location that was currently sending information. In modern systems there are two types of Break signals. If the Break is longer than 1.6 seconds, it is considered a "Modem Break", and some modems can be programmed to terminate the conversation and go on-hook or enter the modems' command mode when the modem detects this signal. If the Break is smaller than 1.6 seconds, it signifies a Data Break and it is up to the remote computer to respond to this signal. Sometimes this form of Break is used as an Attention or Interrupt signal and sometimes is accepted as a substitute for the ASCII CONTROL-C character. - Marks and Spaces are also equivalent to “Holes” - and “No Holes” in paper tape systems. + Marks and Spaces are also equivalent to Holes + and No Holes in paper tape systems. Breaks cannot be generated from paper tape or from any other byte value, since bytes are always sent with Start and Stop bit. The UART is usually capable of generating the continuous Spacing signal in response to a special command from the host processor. RS232-C DTE and DCE Devices The RS232-C specification defines two types of equipment: the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and the Data Carrier Equipment (DCE). Usually, the DTE device is the terminal (or computer), and the DCE is a modem. Across the phone line at the other end of a conversation, the receiving modem is also a DCE device and the computer that is connected to that modem is a DTE device. The DCE device receives signals on the pins that the DTE device transmits on, and vice versa. When two devices that are both DTE or both DCE must be connected together without a modem or a similar media translater between them, a NULL modem must be used. The NULL modem electrically re-arranges the cabling so that the transmitter output is connected to the receiver input on the other device, and vice versa. Similar translations are performed on all of the control signals so that each device will see what it thinks are DCE (or DTE) signals from the other device. The number of signals generated by the DTE and DCE devices are not symmetrical. The DTE device generates fewer signals for the DCE device than the DTE device receives from the DCE. RS232-C Pin Assignments The EIA RS232-C specification (and the ITU equivalent, V.24) calls for a twenty-five pin connector (usually a DB25) and defines the purpose of most of the pins in that connector. In the IBM Personal Computer and similar systems, a subset of RS232-C signals are provided via nine pin connectors (DB9). The signals that are not included on the PC connector deal mainly with synchronous operation, and this transmission mode is not supported by the UART that IBM selected for use in the IBM PC. Depending on the computer manufacturer, a DB25, a DB9, or both types of connector may be used for RS232-C communications. (The IBM PC also uses a DB25 connector for the parallel printer interface which causes some confusion.) Below is a table of the RS232-C signal assignments in the DB25 and DB9 connectors. DB25 RS232-C Pin DB9 IBM PC Pin EIA Circuit Symbol CCITT Circuit Symbol Common Name Signal Source Description 1 - AA 101 PG/FG - Frame/Protective Ground 2 3 BA 103 TD DTE Transmit Data 3 2 BB 104 RD DCE Receive Data 4 7 CA 105 RTS DTE Request to Send 5 8 CB 106 CTS DCE Clear to Send 6 6 CC 107 DSR DCE Data Set Ready 7 5 AV 102 SG/GND - Signal Ground 8 1 CF 109 DCD/CD DCE Data Carrier Detect 9 - - - - - Reserved for Test 10 - - - - - Reserved for Test 11 - - - - - Reserved for Test 12 - CI 122 SRLSD DCE Sec. Recv. Line Signal Detector 13 - SCB 121 SCTS DCE Secondary Clear to Send 14 - SBA 118 STD DTE Secondary Transmit Data 15 - DB 114 TSET DCE Trans. Sig. Element Timing 16 - SBB 119 SRD DCE Secondary Received Data 17 - DD 115 RSET DCE Receiver Signal Element Timing 18 - - 141 LOOP DTE Local Loopback 19 - SCA 120 SRS DTE Secondary Request to Send 20 4 CD 108.2 DTR DTE Data Terminal Ready 21 - - - RDL DTE Remote Digital Loopback 22 9 CE 125 RI DCE Ring Indicator 23 - CH 111 DSRS DTE Data Signal Rate Selector 24 - DA 113 TSET DTE Trans. Sig. Element Timing 25 - - 142 - DCE Test Mode Bits, Baud and Symbols Baud is a measurement of transmission speed in asynchronous communication. Because of advances in modem communication technology, this term is frequently misused when describing the data rates in newer devices. Traditionally, a Baud Rate represents the number of bits that are actually being sent over the media, not the amount of data that is actually moved from one DTE device to the other. The Baud count includes the overhead bits Start, Stop and Parity that are generated by the sending UART and removed by the receiving UART. This means that seven-bit words of data actually take 10 bits to be completely transmitted. Therefore, a modem capable of moving 300 bits per second from one place to another can normally only move 30 7-bit words if Parity is used and one Start and Stop bit are present. If 8-bit data words are used and Parity bits are also used, the data rate falls to 27.27 words per second, because it now takes 11 bits to send the eight-bit words, and the modem still only sends 300 bits per second. The formula for converting bytes per second into a baud rate and vice versa was simple until error-correcting modems came along. These modems receive the serial stream of bits from the UART in the host computer (even when internal modems are used the data is still frequently serialized) and converts the bits back into bytes. These bytes are then combined into packets and sent over the phone line using a Synchronous transmission method. This means that the Stop, Start, and Parity bits added by the UART in the DTE (the computer) were removed by the modem before transmission by the sending modem. When these bytes are received by the remote modem, the remote modem adds Start, Stop and Parity bits to the words, converts them to a serial format and then sends them to the receiving UART in the remote computer, who then strips the Start, Stop and Parity bits. The reason all these extra conversions are done is so that the two modems can perform error correction, which means that the receiving modem is able to ask the sending modem to resend a block of data that was not received with the correct checksum. This checking is handled by the modems, and the DTE devices are usually unaware that the process is occurring. By striping the Start, Stop and Parity bits, the additional bits of data that the two modems must share between themselves to perform error-correction are mostly concealed from the effective transmission rate seen by the sending and receiving DTE equipment. For example, if a modem sends ten 7-bit words to another modem without including the Start, Stop and Parity bits, the sending modem will be able to add 30 bits of its own information that the receiving modem can use to do error-correction without impacting the transmission speed of the real data. The use of the term Baud is further confused by modems that perform compression. A single 8-bit word passed over the telephone line might represent a dozen words that were transmitted to the sending modem. The receiving modem will expand the data back to its original content and pass that data to the receiving DTE. Modern modems also include buffers that allow the rate that bits move across the phone line (DCE to DCE) to be a different speed than the speed that the bits move between the DTE and DCE on both ends of the conversation. Normally the speed between the DTE and DCE is higher than the DCE to DCE speed because of the use of compression by the modems. Because the number of bits needed to describe a byte varied during the trip between the two machines plus the differing bits-per-seconds speeds that are used present on the DTE-DCE and DCE-DCE links, the usage of the term Baud to describe the overall communication speed causes problems and can misrepresent the true transmission speed. So Bits Per Second (bps) is the correct term to use to describe the transmission rate seen at the DCE to DCE interface and Baud or Bits Per Second are acceptable terms to use when a connection is made between two systems with a wired connection, or if a modem is in use that is not performing error-correction or compression. Modern high speed modems (2400, 9600, 14,400, and 19,200bps) in reality still operate at or below 2400 baud, or more accurately, 2400 Symbols per second. High speed modem are able to encode more bits of data into each Symbol using a technique called Constellation Stuffing, which is why the effective bits per second rate of the modem is higher, but the modem continues to operate within the limited audio bandwidth that the telephone system provides. Modems operating at 28,800 and higher speeds have variable Symbol rates, but the technique is the same. The IBM Personal Computer UART Starting with the original IBM Personal Computer, IBM selected the National Semiconductor INS8250 UART for use in the IBM PC Parallel/Serial Adapter. Subsequent generations of compatible computers from IBM and other vendors continued to use the INS8250 or improved versions of the National Semiconductor UART family. National Semiconductor UART Family Tree There have been several versions and subsequent generations of the INS8250 UART. Each major version is described below. INS8250 -> INS8250B \ \ \-> INS8250A -> INS82C50A \ \ \-> NS16450 -> NS16C450 \ \ \-> NS16550 -> NS16550A -> PC16550D INS8250 This part was used in the original IBM PC and IBM PC/XT. The original name for this part was the INS8250 ACE (Asynchronous Communications Element) and it is made from NMOS technology. The 8250 uses eight I/O ports and has a one-byte send and a one-byte receive buffer. This original UART has several race conditions and other flaws. The original IBM BIOS includes code to work around these flaws, but this made the BIOS dependent on the flaws being present, so subsequent parts like the 8250A, 16450 or 16550 could not be used in the original IBM PC or IBM PC/XT. INS8250-B This is the slower speed of the INS8250 made from NMOS technology. It contains the same problems as the original INS8250. INS8250A An improved version of the INS8250 using XMOS technology with various functional flaws corrected. The INS8250A was used initially in PC clone computers by - vendors who used “clean” BIOS designs. Because + vendors who used clean BIOS designs. Because of the corrections in the chip, this part could not be used with a BIOS compatible with the INS8250 or INS8250B. INS82C50A This is a CMOS version (low power consumption) of the INS8250A and has similar functional characteristics. NS16450 Same as NS8250A with improvements so it can be used with faster CPU bus designs. IBM used this part in the IBM AT and updated the IBM BIOS to no longer rely on the bugs in the INS8250. NS16C450 This is a CMOS version (low power consumption) of the NS16450. NS16550 Same as NS16450 with a 16-byte send and receive buffer but the buffer design was flawed and could not be reliably be used. NS16550A Same as NS16550 with the buffer flaws corrected. The 16550A and its successors have become the most popular UART design in the PC industry, mainly due it its ability to reliably handle higher data rates on operating systems with sluggish interrupt response times. NS16C552 This component consists of two NS16C550A CMOS UARTs in a single package. PC16550D Same as NS16550A with subtle flaws corrected. This is revision D of the 16550 family and is the latest design available from National Semiconductor. The NS16550AF and the PC16550D are the same thing National reorganized their part numbering system a few years ago, and the NS16550AFN no longer exists by that name. (If you have a NS16550AFN, look at the date code on the part, which is a four digit number that usually starts with a nine. The first two digits of the number are the year, and the last two digits are the week in that year when the part was packaged. If you have a NS16550AFN, it is probably a few years old.) The new numbers are like PC16550DV, with minor differences in the suffix letters depending on the package material and its shape. (A description of the numbering system can be found below.) It is important to understand that in some stores, you may pay $15(US) for a NS16550AFN made in 1990 and in the next bin are the new PC16550DN parts with minor fixes that National has made since the AFN part was in production, the PC16550DN was probably made in the past six months and it costs half (as low as $5(US) in volume) as much as the NS16550AFN because they are readily available. As the supply of NS16550AFN chips continues to shrink, the price will probably continue to increase until more people discover and accept that the PC16550DN really has the same function as the old part number. National Semiconductor Part Numbering System The older NSnnnnnrqp part numbers are now of the format PCnnnnnrgp. The r is the revision field. The current revision of the 16550 from National Semiconductor is D. The p is the package-type field. The types are: "F" QFP (quad flat pack) L lead type "N" DIP (dual inline package) through hole straight lead type "V" LPCC (lead plastic chip carrier) J lead type The g is the product grade field. If an I precedes the package-type letter, it - indicates an “industrial” grade part, which has + indicates an industrial grade part, which has higher specs than a standard part but not as high as Military Specification (Milspec) component. This is an optional field. So what we used to call a NS16550AFN (DIP Package) is now called a PC16550DN or PC16550DIN. Other Vendors and Similar UARTs Over the years, the 8250, 8250A, 16450 and 16550 have been licensed or copied by other chip vendors. In the case of the 8250, 8250A and 16450, the exact circuit (the - “megacell”) was licensed to many vendors, including + megacell) was licensed to many vendors, including Western Digital and Intel. Other vendors reverse-engineered the part or produced emulations that had similar behavior. In internal modems, the modem designer will frequently emulate the 8250A/16450 with the modem microprocessor, and the emulated UART will frequently have a hidden buffer consisting of several hundred bytes. Because of the size of the buffer, these emulations can be as reliable as a 16550A in their ability to handle high speed data. However, most operating systems will still report that the UART is only a 8250A or 16450, and may not make effective use of the extra buffering present in the emulated UART unless special drivers are used. Some modem makers are driven by market forces to abandon a design that has hundreds of bytes of buffer and instead use a 16550A UART so that the product will compare favorably in market comparisons even though the effective performance may be lowered by this action. A common misconception is that all parts with - “16550A” written on them are identical in performance. + 16550A written on them are identical in performance. There are differences, and in some cases, outright flaws in most of these 16550A clones. When the NS16550 was developed, the National Semiconductor obtained several patents on the design and they also limited licensing, making it harder for other vendors to provide a chip with similar features. Because of the patents, reverse-engineered designs and emulations had to avoid infringing the claims covered by the patents. Subsequently, these copies almost never perform exactly the same as the NS16550A or PC16550D, which are the parts most computer and modem makers want to buy but are sometimes unwilling to pay the price required to get the genuine part. Some of the differences in the clone 16550A parts are unimportant, while others can prevent the device from being used at all with a given operating system or driver. These differences may show up when using other drivers, or when particular combinations of events occur that were not well tested or considered in the Windows driver. This is because most modem vendors and 16550-clone makers use the Microsoft drivers from Windows for Workgroups 3.11 and the Microsoft MSD utility as the primary tests for compatibility with the NS16550A. This over-simplistic criteria means that if a different operating system is used, problems could appear due to subtle differences between the clones and genuine components. National Semiconductor has made available a program named COMTEST that performs compatibility tests independent of any OS drivers. It should be remembered that the purpose of this type of program is to demonstrate the flaws in the products of the competition, so the program will report major as well as extremely subtle differences in behavior in the part being tested. In a series of tests performed by the author of this document in 1994, components made by National Semiconductor, TI, StarTech, and CMD as well as megacells and emulations embedded in internal modems were tested with COMTEST. A difference count for some of these components is listed below. Because these tests were performed in 1994, they may not reflect the current performance of the given product from a vendor. It should be noted that COMTEST normally aborts when an excessive number or certain types of problems have been detected. As part of this testing, COMTEST was modified so that it would not abort no matter how many differences were encountered. Vendor Part Number Errors (aka "differences" reported) National (PC16550DV) 0 National (NS16550AFN) 0 National (NS16C552V) 0 TI (TL16550AFN) 3 CMD (16C550PE) 19 StarTech (ST16C550J) 23 Rockwell Reference modem with internal 16550 or an emulation (RC144DPi/C3000-25) 117 Sierra Modem with an internal 16550 (SC11951/SC11351) 91 To date, the author of this document has not found any non-National parts that report zero differences using the COMTEST program. It should also be noted that National has had five versions of the 16550 over the years and the newest parts behave a bit differently than the classic NS16550AFN that is considered the benchmark for functionality. COMTEST appears to turn a blind eye to the differences within the National product line and reports no errors on the National parts (except for the original 16550) even when there are official erratas that describe bugs in the A, B and C revisions of the parts, so this bias in COMTEST must be taken into account. It is important to understand that a simple count of differences from COMTEST does not reveal a lot about what differences are important and which are not. For example, about half of the differences reported in the two modems listed above that have internal UARTs were caused by the clone UARTs not supporting five- and six-bit character modes. The real 16550, 16450, and 8250 UARTs all support these modes and COMTEST checks the functionality of these modes so over fifty differences are reported. However, almost no modern modem supports five- or six-bit characters, particularly those with error-correction and compression capabilities. This means that the differences related to five- and six-bit character modes can be discounted. Many of the differences COMTEST reports have to do with timing. In many of the clone designs, when the host reads from one port, the status bits in some other port may not update in the same amount of time (some faster, some slower) as a real NS16550AFN and COMTEST looks for these differences. This means that the number of differences can be misleading in that one device may only have one or two differences but they are extremely serious, and some other device that updates the status registers faster or slower than the reference part (that would probably never affect the operation of a properly written driver) could have dozens of differences reported. COMTEST can be used as a screening tool to alert the administrator to the presence of potentially incompatible components that might cause problems or have to be handled as a special case. If you run COMTEST on a 16550 that is in a modem or a modem is attached to the serial port, you need to first issue a ATE0&W command to the modem so that the modem will not echo any of the test characters. If you forget to do this, COMTEST will report at least this one difference: Error (6)...Timeout interrupt failed: IIR = c1 LSR = 61 8250/16450/16550 Registers The 8250/16450/16550 UART occupies eight contiguous I/O port addresses. In the IBM PC, there are two defined locations for these eight ports and they are known collectively as COM1 and COM2. The makers of PC-clones and add-on cards have created two additional areas known as COM3 and COM4, but these extra COM ports conflict with other hardware on some systems. The most common conflict is with video adapters that provide IBM 8514 emulation. COM1 is located from 0x3f8 to 0x3ff and normally uses IRQ 4 COM2 is located from 0x2f8 to 0x2ff and normally uses IRQ 3 COM3 is located from 0x3e8 to 0x3ef and has no standardized IRQ COM4 is located from 0x2e8 to 0x2ef and has no standardized IRQ. A description of the I/O ports of the 8250/16450/16550 UART is provided below. I/O Port Access Allowed Description +0x00 write (DLAB==0) Transmit Holding Register (THR).Information written to this port are treated as data words and will be transmitted by the UART. +0x00 read (DLAB==0) Receive Buffer Register (RBR).Any data words received by the UART form the serial link are accessed by the host by reading this port. +0x00 write/read (DLAB==1) Divisor Latch LSB (DLL)This value will be divided from the master input clock (in the IBM PC, the master clock is 1.8432MHz) and the resulting clock will determine the baud rate of the UART. This register holds bits 0 thru 7 of the divisor. +0x01 write/read (DLAB==1) Divisor Latch MSB (DLH)This value will be divided from the master input clock (in the IBM PC, the master clock is 1.8432MHz) and the resulting clock will determine the baud rate of the UART. This register holds bits 8 thru 15 of the divisor. +0x01 write/read (DLAB==0) Interrupt Enable Register (IER)The 8250/16450/16550 UART classifies events into one of four categories. Each category can be configured to generate an interrupt when any of the events occurs. The 8250/16450/16550 UART generates a single external interrupt signal regardless of how many events in the enabled categories have occurred. It is up to the host processor to respond to the interrupt and then poll the enabled interrupt categories (usually all categories have interrupts enabled) to determine the true cause(s) of the interrupt. Bit 7 Reserved, always 0. Bit 6 Reserved, always 0. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 Enable Modem Status Interrupt (EDSSI). Setting this bit to "1" allows the UART to generate an interrupt when a change occurs on one or more of the status lines. Bit 2 Enable Receiver Line Status Interrupt (ELSI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the an error (or a BREAK signal) has been detected in the incoming data. Bit 1 Enable Transmitter Holding Register Empty Interrupt (ETBEI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the UART has room for one or more additional characters that are to be transmitted. Bit 0 Enable Received Data Available Interrupt (ERBFI) Setting this bit to "1" causes the UART to generate an interrupt when the UART has received enough characters to exceed the trigger level of the FIFO, or the FIFO timer has expired (stale data), or a single character has been received when the FIFO is disabled. +0x02 write FIFO Control Register (FCR) (This port does not exist on the 8250 and 16450 UART.) Bit 7 Receiver Trigger Bit #1 Bit 6 Receiver Trigger Bit #0These two bits control at what point the receiver is to generate an interrupt when the FIFO is active. 7 6 How many words are received before an interrupt is generated 0 0 1 0 1 4 1 0 8 1 1 14 Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 DMA Mode Select. If Bit 0 is set to "1" (FIFOs enabled), setting this bit changes the operation of the -RXRDY and -TXRDY signals from Mode 0 to Mode 1. Bit 2 Transmit FIFO Reset. When a "1" is written to this bit, the contents of the FIFO are discarded. Any word currently being transmitted will be sent intact. This function is useful in aborting transfers. Bit 1 Receiver FIFO Reset. When a "1" is written to this bit, the contents of the FIFO are discarded. Any word currently being assembled in the shift register will be received intact. Bit 0 16550 FIFO Enable. When set, both the transmit and receive FIFOs are enabled. Any contents in the holding register, shift registers or FIFOs are lost when FIFOs are enabled or disabled. +0x02 read Interrupt Identification Register Bit 7 FIFOs enabled. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 6 FIFOs enabled. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Reserved, always 0. Bit 3 Interrupt ID Bit #2. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. Bit 2 Interrupt ID Bit #1 Bit 1 Interrupt ID Bit #0.These three bits combine to report the category of event that caused the interrupt that is in progress. These categories have priorities, so if multiple categories of events occur at the same time, the UART will report the more important events first and the host must resolve the events in the order they are reported. All events that caused the current interrupt must be resolved before any new interrupts will be generated. (This is a limitation of the PC architecture.) 2 1 0 Priority Description 0 1 1 First Received Error (OE, PE, BI, or FE) 0 1 0 Second Received Data Available 1 1 0 Second Trigger level identification (Stale data in receive buffer) 0 0 1 Third Transmitter has room for more words (THRE) 0 0 0 Fourth Modem Status Change (-CTS, -DSR, -RI, or -DCD) Bit 0 Interrupt Pending Bit. If this bit is set to "0", then at least one interrupt is pending. +0x03 write/read Line Control Register (LCR) Bit 7 Divisor Latch Access Bit (DLAB). When set, access to the data transmit/receive register (THR/RBR) and the Interrupt Enable Register (IER) is disabled. Any access to these ports is now redirected to the Divisor Latch Registers. Setting this bit, loading the Divisor Registers, and clearing DLAB should be done with interrupts disabled. Bit 6 Set Break. When set to "1", the transmitter begins to transmit continuous Spacing until this bit is set to "0". This overrides any bits of characters that are being transmitted. Bit 5 Stick Parity. When parity is enabled, setting this bit causes parity to always be "1" or "0", based on the value of Bit 4. Bit 4 Even Parity Select (EPS). When parity is enabled and Bit 5 is "0", setting this bit causes even parity to be transmitted and expected. Otherwise, odd parity is used. Bit 3 Parity Enable (PEN). When set to "1", a parity bit is inserted between the last bit of the data and the Stop Bit. The UART will also expect parity to be present in the received data. Bit 2 Number of Stop Bits (STB). If set to "1" and using 5-bit data words, 1.5 Stop Bits are transmitted and expected in each data word. For 6, 7 and 8-bit data words, 2 Stop Bits are transmitted and expected. When this bit is set to "0", one Stop Bit is used on each data word. Bit 1 Word Length Select Bit #1 (WLSB1) Bit 0 Word Length Select Bit #0 (WLSB0) Together these bits specify the number of bits in each data word. 1 0 Word Length 0 0 5 Data Bits 0 1 6 Data Bits 1 0 7 Data Bits 1 1 8 Data Bits +0x04 write/read Modem Control Register (MCR) Bit 7 Reserved, always 0. Bit 6 Reserved, always 0. Bit 5 Reserved, always 0. Bit 4 Loop-Back Enable. When set to "1", the UART transmitter and receiver are internally connected together to allow diagnostic operations. In addition, the UART modem control outputs are connected to the UART modem control inputs. CTS is connected to RTS, DTR is connected to DSR, OUT1 is connected to RI, and OUT 2 is connected to DCD. Bit 3 OUT 2. An auxiliary output that the host processor may set high or low. In the IBM PC serial adapter (and most clones), OUT 2 is used to tri-state (disable) the interrupt signal from the 8250/16450/16550 UART. Bit 2 OUT 1. An auxiliary output that the host processor may set high or low. This output is not used on the IBM PC serial adapter. Bit 1 Request to Send (RTS). When set to "1", the output of the UART -RTS line is Low (Active). Bit 0 Data Terminal Ready (DTR). When set to "1", the output of the UART -DTR line is Low (Active). +0x05 write/read Line Status Register (LSR) Bit 7 Error in Receiver FIFO. On the 8250/16450 UART, this bit is zero. This bit is set to "1" when any of the bytes in the FIFO have one or more of the following error conditions: PE, FE, or BI. Bit 6 Transmitter Empty (TEMT). When set to "1", there are no words remaining in the transmit FIFO or the transmit shift register. The transmitter is completely idle. Bit 5 Transmitter Holding Register Empty (THRE). When set to "1", the FIFO (or holding register) now has room for at least one additional word to transmit. The transmitter may still be transmitting when this bit is set to "1". Bit 4 Break Interrupt (BI). The receiver has detected a Break signal. Bit 3 Framing Error (FE). A Start Bit was detected but the Stop Bit did not appear at the expected time. The received word is probably garbled. Bit 2 Parity Error (PE). The parity bit was incorrect for the word received. Bit 1 Overrun Error (OE). A new word was received and there was no room in the receive buffer. The newly-arrived word in the shift register is discarded. On 8250/16450 UARTs, the word in the holding register is discarded and the newly- arrived word is put in the holding register. Bit 0 Data Ready (DR) One or more words are in the receive FIFO that the host may read. A word must be completely received and moved from the shift register into the FIFO (or holding register for 8250/16450 designs) before this bit is set. +0x06 write/read Modem Status Register (MSR) Bit 7 Data Carrier Detect (DCD). Reflects the state of the DCD line on the UART. Bit 6 Ring Indicator (RI). Reflects the state of the RI line on the UART. Bit 5 Data Set Ready (DSR). Reflects the state of the DSR line on the UART. Bit 4 Clear To Send (CTS). Reflects the state of the CTS line on the UART. Bit 3 Delta Data Carrier Detect (DDCD). Set to "1" if the -DCD line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 2 Trailing Edge Ring Indicator (TERI). Set to "1" if the -RI line has had a low to high transition since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 1 Delta Data Set Ready (DDSR). Set to "1" if the -DSR line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. Bit 0 Delta Clear To Send (DCTS). Set to "1" if the -CTS line has changed state one more more times since the last time the MSR was read by the host. +0x07 write/read Scratch Register (SCR). This register performs no function in the UART. Any value can be written by the host to this location and read by the host later on. Beyond the 16550A UART Although National Semiconductor has not offered any components compatible with the 16550 that provide additional features, various other vendors have. Some of these components are described below. It should be understood that to effectively utilize these improvements, drivers may have to be provided by the chip vendor since most of the popular operating systems do not support features beyond those provided by the 16550. ST16650 By default this part is similar to the NS16550A, but an extended 32-byte send and receive buffer can be optionally enabled. Made by Startech. TIL16660 By default this part behaves similar to the NS16550A, but an extended 64-byte send and receive buffer can be optionally enabled. Made by Texas Instruments. Hayes ESP This proprietary plug-in card contains a 2048-byte send and receive buffer, and supports data rates to 230.4Kbit/sec. Made by Hayes. - In addition to these “dumb” UARTs, many vendors + In addition to these dumb UARTs, many vendors produce intelligent serial communication boards. This type of design usually provides a microprocessor that interfaces with several UARTs, processes and buffers the data, and then alerts the main PC processor when necessary. Because the UARTs are not directly accessed by the PC processor in this type of communication system, it is not necessary for the vendor to use UARTs that are compatible with the 8250, 16450, or the 16550 UART. This leaves the designer free to components that may have better performance characteristics. Configuring the <devicename>sio</devicename> driver The sio driver provides support for NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550 and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. Several multiport cards are supported as well. See the &man.sio.4; manual page for detailed technical documentation. Digi International (DigiBoard) PC/8 Contributed by &a.awebster;. 26 August 1995. Here is a config snippet from a machine with a Digi International PC/8 with 16550. It has 8 modems connected to these 8 lines, and they work just great. Do not forget to add options COM_MULTIPORT or it will not work very well! device sio4 at isa? port 0x100 tty flags 0xb05 device sio5 at isa? port 0x108 tty flags 0xb05 device sio6 at isa? port 0x110 tty flags 0xb05 device sio7 at isa? port 0x118 tty flags 0xb05 device sio8 at isa? port 0x120 tty flags 0xb05 device sio9 at isa? port 0x128 tty flags 0xb05 device sio10 at isa? port 0x130 tty flags 0xb05 device sio11 at isa? port 0x138 tty flags 0xb05 irq 9 vector siointr The trick in setting this up is that the MSB of the flags represent the last SIO port, in this case 11 so flags are 0xb05. Boca 16 Contributed by &a.whiteside;. 26 August 1995. The procedures to make a Boca 16 port board with FreeBSD are pretty straightforward, but you will need a couple things to make it work: You either need the kernel sources installed so you can recompile the necessary options or you will need someone else to compile it for you. The 2.0.5 default kernel does not come with multiport support enabled and you will need to add a device entry for each port anyways. Two, you will need to know the interrupt and IO setting for your Boca Board so you can set these options properly in the kernel. One important note — the actual UART chips for the Boca 16 are in the connector box, not on the internal board itself. So if you have it unplugged, probes of those ports will fail. I have never tested booting with the box unplugged and plugging it back in, and I suggest you do not either. If you do not already have a custom kernel configuration file set up, refer to Kernel Configuration for general procedures. The following are the specifics for the Boca 16 board and assume you are using the kernel name MYKERNEL and editing with vi. Add the line options COM_MULTIPORT to the config file. Where the current device sion lines are, you will need to add 16 more devices. Only the last device includes the interrupt vector for the board. (See the &man.sio.4; manual page for detail as to why.) The following example is for a Boca Board with an interrupt of 3, and a base IO address 100h. The IO address for Each port is +8 hexadecimal from the previous port, thus the 100h, 108h, 110h... addresses. device sio1 at isa? port 0x100 tty flags 0x1005 device sio2 at isa? port 0x108 tty flags 0x1005 device sio3 at isa? port 0x110 tty flags 0x1005 device sio4 at isa? port 0x118 tty flags 0x1005 … device sio15 at isa? port 0x170 tty flags 0x1005 device sio16 at isa? port 0x178 tty flags 0x1005 irq 3 vector siointr The flags entry must be changed from this example unless you are using the exact same sio assignments. Flags are set according to 0xMYY where M indicates the minor number of the master port (the last port on a Boca 16) and YY indicates if FIFO is enabled or disabled(enabled), IRQ sharing is used(yes) and if there is an AST/4 compatible IRQ control register(no). In this example, flags 0x1005 indicates that the master port is sio16. If I added another board and assigned sio17 through sio28, the flags for all 16 ports on that board would be 0x1C05, where 1C indicates the minor number of the master port. Do not change the 05 setting. Save and complete the kernel configuration, recompile, install and reboot. Presuming you have successfully installed the recompiled kernel and have it set to the correct address and IRQ, your boot message should indicate the successful probe of the Boca ports as follows: (obviously the sio numbers, IO and IRQ could be different) sio1 at 0x100-0x107 flags 0x1005 on isa sio1: type 16550A (multiport) sio2 at 0x108-0x10f flags 0x1005 on isa sio2: type 16550A (multiport) sio3 at 0x110-0x117 flags 0x1005 on isa sio3: type 16550A (multiport) sio4 at 0x118-0x11f flags 0x1005 on isa sio4: type 16550A (multiport) sio5 at 0x120-0x127 flags 0x1005 on isa sio5: type 16550A (multiport) sio6 at 0x128-0x12f flags 0x1005 on isa sio6: type 16550A (multiport) sio7 at 0x130-0x137 flags 0x1005 on isa sio7: type 16550A (multiport) sio8 at 0x138-0x13f flags 0x1005 on isa sio8: type 16550A (multiport) sio9 at 0x140-0x147 flags 0x1005 on isa sio9: type 16550A (multiport) sio10 at 0x148-0x14f flags 0x1005 on isa sio10: type 16550A (multiport) sio11 at 0x150-0x157 flags 0x1005 on isa sio11: type 16550A (multiport) sio12 at 0x158-0x15f flags 0x1005 on isa sio12: type 16550A (multiport) sio13 at 0x160-0x167 flags 0x1005 on isa sio13: type 16550A (multiport) sio14 at 0x168-0x16f flags 0x1005 on isa sio14: type 16550A (multiport) sio15 at 0x170-0x177 flags 0x1005 on isa sio15: type 16550A (multiport) sio16 at 0x178-0x17f irq 3 flags 0x1005 on isa sio16: type 16550A (multiport master) If the messages go by too fast to see, &prompt.root; dmesg | more will show you the boot messages. Next, appropriate entries in /dev for the devices must be made using the /dev/MAKEDEV script. After becoming root: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tty1 &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV cua1 (everything in between) &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV ttyg &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV cuag If you do not want or need callout devices for some reason, you can dispense with making the cua* devices. If you want a quick and sloppy way to make sure the devices are working, you can simply plug a modem into each port and (as root) &prompt.root; echo at > ttyd* for each device you have made. You should see the RX lights flash for each working port. Support for Cheap Multi-UART Cards Contributed by Helge Oldach hmo@sep.hamburg.com, September 1999 Ever wondered about FreeBSD support for your 20$ multi-I/O card with two (or more) COM ports, sharing IRQs? Here's how: Usually the only option to support these kind of boards is to use a distinct IRQ for each port. For example, if your CPU board has an on-board COM1 port (aka sio0–I/O address 0x3F8 and IRQ 4) and you have an extension board with two UARTs, you will commonly need to configure them as COM2 (aka sio1–I/O address 0x2F8 and IRQ 3), and the third port (aka sio2) as I/O 0x3E8 and IRQ 5. Obviously this is a waste of IRQ ressources, as it should be basically possible to run both extension board ports using a single IRQ with the COM_MULTIPORT configuration described in the previous sections. Such cheap I/O boards commonly have a 4 by 3 jumper matrix for the COM ports, similar to the following: o o o * Port A | o * o * Port B | o * o o IRQ 2 3 4 5 Shown here is port A wired for IRQ 5 and port B wired for IRQ 3. The IRQ columns on your specific board may vary—other boards may supply jumpers for IRQs 3, 4, 5, and 7 instead. One could conclude that wiring both ports for IRQ 3 using a handcrafted wire-made jumper covering all three connection points in the IRQ 3 column would solve the issue, but no. You cannot duplicate IRQ 3 because the output drivers of each UART are wired - in a “totem pole” fashion, so if one of the UARTs + in a totem pole fashion, so if one of the UARTs drives IRQ 3, the output signal will not be what you would expect. Depending on the implementation of the extension board or your motherboard, the IRQ 3 line will continuously stay up, or always stay low. You need to decouple the IRQ drivers for the two UARTs, so that the IRQ line of the board only goes up if (and only if) one of the UARTs asserts a IRQ, and stays low otherwise. The solution was proposed by Jrg Wunsch j@ida.interface-business.de: To solder up a wired-or consisting of two diodes (Germanium or Schottky-types strongly preferred) and a 1 kOhm resistor. Here is the schematic, starting from the 4 by 3 jumper field above: Diode +---------->|-------+ / | o * o o | 1 kOhm Port A +----|######|-------+ o * o o | | Port B `-------------------+ ==+== o * o o | Ground \ | +--------->|-------+ IRQ 2 3 4 5 Diode The cathodes of the diodes are connected to a common point, together with a 1 kOhm pull-down resistor. It is essential to connect the resistor to ground to avoid floating of the IRQ line on the bus. Now we are ready to configure a kernel. Staying with this example, we would configure: # standard on-board COM1 port device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 # patched-up multi-I/O extension board options COM_MULTIPORT device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x205 device sio2 at isa? port "IO_COM3" tty flags 0x205 irq 3 Note that the flags setting for sio1 and sio2 is truely essential; refer to &man.sio.4; for details. (Generally, the 2 in the "flags" attribute refers to sio2 which holds the IRQ, and you surely want a 5 low nibble.) With kernel verbose mode turned on this should yield something similar to this: sio0: irq maps: 0x1 0x11 0x1 0x1 sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 flags 0x10 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1: irq maps: 0x1 0x9 0x1 0x1 sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff flags 0x205 on isa sio1: type 16550A (multiport) sio2: irq maps: 0x1 0x9 0x1 0x1 sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 3 flags 0x205 on isa sio2: type 16550A (multiport master) Though /sys/i386/isa/sio.c is somewhat - cryptic with its use of the “irq maps” array above, + cryptic with its use of the irq maps array above, the basic idea is that you observe 0x1 in the first, third, and fourth place. This means that the corresponding IRQ was set upon output and cleared after, which is just what we would expect. If your kernel does not display this behaviour, most likely there is something wrong with your wiring. Configuring the <devicename>cy</devicename> driver Contributed by &a.alex;. 6 June 1996. The Cyclades multiport cards are based on the cy driver instead of the usual sio driver used by other multiport cards. Configuration is a simple matter of: Add the cy device to your kernel configuration (note that your irq and iomem settings may differ). device cy0 at isa? tty irq 10 iomem 0xd4000 iosiz 0x2000 vector cyintr Rebuild and install the new kernel. Make the device nodes by typing (the following example assumes an 8-port board): &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; for i in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7;do ./MAKEDEV cuac$i ttyc$i;done If appropriate, add dialup entries to /etc/ttys by duplicating serial device (ttyd) entries and using ttyc in place of ttyd. For example: ttyc0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure ttyc1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure ttyc2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure … ttyc7 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown on insecure Reboot with the new kernel. Configuring the <devicename>si</devicename> driver Contributed by &a.nsayer;. 25 March 1998. The Specialix SI/XIO and SX multiport cards use the si driver. A single machine can have up to 4 host cards. The following host cards are supported: ISA SI/XIO host card (2 versions) EISA SI/XIO host card PCI SI/XIO host card ISA SX host card PCI SX host card Although the SX and SI/XIO host cards look markedly different, their functionality are basically the same. The host cards do not use I/O locations, but instead require a 32K chunk of memory. The factory configuration for ISA cards places this at 0xd0000-0xd7fff. They also require an IRQ. PCI cards will, of course, autoconfigure themselves. You can attach up to 4 external modules to each host card. The external modules contain either 4 or 8 serial ports. They come in the following varieties: SI 4 or 8 port modules. Up to 57600 bps on each port supported. XIO 8 port modules. Up to 115200 bps on each port supported. One type of XIO module has 7 serial and 1 parallel port. SXDC 8 port modules. Up to 921600 bps on each port supported. Like XIO, a module is available with one parallel port as well. To configure an ISA host card, add the following line to your kernel configuration file, changing the numbers as appropriate: device si0 at isa? tty iomem 0xd0000 irq 11 Valid IRQ numbers are 9, 10, 11, 12 and 15 for SX ISA host cards and 11, 12 and 15 for SI/XIO ISA host cards. To configure an EISA or PCI host card, use this line: device si0 After adding the configuration entry, rebuild and install your new kernel. After rebooting with the new kernel, you need to make the device nodes in /dev. The MAKEDEV script will take care of this for you. Count how many total ports you have and type: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV ttyAnn cuaAnn (where nn is the number of ports) If you want login prompts to appear on these ports, you will need to add lines like this to /etc/ttys: ttyA01 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" vt100 on insecure Change the terminal type as appropriate. For modems, dialup or unknown is fine. * Parallel ports * Modems * Network cards * Keyboards Mice Contributed by Joel Sutton jsutton@bbcon.com.au January 2000 FreeBSD supports a variety of different mice via the PS/2, serial and USB ports. Most users choose to use the mouse daemon to handle their mouse because it allows interaction in both X and on the system console. For more information on the mouse daemon refer to &man.moused.8;. The examples throughout this section assume that the mouse daemon is being used. This section contains the names of specific products that the author has confirmed will work with FreeBSD. Other similar devices not listed may also be supported. PS/2 System Configuration To ensure that your PS/2 mouse functions correctly with the mouse daemon you will need to include the following text in /etc/rc.conf moused_enable="YES" moused_type="ps/2" moused_port="/dev/psm0" Known Compatible Devices Logitech First Mouse - Three Button Microsoft Serial - PS/2 Compatible Mouse Serial System Configuration To ensure that your serial mouse functions correctly with the mouse daemon you will need to include the following text in /etc/rc.conf. This example assumes that the mouse is connected to COM1: and can be automatically recognised by the mouse daemon. moused_enable="YES" moused_type="auto" moused_port="/dev/cuaa0" See the &man.moused.8; manual page for a detailed description of how to configure the mouse daemon to work with specific types of serial mice. Known Compatible Devices Generic Microsoft Compatible Mice Logitech First Mouse - Three Button Microsoft Serial - PS/2 Compatible Mouse USB System Configuration The USB device drivers are a relatively new addition to FreeBSD and have not yet been included in the GENERIC kernel. The following prodecure is an example of how to setup the relevant drivers on a typical system. Add the ums device to the usb section of your kernel configuration. For example: controller usb0 controller uhci0 device ums0 Rebuild and install the new kernel. Make the device node by typing: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV ums0 Include the following text in /etc/rc.conf to ensure correct operation of the mouse daemon: moused_enable="YES" moused_type="auto" moused_port="/dev/ums0" Reboot the system. &prompt.root; shutdown -r now Known Compatible Devices Logitech TrackMan - Marble Wheel * Other ]]> Storage Devices Using ESDI hard disks Copyright © 1995, &a.wilko;. 24 September 1995. ESDI is an acronym that means Enhanced Small Device Interface. It is loosely based on the good old ST506/412 interface originally devised by Seagate Technology, the makers of the first affordable 5.25" winchester disk. The acronym says Enhanced, and rightly so. In the first place the speed of the interface is higher, 10 or 15 Mbits/second instead of the 5 Mbits/second of ST412 interfaced drives. Secondly some higher level commands are added, making the ESDI interface somewhat 'smarter' to the operating system driver writers. It is by no means as smart as SCSI by the way. ESDI is standardized by ANSI. Capacities of the drives are boosted by putting more sectors on each track. Typical is 35 sectors per track, high capacity drives I have seen were up to 54 sectors/track. Although ESDI has been largely obsoleted by IDE and SCSI interfaces, the availability of free or cheap surplus drives makes them ideal for low (or now) budget systems. Concepts of ESDI Physical connections The ESDI interface uses two cables connected to each drive. One cable is a 34 pin flat cable edge connector that carries the command and status signals from the controller to the drive and vice-versa. The command cable is daisy chained between all the drives. So, it forms a bus onto which all drives are connected. The second cable is a 20 pin flat cable edge connector that carries the data to and from the drive. This cable is radially connected, so each drive has its own direct connection to the controller. To the best of my knowledge PC ESDI controllers are limited to using a maximum of 2 drives per controller. This is compatibility feature(?) left over from the WD1003 standard that reserves only a single bit for device addressing. Device addressing On each command cable a maximum of 7 devices and 1 controller can be present. To enable the controller to uniquely identify which drive it addresses, each ESDI device is equipped with jumpers or switches to select the devices address. On PC type controllers the first drive is set to address 0, the second disk to address 1. Always make sure you set each disk to an unique address! So, on a PC with its two drives/controller maximum the first drive is drive 0, the second is drive 1. Termination The daisy chained command cable (the 34 pin cable remember?) needs to be terminated at the last drive on the chain. For this purpose ESDI drives come with a termination resistor network that can be removed or disabled by a jumper when it is not used. So, one and only one drive, the one at the farthest end of the command cable has its terminator installed/enabled. The controller automatically terminates the other end of the cable. Please note that this implies that the controller must be at one end of the cable and not in the middle. Using ESDI disks with FreeBSD Why is ESDI such a pain to get working in the first place? People who tried ESDI disks with FreeBSD are known to have developed a profound sense of frustration. A combination of factors works against you to produce effects that are hard to understand when you have never seen them before. This has also led to the popular legend ESDI and FreeBSD is a plain NO-GO. The following sections try to list all the pitfalls and solutions. ESDI speed variants As briefly mentioned before, ESDI comes in two speed flavors. The older drives and controllers use a 10 Mbits/second data transfer rate. Newer stuff uses 15 Mbits/second. It is not hard to imagine that 15 Mbits/second drive cause problems on controllers laid out for 10 Mbits/second. As always, consult your controller and drive documentation to see if things match. Stay on track Mainstream ESDI drives use 34 to 36 sectors per track. Most (older) controllers cannot handle more than this number of sectors. Newer, higher capacity, drives use higher numbers of sectors per track. For instance, I own a 670 Mb drive that has 54 sectors per track. In my case, the controller could not handle this number of sectors. It proved to work well except that it only used 35 sectors on each track. This meant losing a lot of disk space. Once again, check the documentation of your hardware for more info. Going out-of-spec like in the example might or might not work. Give it a try or get another more capable controller. Hard or soft sectoring Most ESDI drives allow hard or soft sectoring to be selected using a jumper. Hard sectoring means that the drive will produce a sector pulse on the start of each new sector. The controller uses this pulse to tell when it should start to write or read. Hard sectoring allows a selection of sector size (normally 256, 512 or 1024 bytes per formatted sector). FreeBSD uses 512 byte sectors. The number of sectors per track also varies while still using the same number of bytes per formatted sector. The number of unformatted bytes per sector varies, dependent on your controller it needs more or less overhead bytes to work correctly. Pushing more sectors on a track of course gives you more usable space, but might give problems if your controller needs more bytes than the drive offers. In case of soft sectoring, the controller itself determines where to start/stop reading or writing. For ESDI hard sectoring is the default (at least on everything I came across). I never felt the urge to try soft sectoring. In general, experiment with sector settings before you install FreeBSD because you need to re-run the low-level format after each change. Low level formatting ESDI drives need to be low level formatted before they are usable. A reformat is needed whenever you figgle with the number of sectors/track jumpers or the physical orientation of the drive (horizontal, vertical). So, first think, then format. The format time must not be underestimated, for big disks it can take hours. After a low level format, a surface scan is done to find and flag bad sectors. Most disks have a manufacturer bad block list listed on a piece of paper or adhesive sticker. In addition, on most disks the list is also written onto the disk. Please use the manufacturer's list. It is much easier to remap a defect now than after FreeBSD is installed. Stay away from low-level formatters that mark all sectors of a track as bad as soon as they find one bad sector. Not only does this waste space, it also and more importantly causes you grief with bad144 (see the section on bad144). Translations Translations, although not exclusively a ESDI-only problem, might give you real trouble. Translations come in multiple flavors. Most of them have in common that they attempt to work around the limitations posed upon disk geometries by the original IBM PC/AT design (thanks IBM!). First of all there is the (in)famous 1024 cylinder limit. For a system to be able to boot, the stuff (whatever operating system) must be in the first 1024 cylinders of a disk. Only 10 bits are available to encode the cylinder number. For the number of sectors the limit is 64 (0-63). When you combine the 1024 cylinder limit with the 16 head limit (also a design feature) you max out at fairly limited disk sizes. To work around this problem, the manufacturers of ESDI PC controllers added a BIOS prom extension on their boards. This BIOS extension handles disk I/O for booting (and for some operating systems all disk I/O) by using translation. For instance, a big drive might be presented to the system as having 32 heads and 64 sectors/track. The result is that the number of cylinders is reduced to something below 1024 and is therefore usable by the system without problems. It is noteworthy to know that FreeBSD does not use the BIOS after its kernel has started. More on this later. A second reason for translations is the fact that most older system BIOSes could only handle drives with 17 sectors per track (the old ST412 standard). Newer system BIOSes usually have a user-defined drive type (in most cases this is drive type 47). Whatever you do to translations after reading this document, keep in mind that if you have multiple operating systems on the same disk, all must use the same translation While on the subject of translations, I have seen one controller type (but there are probably more like this) offer the option to logically split a drive in multiple partitions as a BIOS option. I had select 1 drive == 1 partition because this controller wrote this info onto the disk. On power-up it read the info and presented itself to the system based on the info from the disk. Spare sectoring Most ESDI controllers offer the possibility to remap bad sectors. During/after the low-level format of the disk bad sectors are marked as such, and a replacement sector is put in place (logically of course) of the bad one. In most cases the remapping is done by using N-1 sectors on each track for actual data storage, and sector N itself is the spare sector. N is the total number of sectors physically available on the track. The idea behind this is that the operating system sees a 'perfect' disk without bad sectors. In the case of FreeBSD this concept is not usable. The problem is that the translation from bad to good is performed by the BIOS of the ESDI controller. FreeBSD, being a true 32 bit operating system, does not use the BIOS after it has been booted. Instead, it has device drivers that talk directly to the hardware. So: don't use spare sectoring, bad block remapping or whatever it may be called by the controller manufacturer when you want to use the disk for FreeBSD. Bad block handling The preceding section leaves us with a problem. The controller's bad block handling is not usable and still FreeBSD's filesystems assume perfect media without any flaws. To solve this problem, FreeBSD use the bad144 tool. Bad144 (named after a Digital Equipment standard for bad block handling) scans a FreeBSD slice for bad blocks. Having found these bad blocks, it writes a table with the offending block numbers to the end of the FreeBSD slice. When the disk is in operation, the disk accesses are checked against the table read from the disk. Whenever a block number is requested that is in the bad144 list, a replacement block (also from the end of the FreeBSD slice) is used. In this way, the bad144 replacement scheme presents 'perfect' media to the FreeBSD filesystems. There are a number of potential pitfalls associated with the use of bad144. First of all, the slice cannot have more than 126 bad sectors. If your drive has a high number of bad sectors, you might need to divide it into multiple FreeBSD slices each containing less than 126 bad sectors. Stay away from low-level format programs that mark every sector of a track as bad when they find a flaw on the track. As you can imagine, the 126 limit is quickly reached when the low-level format is done this way. Second, if the slice contains the root filesystem, the slice should be within the 1024 cylinder BIOS limit. During the boot process the bad144 list is read using the BIOS and this only succeeds when the list is within the 1024 cylinder limit. The restriction is not that only the root filesystem must be within the 1024 cylinder limit, but rather the entire slice that contains the root filesystem. Kernel configuration ESDI disks are handled by the same wddriver as IDE and ST412 MFM disks. The wd driver should work for all WD1003 compatible interfaces. Most hardware is jumperable for one of two different I/O address ranges and IRQ lines. This allows you to have two wd type controllers in one system. When your hardware allows non-standard strappings, you can use these with FreeBSD as long as you enter the correct info into the kernel config file. An example from the kernel config file (they live in /sys/i386/conf BTW). # First WD compatible controller controller wdc0 at isa? port "IO_WD1" bio irq 14 vector wdintr disk wd0 at wdc0 drive 0 disk wd1 at wdc0 drive 1 # Second WD compatible controller controller wdc1 at isa? port "IO_WD2" bio irq 15 vector wdintr disk wd2 at wdc1 drive 0 disk wd3 at wdc1 drive 1 Particulars on ESDI hardware Adaptec 2320 controllers I successfully installed FreeBSD onto a ESDI disk controlled by a ACB-2320. No other operating system was present on the disk. To do so I low level formatted the disk using NEFMT.EXE (ftpable from www.adaptec.com) and answered NO to the question whether the disk should be formatted with a spare sector on each track. The BIOS on the ACD-2320 was disabled. I used the free configurable option in the system BIOS to allow the BIOS to boot it. Before using NEFMT.EXE I tried to format the disk using the ACB-2320 BIOS builtin formatter. This proved to be a show stopper, because it did not give me an option to disable spare sectoring. With spare sectoring enabled the FreeBSD installation process broke down on the bad144 run. Please check carefully which ACB-232xy variant you have. The x is either 0 or 2, indicating a controller without or with a floppy controller on board. The y is more interesting. It can either be a blank, a A-8 or a D. A blank indicates a plain 10 Mbits/second controller. An A-8 indicates a 15 Mbits/second controller capable of handling 52 sectors/track. A D means a 15 Mbits/second controller that can also handle drives with > 36 sectors/track (also 52 ?). All variations should be capable of using 1:1 interleaving. Use 1:1, FreeBSD is fast enough to handle it. Western Digital WD1007 controllers I successfully installed FreeBSD onto a ESDI disk controlled by a WD1007 controller. To be precise, it was a WD1007-WA2. Other variations of the WD1007 do exist. To get it to work, I had to disable the sector translation and the WD1007's onboard BIOS. This implied I could not use the low-level formatter built into this BIOS. Instead, I grabbed WDFMT.EXE from www.wdc.com Running this formatted my drive just fine. Ultrastor U14F controllers According to multiple reports from the net, Ultrastor ESDI boards work OK with FreeBSD. I lack any further info on particular settings. Further reading If you intend to do some serious ESDI hacking, you might want to have the official standard at hand: The latest ANSI X3T10 committee document is: Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) [X3.170-1990/X3.170a-1991] [X3T10/792D Rev 11] On Usenet the newsgroup comp.periphs is a noteworthy place to look for more info. The World Wide Web (WWW) also proves to be a very handy info source: For info on Adaptec ESDI controllers see http://www.adaptec.com/. For info on Western Digital controllers see http://www.wdc.com/. Thanks to... Andrew Gordon for sending me an Adaptec 2320 controller and ESDI disk for testing. What is SCSI? Copyright © 1995, &a.wilko;. July 6, 1996. SCSI is an acronym for Small Computer Systems Interface. It is an ANSI standard that has become one of the leading I/O buses in the computer industry. The foundation of the SCSI standard was laid by Shugart Associates (the same guys that gave the world the first mini floppy disks) when they introduced the SASI bus (Shugart Associates Standard Interface). After some time an industry effort was started to come to a more strict standard allowing devices from different vendors to work together. This effort was recognized in the ANSI SCSI-1 standard. The SCSI-1 standard (approx 1985) is rapidly becoming obsolete. The current standard is SCSI-2 (see Further reading), with SCSI-3 on the drawing boards. In addition to a physical interconnection standard, SCSI defines a logical (command set) standard to which disk devices must adhere. This standard is called the Common Command Set (CCS) and was developed more or less in parallel with ANSI SCSI-1. SCSI-2 includes the (revised) CCS as part of the standard itself. The commands are dependent on the type of device at hand. It does not make much sense of course to define a Write command for a scanner. The SCSI bus is a parallel bus, which comes in a number of variants. The oldest and most used is an 8 bit wide bus, with single-ended signals, carried on 50 wires. (If you do not know what single-ended means, do not worry, that is what this document is all about.) Modern designs also use 16 bit wide buses, with differential signals. This allows transfer speeds of 20Mbytes/second, on cables lengths of up to 25 meters. SCSI-2 allows a maximum bus width of 32 bits, using an additional cable. Quickly emerging are Ultra SCSI (also called Fast-20) and Ultra2 (also called Fast-40). Fast-20 is 20 million transfers per second (20 Mbytes/sec on a 8 bit bus), Fast-40 is 40 million transfers per second (40 Mbytes/sec on a 8 bit bus). Most hard drives sold today are single-ended Ultra SCSI (8 or 16 bits). Of course the SCSI bus not only has data lines, but also a number of control signals. A very elaborate protocol is part of the standard to allow multiple devices to share the bus in an efficient manner. In SCSI-2, the data is always checked using a separate parity line. In pre-SCSI-2 designs parity was optional. In SCSI-3 even faster bus types are introduced, along with a serial SCSI busses that reduces the cabling overhead and allows a higher maximum bus length. You might see names like SSA and Fiberchannel in this context. None of the serial buses are currently in widespread use (especially not in the typical FreeBSD environment). For this reason the serial bus types are not discussed any further. As you could have guessed from the description above, SCSI devices are intelligent. They have to be to adhere to the SCSI standard (which is over 2 inches thick BTW). So, for a hard disk drive for instance you do not specify a head/cylinder/sector to address a particular block, but simply the number of the block you want. Elaborate caching schemes, automatic bad block replacement etc are all made possible by this 'intelligent device' approach. On a SCSI bus, each possible pair of devices can communicate. Whether their function allows this is another matter, but the standard does not restrict it. To avoid signal contention, the 2 devices have to arbitrate for the bus before using it. The philosophy of SCSI is to have a standard that allows older-standard devices to work with newer-standard ones. So, an old SCSI-1 device should normally work on a SCSI-2 bus. I say Normally, because it is not absolutely sure that the implementation of an old device follows the (old) standard closely enough to be acceptable on a new bus. Modern devices are usually more well-behaved, because the standardization has become more strict and is better adhered to by the device manufacturers. Generally speaking, the chances of getting a working set of devices on a single bus is better when all the devices are SCSI-2 or newer. This implies that you do not have to dump all your old stuff when you get that shiny 2GB disk: I own a system on which a pre-SCSI-1 disk, a SCSI-2 QIC tape unit, a SCSI-1 helical scan tape unit and 2 SCSI-1 disks work together quite happily. From a performance standpoint you might want to separate your older and newer (=faster) devices however. Components of SCSI As said before, SCSI devices are smart. The idea is to put the knowledge about intimate hardware details onto the SCSI device itself. In this way, the host system does not have to worry about things like how many heads are hard disks has, or how many tracks there are on a specific tape device. If you are curious, the standard specifies commands with which you can query your devices on their hardware particulars. FreeBSD uses this capability during boot to check out what devices are connected and whether they need any special treatment. The advantage of intelligent devices is obvious: the device drivers on the host can be made in a much more generic fashion, there is no longer a need to change (and qualify!) drivers for every odd new device that is introduced. For cabling and connectors there is a golden rule: get good stuff. With bus speeds going up all the time you will save yourself a lot of grief by using good material. So, gold plated connectors, shielded cabling, sturdy connector hoods with strain reliefs etc are the way to go. Second golden rule: do no use cables longer than necessary. I once spent 3 days hunting down a problem with a flaky machine only to discover that shortening the SCSI bus by 1 meter solved the problem. And the original bus length was well within the SCSI specification. SCSI bus types From an electrical point of view, there are two incompatible bus types: single-ended and differential. This means that there are two different main groups of SCSI devices and controllers, which cannot be mixed on the same bus. It is possible however to use special converter hardware to transform a single-ended bus into a differential one (and vice versa). The differences between the bus types are explained in the next sections. In lots of SCSI related documentation there is a sort of jargon in use to abbreviate the different bus types. A small list: FWD: Fast Wide Differential FND: Fast Narrow Differential SE: Single Ended FN: Fast Narrow etc. With a minor amount of imagination one can usually imagine what is meant. Wide is a bit ambiguous, it can indicate 16 or 32 bit buses. As far as I know, the 32 bit variant is not (yet) in use, so wide normally means 16 bit. Fast means that the timing on the bus is somewhat different, so that on a narrow (8 bit) bus 10 Mbytes/sec are possible instead of 5 Mbytes/sec for 'slow' SCSI. As discussed before, bus speeds of 20 and 40 million transfers/second are also emerging (Fast-20 == Ultra SCSI and Fast-40 == Ultra2 SCSI). The data lines > 8 are only used for data transfers and device addressing. The transfers of commands and status messages etc are only performed on the lowest 8 data lines. The standard allows narrow devices to operate on a wide bus. The usable bus width is negotiated between the devices. You have to watch your device addressing closely when mixing wide and narrow. Single ended buses A single-ended SCSI bus uses signals that are either 5 Volts or 0 Volts (indeed, TTL levels) and are relative to a COMMON ground reference. A singled ended 8 bit SCSI bus has approximately 25 ground lines, who are all tied to a single `rail' on all devices. A standard single ended bus has a maximum length of 6 meters. If the same bus is used with fast-SCSI devices, the maximum length allowed drops to 3 meters. Fast-SCSI means that instead of 5Mbytes/sec the bus allows 10Mbytes/sec transfers. Fast-20 (Ultra SCSI) and Fast-40 allow for 20 and 40 million transfers/second respectively. So, F20 is 20 Mbytes/second on a 8 bit bus, 40 Mbytes/second on a 16 bit bus etc. For F20 the max bus length is 1.5 meters, for F40 it becomes 0.75 meters. Be aware that F20 is pushing the limits quite a bit, so you will quickly find out if your SCSI bus is electrically sound. If some devices on your bus use 'fast' to communicate your bus must adhere to the length restrictions for fast buses! It is obvious that with the newer fast-SCSI devices the bus length can become a real bottleneck. This is why the differential SCSI bus was introduced in the SCSI-2 standard. For connector pinning and connector types please refer to the SCSI-2 standard (see Further reading) itself, connectors etc are listed there in painstaking detail. Beware of devices using non-standard cabling. For instance Apple uses a 25pin D-type connecter (like the one on serial ports and parallel printers). Considering that the official SCSI bus needs 50 pins you can imagine the use of this connector needs some 'creative cabling'. The reduction of the number of ground wires they used is a bad idea, you better stick to 50 pins cabling in accordance with the SCSI standard. For Fast-20 and 40 do not even think about buses like this. Differential buses A differential SCSI bus has a maximum length of 25 meters. Quite a difference from the 3 meters for a single-ended fast-SCSI bus. The idea behind differential signals is that each bus signal has its own return wire. So, each signal is carried on a (preferably twisted) pair of wires. The voltage difference between these two wires determines whether the signal is asserted or de-asserted. To a certain extent the voltage difference between ground and the signal wire pair is not relevant (do not try 10 kVolts though). It is beyond the scope of this document to explain why this differential idea is so much better. Just accept that electrically seen the use of differential signals gives a much better noise margin. You will normally find differential buses in use for inter-cabinet connections. Because of the lower cost single ended is mostly used for shorter buses like inside cabinets. There is nothing that stops you from using differential stuff with FreeBSD, as long as you use a controller that has device driver support in FreeBSD. As an example, Adaptec marketed the AHA1740 as a single ended board, whereas the AHA1744 was differential. The software interface to the host is identical for both. Terminators Terminators in SCSI terminology are resistor networks that are used to get a correct impedance matching. Impedance matching is important to get clean signals on the bus, without reflections or ringing. If you once made a long distance telephone call on a bad line you probably know what reflections are. With 20Mbytes/sec traveling over your SCSI bus, you do not want signals echoing back. Terminators come in various incarnations, with more or less sophisticated designs. Of course, there are internal and external variants. Many SCSI devices come with a number of sockets in which a number of resistor networks can (must be!) installed. If you remove terminators from a device, carefully store them. You will need them when you ever decide to reconfigure your SCSI bus. There is enough variation in even these simple tiny things to make finding the exact replacement a frustrating business. There are also SCSI devices that have a single jumper to enable or disable a built-in terminator. There are special terminators you can stick onto a flat cable bus. Others look like external connectors, or a connector hood without a cable. So, lots of choice as you can see. There is much debate going on if and when you should switch from simple resistor (passive) terminators to active terminators. Active terminators contain slightly more elaborate circuit to give cleaner bus signals. The general consensus seems to be that the usefulness of active termination increases when you have long buses and/or fast devices. If you ever have problems with your SCSI buses you might consider trying an active terminator. Try to borrow one first, they reputedly are quite expensive. Please keep in mind that terminators for differential and single-ended buses are not identical. You should not mix the two variants. OK, and now where should you install your terminators? This is by far the most misunderstood part of SCSI. And it is by far the simplest. The rule is: every single line on the SCSI bus has 2 (two) terminators, one at each end of the bus. So, two and not one or three or whatever. Do yourself a favor and stick to this rule. It will save you endless grief, because wrong termination has the potential to introduce - highly mysterious bugs. (Note the “potential” here; + highly mysterious bugs. (Note the potential here; the nastiest part is that it may or may not work.) A common pitfall is to have an internal (flat) cable in a machine and also an external cable attached to the controller. It seems almost everybody forgets to remove the terminators from the controller. The terminator must now be on the last external device, and not on the controller! In general, every reconfiguration of a SCSI bus must pay attention to this. Termination is to be done on a per-line basis. This means if you have both narrow and wide buses connected to the same host adapter, you need to enable termination on the higher 8 bits of the bus on the adapter (as well as the last devices on each bus, of course). What I did myself is remove all terminators from my SCSI devices and controllers. I own a couple of external terminators, for both the Centronics-type external cabling and for the internal flat cable connectors. This makes reconfiguration much easier. On modern devices, sometimes integrated terminators are used. These things are special purpose integrated circuits that can be dis/en-abled with a control pin. It is not necessary to physically remove them from a device. You may find them on newer host adapters, sometimes they are software configurable, using some sort of setup tool. Some will even auto-detect the cables attached to the connectors and automatically set up the termination as necessary. At any rate, consult your documentation! Terminator power The terminators discussed in the previous chapter need power to operate properly. On the SCSI bus, a line is dedicated to this purpose. So, simple huh? Not so. Each device can provide its own terminator power to the terminator sockets it has on-device. But if you have external terminators, or when the device supplying the terminator power to the SCSI bus line is switched off you are in trouble. The idea is that initiators (these are devices that initiate actions on the bus, a discussion follows) must supply terminator power. All SCSI devices are allowed (but not required) to supply terminator power. To allow for un-powered devices on a bus, the terminator power must be supplied to the bus via a diode. This prevents the backflow of current to un-powered devices. To prevent all kinds of nastiness, the terminator power is usually fused. As you can imagine, fuses might blow. This can, but does not have to, lead to a non functional bus. If multiple devices supply terminator power, a single blown fuse will not put you out of business. A single supplier with a blown fuse certainly will. Clever external terminators sometimes have a LED indication that shows whether terminator power is present. In newer designs auto-restoring fuses that 'reset' themselves after some time are sometimes used. Device addressing Because the SCSI bus is, ehh, a bus there must be a way to distinguish or address the different devices connected to it. This is done by means of the SCSI or target ID. Each device has a unique target ID. You can select the ID to which a device must respond using a set of jumpers, or a dip switch, or something similar. Some SCSI host adapters let you change the target ID from the boot menu. (Yet some others will not let you change the ID from 7.) Consult the documentation of your device for more information. Beware of multiple devices configured to use the same ID. Chaos normally reigns in this case. A pitfall is that one of the devices sharing the same ID sometimes even manages to answer to I/O requests! For an 8 bit bus, a maximum of 8 targets is possible. The maximum is 8 because the selection is done bitwise using the 8 data lines on the bus. For wide buses this increases to the number of data lines (usually 16). A narrow SCSI device can not communicate with a SCSI device with a target ID larger than 7. This means it is generally not a good idea to move your SCSI host adapter's target ID to something higher than 7 (or your CD-ROM will stop working). The higher the SCSI target ID, the higher the priority the devices has. When it comes to arbitration between devices that want to use the bus at the same time, the device that has the highest SCSI ID will win. This also means that the SCSI host adapter usually uses target ID 7. Note however that the lower 8 IDs have higher priorities than the higher 8 IDs on a wide-SCSI bus. Thus, the order of target IDs is: [7 6 .. 1 0 15 14 .. 9 8] on a wide-SCSI system. (If you you are wondering why the lower 8 have higher priority, read the previous paragraph for a hint.) For a further subdivision, the standard allows for Logical Units or LUNs for short. A single target ID may have multiple LUNs. For example, a tape device including a tape changer may have LUN 0 for the tape device itself, and LUN 1 for the tape changer. In this way, the host system can address each of the functional units of the tape changer as desired. Bus layout SCSI buses are linear. So, not shaped like Y-junctions, star topologies, rings, cobwebs or whatever else people might want to invent. One of the most common mistakes is for people with wide-SCSI host adapters to connect devices on all three connecters (external connector, internal wide connector, internal narrow connector). Don't do that. It may appear to work if you are really lucky, but I can almost guarantee that your system will stop functioning at the most unfortunate moment (this is also - known as “Murphy's law”). + known as Murphy's law). You might notice that the terminator issue discussed earlier becomes rather hairy if your bus is not linear. Also, if you have more connectors than devices on your internal SCSI cable, make sure you attach devices on connectors on both ends instead of using the connectors in the middle and let one or both ends dangle. This will screw up the termination of the bus. The electrical characteristics, its noise margins and ultimately the reliability of it all are tightly related to linear bus rule. Stick to the linear bus rule! Using SCSI with FreeBSD About translations, BIOSes and magic... As stated before, you should first make sure that you have a electrically sound bus. When you want to use a SCSI disk on your PC as boot disk, you must aware of some quirks related to PC BIOSes. The PC BIOS in its first incarnation used a low level physical interface to the hard disk. So, you had to tell the BIOS (using a setup tool or a BIOS built-in setup) how your disk physically looked like. This involved stating number of heads, number of cylinders, number of sectors per track, obscure things like precompensation and reduced write current cylinder etc. One might be inclined to think that since SCSI disks are smart you can forget about this. Alas, the arcane setup issue is still present today. The system BIOS needs to know how to access your SCSI disk with the head/cyl/sector method in order to load the FreeBSD kernel during boot. The SCSI host adapter or SCSI controller you have put in your AT/EISA/PCI/whatever bus to connect your disk therefore has its own on-board BIOS. During system startup, the SCSI BIOS takes over the hard disk interface routines from the system BIOS. To fool the system BIOS, the system setup is normally set to No hard disk present. Obvious, isn't it? The SCSI BIOS itself presents to the system a so called translated drive. This means that a fake drive table is constructed that allows the PC to boot the drive. This translation is often (but not always) done using a pseudo drive with 64 heads and 32 sectors per track. By varying the number of cylinders, the SCSI BIOS adapts to the actual drive size. It is useful to note that 32 * 64 / 2 = the size of your drive in megabytes. The division by 2 is to get from disk blocks that are normally 512 bytes in size to Kbytes. Right. All is well now?! No, it is not. The system BIOS has another quirk you might run into. The number of cylinders of a bootable hard disk cannot be greater than 1024. Using the translation above, this is a show-stopper for disks greater than 1 GB. With disk capacities going up all the time this is causing problems. Fortunately, the solution is simple: just use another translation, e.g. with 128 heads instead of 32. In most cases new SCSI BIOS versions are available to upgrade older SCSI host adapters. Some newer adapters have an option, in the form of a jumper or software setup selection, to switch the translation the SCSI BIOS uses. It is very important that all operating systems on the disk use the same translation to get the right idea about where to find the relevant partitions. So, when installing FreeBSD you must answer any questions about heads/cylinders etc using the translated values your host adapter uses. Failing to observe the translation issue might lead to un-bootable systems or operating systems overwriting each others partitions. Using fdisk you should be able to see all partitions. - You might have heard some talk of “lying” devices? + You might have heard some talk of lying devices? Older FreeBSD kernels used to report the geometry of SCSI disks when booting. An example from one of my systems: aha0 targ 0 lun 0: <MICROP 1588-15MB1057404HSP4> sd0: 636MB (1303250 total sec), 1632 cyl, 15 head, 53 sec, bytes/sec 512 Newer kernels usually do not report this information. e.g. (bt0:0:0): "SEAGATE ST41651 7574" type 0 fixed SCSI 2 sd0(bt0:0:0): Direct-Access 1350MB (2766300 512 byte sectors) Why has this changed? This info is retrieved from the SCSI disk itself. Newer disks often use a technique called zone bit recording. The idea is that on the outer cylinders of the drive there is more space so more sectors per track can be put on them. This results in disks that have more tracks on outer cylinders than on the inner cylinders and, last but not least, have more capacity. You can imagine that the value reported by the drive when inquiring about the geometry now becomes suspect at best, and nearly always misleading. When asked for a geometry , it is nearly always better to supply the geometry used by the BIOS, or if the BIOS is never going to know about this disk, (e.g. it is not a booting disk) to supply a fictitious geometry that is convenient. SCSI subsystem design FreeBSD uses a layered SCSI subsystem. For each different controller card a device driver is written. This driver knows all the intimate details about the hardware it controls. The driver has a interface to the upper layers of the SCSI subsystem through which it receives its commands and reports back any status. On top of the card drivers there are a number of more generic drivers for a class of devices. More specific: a driver for tape devices (abbreviation: st), magnetic disks (sd), CD-ROMs (cd) etc. In case you are wondering where you can find this stuff, it all lives in /sys/scsi. See the man pages in section 4 for more details. The multi level design allows a decoupling of low-level bit banging and more high level stuff. Adding support for another piece of hardware is a much more manageable problem. Kernel configuration Dependent on your hardware, the kernel configuration file must contain one or more lines describing your host adapter(s). This includes I/O addresses, interrupts etc. Consult the man page for your adapter driver to get more info. Apart from that, check out /sys/i386/conf/LINT for an overview of a kernel config file. LINT contains every possible option you can dream of. It does not imply LINT will actually get you to a working kernel at all. Although it is probably stating the obvious: the kernel config file should reflect your actual hardware setup. So, interrupts, I/O addresses etc must match the kernel config file. During system boot messages will be displayed to indicate whether the configured hardware was actually found. Note that most of the EISA/PCI drivers (namely ahb, ahc, ncr and amd will automatically obtain the correct parameters from the host adapters themselves at boot time; thus, you just need to write, for instance, controller ahc0. An example loosely based on the FreeBSD 2.2.5-Release kernel config file LINT with some added comments (between []): # SCSI host adapters: `aha', `ahb', `aic', `bt', `nca' # # aha: Adaptec 154x # ahb: Adaptec 174x # ahc: Adaptec 274x/284x/294x # aic: Adaptec 152x and sound cards using the Adaptec AIC-6360 (slow!) # amd: AMD 53c974 based SCSI cards (e.g., Tekram DC-390 and 390T) # bt: Most Buslogic controllers # nca: ProAudioSpectrum cards using the NCR 5380 or Trantor T130 # ncr: NCR/Symbios 53c810/815/825/875 etc based SCSI cards # uha: UltraStore 14F and 34F # sea: Seagate ST01/02 8 bit controller (slow!) # wds: Western Digital WD7000 controller (no scatter/gather!). # [For an Adaptec AHA274x/284x/294x/394x etc controller] controller ahc0 [For an NCR/Symbios 53c875 based controller] controller ncr0 [For an Ultrastor adapter] controller uha0 at isa? port "IO_UHA0" bio irq ? drq 5 vector uhaintr # Map SCSI buses to specific SCSI adapters controller scbus0 at ahc0 controller scbus2 at ncr0 controller scbus1 at uha0 # The actual SCSI devices disk sd0 at scbus0 target 0 unit 0 [SCSI disk 0 is at scbus 0, LUN 0] disk sd1 at scbus0 target 1 [implicit LUN 0 if omitted] disk sd2 at scbus1 target 3 [SCSI disk on the uha0] disk sd3 at scbus2 target 4 [SCSI disk on the ncr0] tape st1 at scbus0 target 6 [SCSI tape at target 6] device cd0 at scbus? [the first ever CD-ROM found, no wiring] The example above tells the kernel to look for a ahc (Adaptec 274x) controller, then for an NCR/Symbios board, and so on. The lines following the controller specifications tell the kernel to configure specific devices but only attach them when they match the target ID and LUN specified on the corresponding bus. - Wired down devices get “first shot” at the unit - numbers so the first non “wired down” device, is + Wired down devices get first shot at the unit + numbers so the first non wired down device, is allocated the unit number one greater than the highest - “wired down” unit number for that kind of device. So, + wired down unit number for that kind of device. So, if you had a SCSI tape at target ID 2 it would be configured as st2, as the tape at target ID 6 is wired down to unit number 1. Wired down devices need not be found to get their unit number. The unit number for a wired down device is reserved for that device, even if it is turned off at boot time. This allows the device to be turned on and brought on-line at a later time, without rebooting. Notice that a device's unit number has no relationship with its target ID on the SCSI bus. Below is another example of a kernel config file as used by FreeBSD version < 2.0.5. The difference with the first example - is that devices are not “wired down”. “Wired - down” means that you specify which SCSI target belongs to + is that devices are not wired down. Wired + down means that you specify which SCSI target belongs to which device. A kernel built to the config file below will attach the first SCSI disk it finds to sd0, the second disk to sd1 etc. If you ever removed or added a disk, all other devices of the same type (disk in this case) would 'move around'. This implies you have to change /etc/fstab each time. Although the old style still works, you are strongly recommended to use this new feature. It will save you a lot of grief whenever you shift your hardware around on the SCSI buses. So, when you re-use your old trusty config file after upgrading from a pre-FreeBSD2.0.5.R system check this out. [driver for Adaptec 174x] controller ahb0 at isa? bio irq 11 vector ahbintr [for Adaptec 154x] controller aha0 at isa? port "IO_AHA0" bio irq 11 drq 5 vector ahaintr [for Seagate ST01/02] controller sea0 at isa? bio irq 5 iomem 0xc8000 iosiz 0x2000 vector seaintr controller scbus0 device sd0 [support for 4 SCSI harddisks, sd0 up sd3] device st0 [support for 2 SCSI tapes] [for the CD-ROM] device cd0 #Only need one of these, the code dynamically grows Both examples support SCSI disks. If during boot more devices of a specific type (e.g. sd disks) are found than are configured in the booting kernel, the system will simply allocate more devices, incrementing the unit number starting at the last number - “wired down”. If there are no “wired - down” devices then counting starts at unit 0. + wired down. If there are no wired + down devices then counting starts at unit 0. Use man 4 scsi to check for the latest info on the SCSI subsystem. For more detailed info on host adapter drivers use eg man 4 ahc for info on the Adaptec 294x driver. Tuning your SCSI kernel setup Experience has shown that some devices are slow to respond to INQUIRY commands after a SCSI bus reset (which happens at boot time). An INQUIRY command is sent by the kernel on boot to see what kind of device (disk, tape, CD-ROM etc) is connected to a specific target ID. This process is called device probing by the way. To work around the 'slow response' problem, FreeBSD allows a tunable delay time before the SCSI devices are probed following a SCSI bus reset. You can set this delay time in your kernel configuration file using a line like: options SCSI_DELAY=15 #Be pessimistic about Joe SCSI device This line sets the delay time to 15 seconds. On my own system I had to use 3 seconds minimum to get my trusty old CD-ROM drive to be recognized. Start with a high value (say 30 seconds or so) when you have problems with device recognition. If this helps, tune it back until it just stays working. Rogue SCSI devices Although the SCSI standard tries to be complete and concise, it is a complex standard and implementing things correctly is no easy task. Some vendors do a better job then others. - This is exactly where the “rogue” devices come + This is exactly where the rogue devices come into view. Rogues are devices that are recognized by the FreeBSD kernel as behaving slightly (...) non-standard. Rogue devices are reported by the kernel when booting. An example for two of my cartridge tape units: Feb 25 21:03:34 yedi /kernel: ahb0 targ 5 lun 0: <TANDBERG TDC 3600 -06:> Feb 25 21:03:34 yedi /kernel: st0: Tandberg tdc3600 is a known rogue Mar 29 21:16:37 yedi /kernel: aha0 targ 5 lun 0: <ARCHIVE VIPER 150 21247-005> Mar 29 21:16:37 yedi /kernel: st1: Archive Viper 150 is a known rogue For instance, there are devices that respond to all LUNs on a certain target ID, even if they are actually only one device. It is easy to see that the kernel might be fooled into believing that there are 8 LUNs at that particular target ID. The confusion this causes is left as an exercise to the reader. The SCSI subsystem of FreeBSD recognizes devices with bad habits by looking at the INQUIRY response they send when probed. Because the INQUIRY response also includes the version number of the device firmware, it is even possible that for different firmware versions different workarounds are used. See e.g. /sys/scsi/st.c and /sys/scsi/scsiconf.c for more info on how this is done. This scheme works fine, but keep in mind that it of course only works for devices that are known to be weird. If you are the first to connect your bogus Mumbletech SCSI CD-ROM you might be the one that has to define which workaround is needed. After you got your Mumbletech working, please send the required workaround to the FreeBSD development team for inclusion in the next release of FreeBSD. Other Mumbletech owners will be grateful to you. Multiple LUN devices In some cases you come across devices that use multiple logical units (LUNs) on a single SCSI ID. In most cases FreeBSD only probes devices for LUN 0. An example are so called bridge boards that connect 2 non-SCSI harddisks to a SCSI bus (e.g. an Emulex MD21 found in old Sun systems). This means that any devices with LUNs != 0 are not normally found during device probe on system boot. To work around this problem you must add an appropriate entry in /sys/scsi/scsiconf.c and rebuild your kernel. Look for a struct that is initialized like below: { T_DIRECT, T_FIXED, "MAXTOR", "XT-4170S", "B5A", "mx1", SC_ONE_LU } For you Mumbletech BRIDGE2000 that has more than one LUN, acts as a SCSI disk and has firmware revision 123 you would add something like: { T_DIRECT, T_FIXED, "MUMBLETECH", "BRIDGE2000", "123", "sd", SC_MORE_LUS } The kernel on boot scans the inquiry data it receives against the table and acts accordingly. See the source for more info. Tagged command queueing Modern SCSI devices, particularly magnetic disks, support what is called tagged command queuing (TCQ). In a nutshell, TCQ allows the device to have multiple I/O requests outstanding at the same time. Because the device is intelligent, it can optimise its operations (like head positioning) based on its own request queue. On SCSI devices like RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) arrays the TCQ function is indispensable to take advantage of the device's inherent parallelism. - Each I/O request is uniquely identified by a “tag” + Each I/O request is uniquely identified by a tag (hence the name tagged command queuing) and this tag is used by FreeBSD to see which I/O in the device drivers queue is reported as complete by the device. It should be noted however that TCQ requires device driver - support and that some devices implemented it “not quite - right” in their firmware. This problem bit me once, and it + support and that some devices implemented it not quite + right in their firmware. This problem bit me once, and it leads to highly mysterious problems. In such cases, try to disable TCQ. Busmaster host adapters Most, but not all, SCSI host adapters are bus mastering controllers. This means that they can do I/O on their own without putting load onto the host CPU for data movement. This is of course an advantage for a multitasking operating system like FreeBSD. It must be noted however that there might be some rough edges. For instance an Adaptec 1542 controller can be set to use different transfer speeds on the host bus (ISA or AT in this case). The controller is settable to different rates because not all motherboards can handle the higher speeds. Problems like hangups, bad data etc might be the result of using a higher data transfer rate then your motherboard can stomach. The solution is of course obvious: switch to a lower data transfer rate and try if that works better. In the case of a Adaptec 1542, there is an option that can be put into the kernel config file to allow dynamic determination of the right, read: fastest feasible, transfer rate. This option is disabled by default: options "TUNE_1542" #dynamic tune of bus DMA speed Check the man pages for the host adapter that you use. Or better still, use the ultimate documentation (read: driver source). Tracking down problems The following list is an attempt to give a guideline for the most common SCSI problems and their solutions. It is by no means complete. Check for loose connectors and cables. Check and double check the location and number of your terminators. Check if your bus has at least one supplier of terminator power (especially with external terminators. Check if no double target IDs are used. Check if all devices to be used are powered up. Make a minimal bus config with as little devices as possible. If possible, configure your host adapter to use slow bus speeds. Disable tagged command queuing to make things as simple as possible (for a NCR hostadapter based system see man ncrcontrol) If you can compile a kernel, make one with the SCSIDEBUG option, and try accessing the device with debugging turned on for that device. If your device does not even probe at startup, you may have to define the address of the device that is failing, and the desired debug level in /sys/scsi/scsidebug.h. If it probes but just does not work, you can use the &man.scsi.8; command to dynamically set a debug level to it in a running kernel (if SCSIDEBUG is defined). This will give you copious debugging output with which to confuse the gurus. See man 4 scsi for more exact information. Also look at man 8 scsi. Further reading If you intend to do some serious SCSI hacking, you might want to have the official standard at hand: Approved American National Standards can be purchased from ANSI at
13th Floor 11 West 42nd Street New York NY 10036 Sales Dept: (212) 642-4900
You can also buy many ANSI standards and most committee draft documents from Global Engineering Documents,
15 Inverness Way East Englewood CO, 80112-5704 Phone: (800) 854-7179 Outside USA and Canada: (303) 792-2181 Fax: (303) 792- 2192
Many X3T10 draft documents are available electronically on the SCSI BBS (719-574-0424) and on the ncrinfo.ncr.com anonymous ftp site. Latest X3T10 committee documents are: AT Attachment (ATA or IDE) [X3.221-1994] (Approved) ATA Extensions (ATA-2) [X3T10/948D Rev 2i] Enhanced Small Device Interface (ESDI) [X3.170-1990/X3.170a-1991] (Approved) Small Computer System Interface — 2 (SCSI-2) [X3.131-1994] (Approved) SCSI-2 Common Access Method Transport and SCSI Interface Module (CAM) [X3T10/792D Rev 11] Other publications that might provide you with additional information are: - “SCSI: Understanding the Small Computer System - Interface”, written by NCR Corporation. Available from: + SCSI: Understanding the Small Computer System + Interface, written by NCR Corporation. Available from: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 07632 Phone: (201) 767-5937 ISBN 0-13-796855-8 - “Basics of SCSI”, a SCSI tutorial written by + Basics of SCSI, a SCSI tutorial written by Ancot Corporation Contact Ancot for availability information at: Phone: (415) 322-5322 Fax: (415) 322-0455 - “SCSI Interconnection Guide Book”, an AMP + SCSI Interconnection Guide Book, an AMP publication (dated 4/93, Catalog 65237) that lists the various SCSI connectors and suggests cabling schemes. Available from AMP at (800) 522-6752 or (717) 564-0100 - “Fast Track to SCSI”, A Product Guide written by + Fast Track to SCSI, A Product Guide written by Fujitsu. Available from: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 07632 Phone: (201) 767-5937 ISBN 0-13-307000-X - “The SCSI Bench Reference”, “The SCSI - Encyclopedia”, and the “SCSI Tutor”, ENDL + The SCSI Bench Reference, The SCSI + Encyclopedia, and the SCSI Tutor, ENDL Publications, 14426 Black Walnut Court, Saratoga CA, 95070 Phone: (408) 867-6642 - “Zadian SCSI Navigator” (quick ref. book) and - “Discover the Power of SCSI” (First book along with + Zadian SCSI Navigator (quick ref. book) and + Discover the Power of SCSI (First book along with a one-hour video and tutorial book), Zadian Software, Suite 214, 1210 S. Bascom Ave., San Jose, CA 92128, (408) 293-0800 On Usenet the newsgroups comp.periphs.scsi and comp.periphs are noteworthy places to look for more info. You can also find the SCSI-Faq there, which is posted periodically. Most major SCSI device and host adapter suppliers operate ftp sites and/or BBS systems. They may be valuable sources of information about the devices you own. * Disk/tape controllers * SCSI * IDE * Floppy Hard drives SCSI hard drives Contributed by &a.asami;. 17 February 1998. As mentioned in the SCSI section, virtually all SCSI hard drives sold today are SCSI-2 compliant and thus will work fine as long as you connect them to a supported SCSI host adapter. Most problems people encounter are either due to badly designed cabling (cable too long, star topology, etc.), insufficient termination, or defective parts. Please refer to the SCSI section first if your SCSI hard drive is not working. However, there are a couple of things you may want to take into account before you purchase SCSI hard drives for your system. Rotational speed Rotational speeds of SCSI drives sold today range from around 4,500RPM to 10,000RPM. Most of them are either 5,400RPM or 7,200RPM. Even though the 7,200RPM drives can generally transfer data faster, they run considerably hotter than their 5,400RPM counterparts. A large fraction of today's disk drive malfunctions are heat-related. If you do not have very good cooling in your PC case, you may want to stick with 5,400RPM or slower drives. Note that newer drives, with higher areal recording densities, can deliver much more bits per rotation than older ones. Today's top-of-line 5,400RPM drives can sustain a throughput comparable to 7,200RPM drives of one or two model generations ago. The number - to find on the spec sheet for bandwidth is “internal data - (or transfer) rate”. It is usually in megabits/sec so + to find on the spec sheet for bandwidth is internal data + (or transfer) rate. It is usually in megabits/sec so divide it by 8 and you'll get the rough approximation of how much megabytes/sec you can get out of the drive. (If you are a speed maniac and want a 10,000RPM drive for your cute little peecee, be my guest; however, those drives become extremely hot. Don't even think about it if you don't have a fan blowing air directly at the drive or a properly ventilated disk enclosure.) Obviously, the latest 10,000RPM drives and 7,200RPM drives can deliver more data than the latest 5,400RPM drives, so if absolute bandwidth is the necessity for your applications, you have little choice but to get the faster drives. Also, if you need low latency, faster drives are better; not only do they usually have lower average seek times, but also the rotational delay is one place where slow-spinning drives can never beat a faster one. (The average rotational latency is half the time it takes to rotate the drive once; thus, it's 3 milliseconds for 10,000RPM drives, 4.2ms for 7,200RPM drives and 5.6ms for 5,400RPM drives.) Latency is seek time plus rotational delay. Make sure you understand whether you need low latency or more accesses per second, though; in the latter case (e.g., news servers), it may not be optimal to purchase one big fast drive. You can achieve similar or even better results by using the ccd (concatenated disk) driver to create a striped disk array out of multiple slower drives for comparable overall cost. Make sure you have adequate air flow around the drive, especially if you are going to use a fast-spinning drive. You generally need at least 1/2" (1.25cm) of spacing above and below a drive. Understand how the air flows through your PC case. Most cases have the power supply suck the air out of the back. See where the air flows in, and put the drive where it will have the largest volume of cool air flowing around it. You may need to seal some unwanted holes or add a new fan for effective cooling. Another consideration is noise. Many 7,200 or faster drives generate a high-pitched whine which is quite unpleasant to most people. That, plus the extra fans often required for cooling, may make 7,200 or faster drives unsuitable for some office and home environments. Form factor Most SCSI drives sold today are of 3.5" form factor. They - come in two different heights; 1.6" (“half-height”) or - 1" (“low-profile”). The half-height drive is the same + come in two different heights; 1.6" (half-height) or + 1" (low-profile). The half-height drive is the same height as a CD-ROM drive. However, don't forget the spacing rule mentioned in the previous section. If you have three standard 3.5" drive bays, you will not be able to put three half-height drives in there (without frying them, that is). Interface The majority of SCSI hard drives sold today are Ultra or Ultra-wide SCSI. The maximum bandwidth of Ultra SCSI is 20MB/sec, and Ultra-wide SCSI is 40MB/sec. There is no difference in max cable length between Ultra and Ultra-wide; however, the more devices you have on the same bus, the sooner you will start having bus integrity problems. Unless you have a well-designed disk enclosure, it is not easy to make more than 5 or 6 Ultra SCSI drives work on a single bus. On the other hand, if you need to connect many drives, going for Fast-wide SCSI may not be a bad idea. That will have the same max bandwidth as Ultra (narrow) SCSI, while electronically it's - much easier to get it “right”. My advice would be: if + much easier to get it right. My advice would be: if you want to connect many disks, get wide SCSI drives; they usually cost a little more but it may save you down the road. (Besides, if you can't afford the cost difference, you shouldn't be building a disk array.) There are two variant of wide SCSI drives; 68-pin and 80-pin SCA (Single Connector Attach). The SCA drives don't have a separate 4-pin power connector, and also read the SCSI ID settings through the 80-pin connector. If you are really serious about building a large storage system, get SCA drives and a good SCA enclosure (dual power supply with at least one extra fan). They are more electronically sound than 68-pin counterparts because - there is no “stub” of the SCSI bus inside the disk + there is no stub of the SCSI bus inside the disk canister as in arrays built from 68-pin drives. They are easier to install too (you just need to screw the drive in the canister, instead of trying to squeeze in your fingers in a tight place to hook up all the little cables (like the SCSI ID and disk activity LED lines). * IDE hard drives Tape drives Contributed by &a.jmb;. 2 July 1996. General tape access commands &man.mt.1; provides generic access to the tape drives. Some of the more common commands are rewind, erase, and status. See the &man.mt.1; manual page for a detailed description. Controller Interfaces There are several different interfaces that support tape drives. The interfaces are SCSI, IDE, Floppy and Parallel Port. A wide variety of tape drives are available for these interfaces. Controllers are discussed in Disk/tape controllers. SCSI drives The &man.st.4; driver provides support for 8mm (Exabyte), 4mm (DAT: Digital Audio Tape), QIC (Quarter-Inch Cartridge), DLT (Digital Linear Tape), QIC Minicartridge and 9-track (remember the big reels that you see spinning in Hollywood computer rooms) tape drives. See the &man.st.4; manual page for a detailed description. The drives listed below are currently being used by members of the FreeBSD community. They are not the only drives that will work with FreeBSD. They just happen to be the ones that we use. 4mm (DAT: Digital Audio Tape) Archive Python 28454 Archive Python 04687 HP C1533A HP C1534A HP 35450A HP 35470A HP 35480A SDT-5000 Wangtek 6200 8mm (Exabyte) EXB-8200 EXB-8500 EXB-8505 QIC (Quarter-Inch Cartridge) Archive Ananconda 2750 Archive Viper 60 Archive Viper 150 Archive Viper 2525 Tandberg TDC 3600 Tandberg TDC 3620 Tandberg TDC 3800 Tandberg TDC 4222 Wangtek 5525ES DLT (Digital Linear Tape) Digital TZ87 Mini-Cartridge Conner CTMS 3200 Exabyte 2501 Autoloaders/Changers Hewlett-Packard HP C1553A Autoloading DDS2 * IDE drives Floppy drives Conner 420R * Parallel port drives Detailed Information Archive Anaconda 2750 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE ANCDA 2750 28077 -003 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 1.35GB when using QIC-1350 tapes. This drive will read and write QIC-150 (DC6150), QIC-250 (DC6250), and QIC-525 (DC6525) tapes as well. Data transfer rate is 350kB/s using &man.dump.8;. Rates of 530kB/s have been reported when using Amanda Production of this drive has been discontinued. The SCSI bus connector on this tape drive is reversed from that on most other SCSI devices. Make sure that you have enough SCSI cable to twist the cable one-half turn before and after the Archive Anaconda tape drive, or turn your other SCSI devices upside-down. Two kernel code changes are required to use this drive. This drive will not work as delivered. If you have a SCSI-2 controller, short jumper 6. Otherwise, the drive behaves are a SCSI-1 device. When operating as a SCSI-1 - device, this drive, “locks” the SCSI bus during some + device, this drive, locks the SCSI bus during some tape operations, including: fsf, rewind, and rewoffl. If you are using the NCR SCSI controllers, patch the file /usr/src/sys/pci/ncr.c (as shown below). Build and install a new kernel. *** 4831,4835 **** }; ! if (np->latetime>4) { /* ** Although we tried to wake it up, --- 4831,4836 ---- }; ! if (np->latetime>1200) { /* ** Although we tried to wake it up, Reported by: &a.jmb; Archive Python 28454 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE Python 28454-XXX4ASB type 1 removable SCSI 2 density code 0x8c, 512-byte blocks This is a DDS-1 tape drive. Native capacity is 2.5GB on 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is XXX. This drive was repackaged by Sun Microsystems as model 595-3067. Reported by: Bob Bishop rb@gid.co.uk Throughput is in the 1.5 MByte/sec range, however this will drop if the disks and tape drive are on the same SCSI controller. Reported by: Robert E. Seastrom rs@seastrom.com Archive Python 04687 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE Python 04687-XXX 6580 Removable Sequential Access SCSI-2 device This is a DAT-DDS-2 drive. Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Switch 4 controls MRS (Media Recognition System). MRS tapes have stripes on the transparent leader. Switch 4 off enables MRS, on disables MRS. Parity is controlled by switch 5. Switch 5 on to enable parity control. Compression is enabled with Switch 6 off. It is possible to override compression with the SCSI MODE SELECT command (see &man.mt.1;). Data transfer rate is 800kB/s. Archive Viper 60 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE VIPER 60 21116 -007 type 1 removable SCSI 1 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 60MB. Data transfer rate is XXX. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Philippe Regnauld regnauld@hsc.fr Archive Viper 150 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE VIPER 150 21531 -004 Archive Viper 150 is a known rogue type 1 removable SCSI 1. A multitude of firmware revisions exist for this drive. Your drive may report different numbers (e.g 21247 -005. This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 150/250MB. Both 150MB (DC6150) and 250MB (DC6250) tapes have the recording format. The 250MB tapes are approximately 67% longer than the 150MB tapes. This drive can read 120MB tapes as well. It can not write 120MB tapes. Data transfer rate is 100kB/s This drive reads and writes DC6150 (150MB) and DC6250 (250MB) tapes. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (&man.st.4;). Under FreeBSD 2.2-current, use mt blocksize 512 to set the blocksize. (The particular drive had firmware revision 21247 -005. Other firmware revisions may behave differently) Previous versions of FreeBSD did not have this problem. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Pedro A M Vazquez vazquez@IQM.Unicamp.BR Mike Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au Archive Viper 2525 The boot message identifier for this drive is ARCHIVE VIPER 2525 25462 -011 type 1 removable SCSI 1 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 525MB. Data transfer rate is 180kB/s at 90 inches/sec. The drive reads QIC-525, QIC-150, QIC-120 and QIC-24 tapes. Writes QIC-525, QIC-150, and QIC-120. Firmware revisions prior to 25462 -011 are bug ridden and will not function properly. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Conner 420R The boot message identifier for this drive is Conner tape. This is a floppy controller, minicartridge tape drive. Native capacity is XXXX Data transfer rate is XXX The drive uses QIC-80 tape cartridges. Reported by: Mark Hannon mark@seeware.DIALix.oz.au Conner CTMS 3200 The boot message identifier for this drive is CONNER CTMS 3200 7.00 type 1 removable SCSI 2. This is a minicartridge tape drive. Native capacity is XXXX Data transfer rate is XXX The drive uses QIC-3080 tape cartridges. Reported by: Thomas S. Traylor tst@titan.cs.mci.com <ulink url="http://www.digital.com/info/Customer-Update/931206004.txt.html">DEC TZ87</ulink> The boot message identifier for this drive is DEC TZ87 (C) DEC 9206 type 1 removable SCSI 2 density code 0x19 This is a DLT tape drive. Native capacity is 10GB. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 1.2MB/s. This drive is identical to the Quantum DLT2000. The drive firmware can be set to emulate several well-known drives, including an Exabyte 8mm drive. Reported by: &a.wilko; <ulink url="http://www.Exabyte.COM:80/Products/Minicartridge/2501/Rfeatures.html">Exabyte EXB-2501</ulink> The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-2501 This is a mini-cartridge tape drive. Native capacity is 1GB when using MC3000XL minicartridges. Data transfer rate is XXX This drive can read and write DC2300 (550MB), DC2750 (750MB), MC3000 (750MB), and MC3000XL (1GB) minicartridges. WARNING: This drive does not meet the SCSI-2 specifications. The drive locks up completely in response to a SCSI MODE_SELECT command unless there is a formatted tape in the drive. Before using this drive, set the tape blocksize with &prompt.root; mt -f /dev/st0ctl.0 blocksize 1024 Before using a minicartridge for the first time, the minicartridge must be formated. FreeBSD 2.1.0-RELEASE and earlier: &prompt.root; /sbin/scsi -f /dev/rst0.ctl -s 600 -c "4 0 0 0 0 0" (Alternatively, fetch a copy of the scsiformat shell script from FreeBSD 2.1.5/2.2.) FreeBSD 2.1.5 and later: &prompt.root; /sbin/scsiformat -q -w /dev/rst0.ctl Right now, this drive cannot really be recommended for FreeBSD. Reported by: Bob Beaulieu ez@eztravel.com Exabyte EXB-8200 The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-8200 252X type 1 removable SCSI 1 This is an 8mm tape drive. Native capacity is 2.3GB. Data transfer rate is 270kB/s. This drive is fairly slow in responding to the SCSI bus during boot. A custom kernel may be required (set SCSI_DELAY to 10 seconds). There are a large number of firmware configurations for this drive, some have been customized to a particular vendor's hardware. The firmware can be changed via EPROM replacement. Production of this drive has been discontinued. Reported by: Mike Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au Exabyte EXB-8500 The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-8500-85Qanx0 0415 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is an 8mm tape drive. Native capacity is 5GB. Data transfer rate is 300kB/s. Reported by: Greg Lehey grog@lemis.de <ulink url="http://www.Exabyte.COM:80/Products/8mm/8505XL/Rfeatures.html">Exabyte EXB-8505</ulink> The boot message identifier for this drive is EXABYTE EXB-85058SQANXR1 05B0 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is an 8mm tape drive which supports compression, and is upward compatible with the EXB-5200 and EXB-8500. Native capacity is 5GB. The drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 300kB/s. Reported by: Glen Foster gfoster@gfoster.com Hewlett-Packard HP C1533A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP C1533A 9503 type 1 removable SCSI 2. This is a DDS-2 tape drive. DDS-2 means hardware data compression and narrower tracks for increased data capacity. Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 510kB/s. This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 6000eU and 6000i tape drives and C1533A DDS-2 DAT drive. The drive has a block of 8 dip switches. The proper settings for FreeBSD are: 1 ON; 2 ON; 3 OFF; 4 ON; 5 ON; 6 ON; 7 ON; 8 ON. switch 1 switch 2 Result On On Compression enabled at power-on, with host control On Off Compression enabled at power-on, no host control Off On Compression disabled at power-on, with host control Off Off Compression disabled at power-on, no host control Switch 3 controls MRS (Media Recognition System). MRS tapes have stripes on the transparent leader. These identify the tape as DDS (Digital Data Storage) grade media. Tapes that do not have the stripes will be treated as write-protected. Switch 3 OFF enables MRS. Switch 3 ON disables MRS. See HP SureStore Tape Products and Hewlett-Packard Disk and Tape Technical Information for more information on configuring this drive. Warning: Quality control on these drives varies greatly. One FreeBSD core-team member has returned 2 of these drives. Neither lasted more than 5 months. Reported by: &a.se; Hewlett-Packard HP 1534A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35470A T503 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13, variable blocks. This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. The same mechanism is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 2000i tape drive, C35470A DDS format DAT drive, C1534A DDS format DAT drive and HP C1536A DDS format DAT drive. The HP C1534A DDS format DAT drive has two indicator lights, one green and one amber. The green one indicates tape action: slow flash during load, steady when loaded, fast flash during read/write operations. The amber one indicates warnings: slow flash when cleaning is required or tape is nearing the end of its useful life, steady indicates an hard fault. (factory service required?) Reported by Gary Crutcher gcrutchr@nightflight.com Hewlett-Packard HP C1553A Autoloading DDS2 The boot message identifier for this drive is "". This is a DDS-2 tape drive with a tape changer. DDS-2 means hardware data compression and narrower tracks for increased data capacity. Native capacity is 24GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is 510kB/s (native). This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 12000e tape drive. The drive has two selectors on the rear panel. The selector closer to the fan is SCSI id. The other selector should be set to 7. There are four internal switches. These should be set: 1 ON; 2 ON; 3 ON; 4 OFF. At present the kernel drivers do not automatically change tapes at the end of a volume. This shell script can be used to change tapes: #!/bin/sh PATH="/sbin:/usr/sbin:/bin:/usr/bin"; export PATH usage() { echo "Usage: dds_changer [123456ne] raw-device-name echo "1..6 = Select cartridge" echo "next cartridge" echo "eject magazine" exit 2 } if [ $# -ne 2 ] ; then usage fi cdb3=0 cdb4=0 cdb5=0 case $1 in [123456]) cdb3=$1 cdb4=1 ;; n) ;; e) cdb5=0x80 ;; ?) usage ;; esac scsi -f $2 -s 100 -c "1b 0 0 $cdb3 $cdb4 $cdb5" Hewlett-Packard HP 35450A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35450A -A C620 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13 This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 1.2GB. Data transfer rate is 160kB/s. Reported by: mark thompson mark.a.thompson@pobox.com Hewlett-Packard HP 35470A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35470A 9 09 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a DDS-1 tape drive. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. The same mechanism is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 2000i tape drive, C35470A DDS format DAT drive, C1534A DDS format DAT drive, and HP C1536A DDS format DAT drive. Warning: Quality control on these drives varies greatly. One FreeBSD core-team member has returned 5 of these drives. None lasted more than 9 months. Reported by: David Dawes dawes@rf900.physics.usyd.edu.au (9 09) Hewlett-Packard HP 35480A The boot message identifier for this drive is HP HP35480A 1009 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13. This is a DDS-DC tape drive. DDS-DC is DDS-1 with hardware data compression. DDS-1 is the original DAT tape format. Native capacity is 2GB when using 90m tapes. It cannot handle 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Please refer to the section on HP C1533A for the proper switch settings. Data transfer rate is 183kB/s. This drive is used in Hewlett-Packard's SureStore 5000eU and 5000i tape drives and C35480A DDS format DAT drive.. This drive will occasionally hang during a tape eject operation (mt offline). Pressing the front panel button will eject the tape and bring the tape drive back to life. WARNING: HP 35480-03110 only. On at least two occasions this tape drive when used with FreeBSD 2.1.0, an IBM Server 320 and an 2940W SCSI controller resulted in all SCSI disk partitions being lost. The problem has not be analyzed or resolved at this time. <ulink url="http://www.sel.sony.com/SEL/ccpg/storage/tape/t5000.html">Sony SDT-5000</ulink> There are at least two significantly different models: one is a DDS-1 and the other DDS-2. The DDS-1 version is SDT-5000 3.02. The DDS-2 version is SONY SDT-5000 327M. The DDS-2 version has a 1MB cache. This cache is able to keep the tape streaming in almost any circumstances. The boot message identifier for this drive is SONY SDT-5000 3.02 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13 Native capacity is 4GB when using 120m tapes. This drive supports hardware data compression. Data transfer rate is depends upon the model or the drive. The rate is 630kB/s for the SONY SDT-5000 327M while compressing the data. For the SONY SDT-5000 3.02, the data transfer rate is 225kB/s. In order to get this drive to stream, set the blocksize to 512 bytes (mt blocksize 512) reported by Kenneth Merry ken@ulc199.residence.gatech.edu SONY SDT-5000 327M information reported by Charles Henrich henrich@msu.edu Reported by: &a.jmz; Tandberg TDC 3600 The boot message identifier for this drive is TANDBERG TDC 3600 =08: type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 150/250MB. This drive has quirks which are known and work around code is present in the scsi tape device driver (&man.st.4;). Upgrading the firmware to XXX version will fix the quirks and provide SCSI 2 capabilities. Data transfer rate is 80kB/s. IBM and Emerald units will not work. Replacing the firmware EPROM of these units will solve the problem. Reported by: Michael Smith msmith@atrad.adelaide.edu.au Tandberg TDC 3620 This is very similar to the Tandberg TDC 3600 drive. Reported by: &a.joerg; Tandberg TDC 3800 The boot message identifier for this drive is TANDBERG TDC 3800 =04Y Removable Sequential Access SCSI-2 device This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 525MB. Reported by: &a.jhs; Tandberg TDC 4222 The boot message identifier for this drive is TANDBERG TDC 4222 =07 type 1 removable SCSI 2 This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 2.5GB. The drive will read all cartridges from the 60 MB (DC600A) upwards, and write 150 MB (DC6150) upwards. Hardware compression is optionally supported for the 2.5 GB cartridges. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (&man.st.4;) beginning with FreeBSD 2.2-current. For previous versions of FreeBSD, use mt to read one block from the tape, rewind the tape, and then execute the backup program (mt fsr 1; mt rewind; dump ...) Data transfer rate is 600kB/s (vendor claim with compression), 350 KB/s can even be reached in start/stop mode. The rate decreases for smaller cartridges. Reported by: &a.joerg; Wangtek 5525ES The boot message identifier for this drive is WANGTEK 5525ES SCSI REV7 3R1 type 1 removable SCSI 1 density code 0x11, 1024-byte blocks This is a QIC tape drive. Native capacity is 525MB. Data transfer rate is 180kB/s. The drive reads 60, 120, 150, and 525MB tapes. The drive will not write 60MB (DC600 cartridge) tapes. In order to overwrite 120 and 150 tapes reliably, first erase (mt erase) the tape. 120 and 150 tapes used a wider track (fewer tracks per - tape) than 525MB tapes. The “extra” width of the + tape) than 525MB tapes. The extra width of the previous tracks is not overwritten, as a result the new data lies in a band surrounded on both sides by the previous data unless the tape have been erased. This drives quirks are known and pre-compiled into the scsi tape device driver (&man.st.4;). Other firmware revisions that are known to work are: M75D Reported by: Marc van Kempen marc@bowtie.nl REV73R1 Andrew Gordon Andrew.Gordon@net-tel.co.uk M75D Wangtek 6200 The boot message identifier for this drive is WANGTEK 6200-HS 4B18 type 1 removable SCSI 2 Sequential-Access density code 0x13 This is a DDS-1 tape drive. Native capacity is 2GB using 90m tapes. Data transfer rate is 150kB/s. Reported by: Tony Kimball alk@Think.COM * Problem drives CD-ROM drives Contributed by &a.obrien;. 23 November 1997. As mentioned in Jordan's Picks Generally speaking those in The FreeBSD Project prefer SCSI CDROM drives over IDE CDROM drives. However not all SCSI CDROM drives are equal. Some feel the quality of some SCSI CDROM drives have been deteriorating to that of IDE CDROM drives. Toshiba used to be the favored stand-by, but many on the SCSI mailing list have found displeasure with the 12x speed XM-5701TA as its volume (when playing audio CDROMs) is not controllable by the various audio player software. Another area where SCSI CDROM manufacturers are cutting corners is adherence to the SCSI specification. Many SCSI CDROMs will respond to multiple LUNs for its target address. Known violators include the 6x Teac CD-56S 1.0D. * Other * Other * PCMCIA diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml index 8634d0a3cf..2f2e9adbdd 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/install/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1673 +1,1673 @@ Installing FreeBSD Restructured, updated, and parts rewritten by &a.jim;, January 2000. Synopsis The following chapter will attempt to guide you through the install of FreeBSD on your system. It can be installed through a variety of methods, including anonymous FTP (assuming you have network connectivity via modem or local network), CDROM, floppy disk, tape, an MS-DOS partition, or even NFS. No matter which method you choose, you will need to get started by creating the installation disks as described in the next section. By booting into the FreeBSD installer, even if you are not planning on installing FreeBSD right away, will provide important information about compatibility with your hardware. This information may dictate which installation options are even possible for you. It can also provide clues early-on in the process to potential problems you may come across later. If you plan to install FreeBSD via anonymous FTP, the only things you will need are the installation floppies. The install program itself will handle anything else that is required. For more information about obtaining FreeBSD, see the Obtaining FreeBSD section of the Appendix. By now, you are probably wondering what exactly it is you need to do. Continue on to the installation guide. Installation Guide The following sections will guide you through preparing for and actually installing FreeBSD. If you find something missing, please let us know about it by sending email to the &a.doc;. Preparing for the Installation There are various things you should do in preparation for the install. The following describes what needs to be done prior to each type of installation. The first thing you should do is make sure your hardware is supported by FreeBSD. The list of supported hardware should come in handy here. ;-) It would also be a good idea to make a - list of any “special” cards you have installed, + list of any special cards you have installed, such as SCSI controllers, ethernet cards, sound cards, etc.. The list should include their IRQs and IO port addresses. Creating the Boot Floppies Please read the installation boot image information before proceeding. To make the installation boot disks from the image files, do the following: The first thing you will need to do is download the image files. These can be retrieved from the floppies directory of the FreeBSD FTP site or your local mirror. If you are installing from an MS-DOS partition, download the fdimage.exe program or get it from tools\fdimage.exe on the CDROM and then run it like so: E:\> tools\fdimage floppies\kern.flp a: The fdimage program will format the A: drive and then copy kern.flp to it (assuming that you are at the top level of a FreeBSD distribution and the floppy images live in a floppies subdirectory, which is typically the case). If you are using a UNIX-based system to create the boot floppies, do the following: &prompt.root; dd if=kern.flp of=disk_device disk_device is the /dev entry for the floppy drive. On FreeBSD, this is /dev/rfd0 for the A: drive and /dev/rfd1 for the B: drive. With the kern.flp disk in your floppy drive, reboot your computer. After a couple of minutes (while the kernel loads from the floppy), you will be prompted to insert the mfsroot.flp, after which the installation will proceed normally. Before Installing from CDROM If your CDROM is of an unsupported type, please skip ahead to the MS-DOS Preparation section. There is not a whole lot of preparation needed if you are installing from one of Walnut Creek CDROM's FreeBSD CDROMs (other CDROM distributions may work as well, though we cannot say for certain as we have no hand or say in how they created). You can either boot into the CD installation directly from DOS using the install.bat or you can make floppies with the makeflp.bat command. If the CD has El Torito boot support and your system supports booting directly from the CDROM drive (many older systems do NOT), simply insert the first FreeBSD of the set into the drive and reboot your system. You will be put into the install menu directly from the CD. If you are installing from an MS-DOS partition and have the proper drivers to access your CD, run the install.bat script provided on the CDROM. This will attempt to boot the FreeBSD installation directly from DOS. You must do this from actual DOS (i.e., boot in DOS mode) and not from a DOS window under Windows. For the easiest interface of all (from DOS), type view. This will bring up a DOS menu utility that leads you through all of the available options. If you are creating the boot floppies from a UNIX machine, see the Creating the Boot Floppies section of this guide for examples. Once you have booted from DOS or floppy, you should then be able to select CDROM as the media type during the install process and load the entire distribution from CDROM. No other types of installation media should be required. After your system is fully installed and you have rebooted (from the hard disk), you can mount the CDROM at any time by typing: &prompt.root; mount /cdrom Before removing the CD from the drive again, you must first unmount it. This is done with the following command: &prompt.root; umount /cdrom Do not just remove it from the drive! Before invoking the installation, be sure that the CDROM is in the drive so that the install probe can find it. This is also true if you wish the CDROM to be added to the default system configuration automatically during the install (whether or not you actually use it as the installation media). Finally, if you would like people to be able to FTP install FreeBSD directly from the CDROM in your machine, you will find it quite easy. After the machine is fully installed, you simply need to add the following line to the password file (using the vipw command): ftp:*:99:99::0:0:FTP:/cdrom:/nonexistent Anyone with network connectivity to your machine can now chose a media type of FTP and type in ftp://your machine - after picking “Other” in the FTP sites menu during + after picking Other in the FTP sites menu during the install. If you choose to enable anonymous FTP during the installation of your system, the installation program will do the above procedure for you. Before installing from Floppies If you must install from floppy disk (which we suggest you do NOT do), either due to unsupported hardware or simply because you insist on doing things the hard way, you must first prepare some floppies for the install. At a minimum, you will need as many 1.44MB or 1.2MB floppies as it takes to hold all the files in the bin (binary distribution) directory. If you are preparing the floppies from DOS, then they MUST be formatted using the MS-DOS FORMAT command. If you are using Windows, use Explorer to format the disks (right-click on the A: drive, and select "Format". Do NOT trust factory pre-formatted floppies! Format them again yourself, just to be sure. Many problems reported by our users in the past have resulted from the use of improperly formatted media, which is why we are making a point of it now. If you are creating the floppies on another FreeBSD machine, a format is still not a bad idea, though you do not need to put a DOS filesystem on each floppy. You can use the disklabel and newfs commands to put a UFS filesystem on them instead, as the following sequence of commands (for a 3.5" 1.44MB floppy) illustrate: &prompt.root; fdformat -f 1440 fd0.1440 &prompt.root; disklabel -w -r fd0.1440 floppy3 &prompt.root; newfs -t 2 -u 18 -l 1 -i 65536 /dev/rfd0 Use fd0.1200 and floppy5 for 5.25" 1.2MB disks. Then you can mount and write to them like any other filesystem. After you have formatted the floppies, you will need to copy the files to them. The distribution files are split into chunks conveniently sized so that 5 of them will fit on a conventional 1.44MB floppy. Go through all your floppies, packing as many files as will fit on each one, until you have all of the distributions you want packed up in this fashion. Each distribution should go into a subdirectory on the floppy, e.g.: a:\bin\bin.aa, a:\bin\bin.ab, and so on. Once you come to the Media screen during the install - process, select “Floppy” and you will be prompted + process, select Floppy and you will be prompted for the rest. Before Installing from MS-DOS To prepare for an installation from an MS-DOS partition, copy the files from the distribution into a directory named, for example, c:\FreeBSD. The directory structure of the CDROM or FTP site must be partially reproduced within this directory, so we suggest using the DOS xcopy command if you are copying it from a CD. For example, to prepare for a minimal installation of FreeBSD: C:\> md c:\FreeBSD C:\> xcopy /s e:\bin c:\FreeBSD\bin\ C:\> xcopy /s e:\manpages c:\FreeBSD\manpages\ Assuming that C: is where you have free space and E: is where your CDROM is mounted. If you do not have a CDROM drive, you can download the distribution from ftp.FreeBSD.org. Each distribution is in its own directory; for example, the bin distribution can be found in the &rel.current;/bin directory. For as many distributions you wish to install from an MS-DOS partition (and you have the free space for), install each one under c:\FreeBSD — the BIN distribution is the only one required for a minimum installation. Before Installing from QIC/SCSI Tape Installing from tape is probably the easiest method, short of an online FTP install or CDROM install. The installation program expects the files to be simply tar'ed onto the tape, so after getting all of the distribution files you are interested in, simply tar them onto the tape like so: &prompt.root; cd /freebsd/distdir &prompt.root; tar cvf /dev/rwt0 dist1 ... dist2 When you go to do the installation, you should also make sure that you leave enough room in some temporary directory (which you will be allowed to choose) to accommodate the full contents of the tape you have created. Due to the non-random access nature of tapes, this method of installation requires quite a bit of temporary storage. You should expect to require as much temporary storage as you have stuff written on tape. When starting the installation, the tape must be in the drive before booting from the boot floppy. The installation probe may otherwise fail to find it. Before Installing over a Network There are three types of network installations you can do. Serial port (SLIP or PPP), Parallel port (PLIP (laplink cable)), or Ethernet (a standard ethernet controller (includes some PCMCIA)). The SLIP support is rather primitive, and limited primarily to hard-wired links, such as a serial cable running between a laptop computer and another computer. The link should be hard-wired as the SLIP installation does not currently offer a dialing capability; that facility is provided with the PPP utility, which should be used in preference to SLIP whenever possible. If you are using a modem, then PPP is almost certainly your only choice. Make sure that you have your service provider's information handy as you will need to know it fairly early in the installation process. If you use PAP or CHAP to connect your ISP (in other words, if you can connect to the ISP in Windows without using a script), then all you will need to do is type in dial at the ppp prompt. Otherwise, you will need to know - how to dial your ISP using the “AT commands” + how to dial your ISP using the AT commands specific to your modem, as the PPP dialer provides only a very simple terminal emulator. Please to the user-ppp handbook and FAQ entries for further information. If you have problems, logging can be directed to the screen using the command set log local .... If a hard-wired connection to another FreeBSD (2.0-R or later) machine is available, you might also consider installing - over a “laplink” parallel port cable. The data rate + over a laplink parallel port cable. The data rate over the parallel port is much higher than what is typically possible over a serial line (up to 50kbytes/sec), thus resulting in a quicker installation. Finally, for the fastest possible network installation, an ethernet adapter is always a good choice! FreeBSD supports most common PC ethernet cards; a table of supported cards (and their required settings) is provided in the Supported Hardware list. If you are using one of the supported PCMCIA ethernet cards, also be sure that it is plugged in before the laptop is powered on! FreeBSD does not, unfortunately, currently support hot insertion of PCMCIA cards during installation. You will also need to know your IP address on the network, the netmask value for your address class, and the name of your machine. If you are installing over a PPP connection and do not have a static IP, fear not, the IP address can be dynamically assigned by your ISP. Your system administrator can tell you which values to use for your particular network setup. If you will be referring to other hosts by name rather than IP address, you will also need a name server and possibly the address of a gateway (if you are using PPP, it is your provider's IP address) to use in talking to it. If you do not know the answers to all or most of these questions, then you should really probably talk to your system administrator or ISP before trying this type of installation. Before Installing via NFS The NFS installation is fairly straight-forward. Simply copy the FreeBSD distribution files you want onto a server somewhere and then point the NFS media selection at it. - If this server supports only “privileged port” + If this server supports only privileged port (as is generally the default for Sun workstations), you will need to set this option in the Options menu before installation can proceed. If you have a poor quality ethernet card which suffers from very slow transfer rates, you may also wish to toggle the appropriate Options flag. In order for NFS installation to work, the server must support subdir mounts, e.g., if your FreeBSD 3.4 distribution directory lives on:ziggy:/usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, then ziggy will have to allow the direct mounting of /usr/archive/stuff/FreeBSD, not just /usr or /usr/archive/stuff. In FreeBSD's /etc/exports file, this is controlled by the . Other NFS servers may have different conventions. If you are getting - “permission denied” messages from the server, then + permission denied messages from the server, then it is likely that you do not have this enabled properly. Before Installing via FTP FTP installation may be done from any FreeBSD mirror site containing a reasonably up-to-date version of FreeBSD. A full list of FTP mirrors located all over the world is provided during the install process. If you are installing from an FTP site not listed in this menu, or are having trouble getting your name server configured properly, you can also specify a URL to use by - selecting the choice labeled “Other” in that menu. + selecting the choice labeled Other in that menu. You can also use the IP address of a machine you wish to install from, so the following would work in the absence of a name server: ftp://209.55.82.20/pub/FreeBSD/&rel.current;-RELEASE There are two FTP installation modes you can choose from, active or passive FTP. FTP Active This option will make all FTP transfers - use “Active” + use Active mode. This will not work through firewalls, but will often work with older FTP servers that do not support passive mode. If your connection hangs with passive mode (the default), try active! FTP Passive This option instructs FreeBSD to use - “Passive” mode for all FTP operations. + Passive mode for all FTP operations. This allows the user to pass through firewalls that do not allow incoming connections on random port addresses. Active and passive modes are not the same as a - “proxy” connection, where a proxy FTP server is + proxy connection, where a proxy FTP server is listening and forwarding FTP requests! For a proxy FTP server, you should usually give the name of the server you really want as a part of the username, after - an “@” sign. The proxy server then - “fakes” the real server. For example, assuming + an @ sign. The proxy server then + fakes the real server. For example, assuming you want to install from ftp.FreeBSD.org, using the proxy FTP server foo.bar.com, listening on port 1024. In this case, you go to the options menu, set the FTP username to ftp@ftp.FreeBSD.org, and the password to your email address. As your installation media, you specify FTP (or passive FTP, if the proxy supports it), and the URL ftp://foo.bar.com:1234/pub/FreeBSD. Since /pub/FreeBSD from ftp.FreeBSD.org is proxied under foo.bar.com, you are able to install from that machine (which will fetch the files from ftp.FreeBSD.org as your installation requests them. Check your BIOS drive numbering If you have used features in your BIOS to renumber your disk drives without recabling them then you should read first to ensure you do not confused. Installing FreeBSD Once you have completed the pre-installation step relevant to your situation, you are ready to install FreeBSD! Although you should not experience any difficulties, there is always the chance you might, no matter how slight it is. If this is the case in your situation, then you may wish to go back and re-read the relevant preparation section or sections. Perhaps you will come across something you missed the first time. If you are having hardware problems, or FreeBSD refuses to boot at all, read the Hardware Guide on the boot floppy for a list of possible solutions. The FreeBSD boot floppies contain all of the online documentation you should need to be able to navigate through an installation. If it does not, please let us know what you found to be the most confusing or most lacking. Send your comments to the &a.doc;. It is the objective of the installation program (sysinstall) to be self-documenting enough that painful - “step-by-step” guides are no longer necessary. It may + step-by-step guides are no longer necessary. It may take us a little while to reach that objective, but nonetheless, it is still our objective :-) - Meanwhile, you may also find the following “typical - installation sequence” to be helpful: + Meanwhile, you may also find the following typical + installation sequence to be helpful: Boot the kern.flp floppy and when asked, remove it and insert the mfsroot.flp and hit return. After a boot sequence which can take anywhere from 30 seconds to 3 minutes, depending on your hardware, you should be presented with a menu of initial choices. If the kern.flp floppy does not boot at all or the boot hangs at some stage, read the Q&A section of the Hardware Guide on the floppy for possible causes. Press F1. You should see some basic usage instructions on the menu screen and general navigation. If you have not used this menu system before then please read this thoroughly. Select the Options item and set any special preferences you may have. Select a Standard, Express, or Custom install, depending on whether or not you would like the installation to help you through a typical installation, give you a high degree of control over each step, or simply whizz through it (using reasonable defaults when possible) as fast as possible. If you have never used FreeBSD before, the Standard installation method is most recommended. The final configuration menu choice allows you to further configure your FreeBSD installation by giving you menu-driven access to various system defaults. Some items, like networking, may be especially important if you did a CDROM, tape, or floppy install and have not yet configured your network interfaces (assuming you have any). Properly configuring such interfaces here will allow FreeBSD to come up on the network when you first reboot from the hard disk. Supported Hardware FreeBSD currently runs on a wide variety of ISA, VLB, EISA, and PCI bus based PCs, ranging from the 386SX to Pentium class machines (though the 386SX is not recommended). Support for generic IDE or ESDI drive configurations, various SCSI controllers, and network and serial cards is also provided. In order to run FreeBSD, a recommmended minimum of eight megabytes of RAM is suggested. Sixteen megabytes is the preferred amount of RAM as you may have some trouble with anything less than sixteen depending on your hardware. What follows is a list of hardware currently known to work with FreeBSD. There may be other hardware that works as well, but we have simply not received any confirmation of it. Disk Controllers WD1003 (any generic MFM/RLL) WD1007 (any generic IDE/ESDI) IDE ATA Adaptec 1535 ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 154X series ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec 174X series EISA SCSI controllers in standard and enhanced mode Adaptec 274X/284X/2920C/294X/2950/3940/3950 (Narrow/Wide/Twin) series EISA/VLB/PCI SCSI controllers Adaptec AIC-7850, AIC-7860, AIC-7880, AIC-789X on-board SCSI controllers Adaptec 1510 series ISA SCSI controllers (not for bootable devices) Adaptec 152X series ISA SCSI controllers Adaptec AIC-6260 and AIC-6360 based boards, which include the AHA-152X and SoundBlaster SCSI cards AdvanSys SCSI controllers (all models) - BusLogic MultiMaster “W” Series Host Adapters + BusLogic MultiMaster W Series Host Adapters including BT-948, BT-958, BT-9580 - BusLogic MultiMaster “C” Series Host Adapters + BusLogic MultiMaster C Series Host Adapters including BT-946C, BT-956C, BT-956CD, BT-445C, BT-747C, BT-757C, BT-757CD, BT-545C, BT-540CF - BusLogic MultiMaster “S” Series Host Adapters + BusLogic MultiMaster S Series Host Adapters including BT-445S, BT-747S, BT-747D, BT-757S, BT-757D, BT-545S, BT-542D, BT-742A, BT-542B - BusLogic MultiMaster “A” Series Host Adapters + BusLogic MultiMaster A Series Host Adapters including BT-742A, BT-542B AMI FastDisk controllers that are true BusLogic MultiMaster clones are also supported. - BusLogic/Mylex “Flashpoint” adapters are NOT + BusLogic/Mylex Flashpoint adapters are NOT yet supported. DPT SmartCACHE Plus, SmartCACHE III, SmartRAID III, SmartCACHE IV, and SmartRAID IV SCSI/RAID are supported. The DPT SmartRAID/CACHE V is not yet supported. Compaq Intelligent Disk Array Controllers: IDA, IDA-2, IAES, SMART, SMART-2/E, Smart-2/P, SMART-2SL, Integrated Array, and Smart Arrays 3200, 3100ES, 221, 4200, 4200, 4250ES. SymBios (formerly NCR) 53C810, 53C810a, 53C815, 53C820, 53C825a, 53C860, 53C875, 53C875j, 53C885, and 53C896 PCI SCSI controllers including ASUS SC-200, Data Technology DTC3130 (all variants), Diamond FirePort (all), NCR cards (all), SymBios cards (all), Tekram DC390W, 390U, and 390F, and Tyan S1365 QLogic 1020, 1040, 1040B, and 2100 SCSI and Fibre Channel Adapters DTC 3290 EISA SCSI controller in 1542 evaluation mode With all supported SCSI controllers, full support is provided for SCSI-I and SCSI-II peripherals, including hard disks, optical disks, tape drives (including DAT and 8mm Exabyte), medium changers, processor target devices, and CDROM drives. WORM devices that support CDROM commands are supported for read-only access by the CDROM driver. WORM/CD-R/CD-RW writing support is provided by cdrecord, which is in the ports tree. The following CD-ROM type systems are supported at this time: cd - SCSI interface (includes ProAudio Spectrum and SoundBlaster SCSI) matcd - Matsushita/Panasonic (Creative Soundblaster) proprietary interface (562/563 models) scd - Sony proprietary interface (all models) acd - ATAPI IDE interface The following drivers were supported under the old SCSI subsystem, but are NOT YET supported under the new CAM SCSI subsystem: - NCR5380/NCR53400 (“ProAudio Spectrum”) SCSI + NCR5380/NCR53400 (ProAudio Spectrum) SCSI controller UltraStor 14F, 24F, and 34F SCSI controllers Seagate ST01/02 SCSI controllers Future Domain 8XX/950 series SCSI controllers WD7000 SCSI controller There is work-in-progress to port the UltraStor driver to the new CAM framework, but no estimates on when or if it will be completed. Unmaintained drivers, they might or might not work for your hardware: Floppy tape interface (Colorado/Mountain/Insight) mcd - Mitsumi proprietary CD-ROM interface (all models) Network Cards Adaptec Duralink PCI fast ethernet adapters based on the Adaptec AIC-6195 fast ethernet controller chip, including the following: ANA-62011 64-bit single port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-62022 64-bit dual port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-62044 64-bit quad port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-69011 32-bit single port 10/100baseTX adapter ANA-62020 64-bit single port 100baseFX adapter Allied-Telesyn AT1700 and RE2000 cards Alteon Networks PCI gigabit ethernet NICs based on the Tigon 1 and Tigon 2 chipsets including the Alteon AceNIC (Tigon 1 and 2), 3Com 3c985-SX (Tigon 1 and 2), Netgear GA620 (Tigon 2), Silicon Graphics Gigabit Ethernet, DEC/Compaq EtherWORKS 1000, NEC Gigabit Ethernet AMD PCnet/PCI (79c970 and 53c974 or 79c974) RealTek 8129/8139 fast ethernet NICs including the following: Allied-Telesyn AT2550 Allied-Telesyn AT2500TX Genius GF100TXR (RTL8139) NDC Communications NE100TX-E OvisLink LEF-8129TX OvisLink LEF-8139TX Netronix Inc. EA-1210 NetEther 10/100 KTX-9130TX 10/100 Fast Ethernet - Accton “Cheetah” EN1027D (MPX 5030/5038; + Accton Cheetah EN1027D (MPX 5030/5038; RealTek 8139 clone?) SMC EZ Card 10/100 PCI 1211-TX Lite-On 98713, 98713A, 98715, and 98725 fast ethernet NICs, including the LinkSys EtherFast LNE100TX, NetGear FA310-TX Rev. D1, Matrox FastNIC 10/100, Kingston KNE110TX Macronix 98713, 98713A, 98715, 98715A, and 98725 fast ethernet NICs including the NDC Communications SFA100A (98713A), CNet Pro120A (98713 or 98713A), CNet Pro120B (98715), SVEC PN102TX (98713) Macronix/Lite-On PNIC II LC82C115 fast ethernet NICs including the LinkSys EtherFast LNE100TX version 2 Winbond W89C840F fast ethernet nics including the Trendware TE100-PCIE - VIA Technologies VT3043 “Rhine I” and - VT86C100A “Rhine II” fast ethernet NICs including + VIA Technologies VT3043 Rhine I and + VT86C100A Rhine II fast ethernet NICs including the Hawking Technologies PN102TX and D-Link DFE-530TX Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900 and SiS 7016 PCI fast ethernet NICs Sundance Technologies ST201 PCI fast ethernet NICs including the D-Link DFE-550TX SysKonnect SK-984x PCI gigabit ethernet cards including the SK-9841 1000baseLX (single mode fiber, single port), the SK-9842 1000baseSX (multimode fiber, single port), the SK-9843 1000baseLX (single mode fiber, dual port), and the SK-9844 1000baseSX (multimode fiber, dual port). Texas Instruments ThunderLAN PCI NICs, including the Compaq Netelligent 10, 10/100, 10/100 Proliant, 10/100 Dual-Port, 10/100 TX Embedded UTP, 10 T PCI UTP/Coax, and 10/100 TX UTP, the Compaq NetFlex 3P, 3P Integrated, and 3P w/BNC, the Olicom OC-2135/2138, OC-2325, OC-2326 10/100 TX UTP, and the Racore 8165 10/100baseTX and 8148 10baseT/100baseTX/100baseFX multi-personality cards ADMtek AL981-based and AN985-based PCI fast ethernet NICs ASIX Electronics AX88140A PCI NICs including the Alfa Inc. GFC2204 and CNet Pro110B DEC EtherWORKS III NICs (DE203, DE204, and DE205) DEC EtherWORKS II NICs (DE200, DE201, DE202, and DE422) DEC DC21040, DC21041, or DC21140 based NICs (SMC Etherpower 8432T, DE245, etc.) DEC FDDI (DEFPA/DEFEA) NICs Efficient ENI-155p ATM PCI FORE PCA-200E ATM PCI Fujitsu MB86960A/MB86965A HP PC Lan+ cards (model numbers: 27247B and 27252A) Intel EtherExpress (not recommended due to driver instability) Intel EtherExpress Pro/10 Intel EtherExpress Pro/100B PCI Fast Ethernet Isolan AT 4141-0 (16 bit) Isolink 4110 (8 bit) Novell NE1000, NE2000, and NE2100 Ethernet interfaces PCI network cards emulating the NE2000, including the RealTek 8029, NetVin 5000, Winbond W89C940, Surecom NE-34, VIA VT86C926 3Com 3C501, 3C503 Etherlink II, 3C505 Etherlink/+, 3C507 Etherlink 16/TP, 3C509, 3C579, 3C589 (PCMCIA), 3C590/592/595/900/905/905B/905C PCI and EISA (Fast) Etherlink III / (Fast) Etherlink XL, 3C980/3C980B Fast Etherlink XL server adapter, 3CSOHO100-TX OfficeConnect adapter Toshiba ethernet cards PCMCIA ethernet cards from IBM and National Semiconductor are also supported USB Peripherals A wide range of USB peripherals are supported. Owing to the generic nature of most USB devices, with some exceptions any device of a given class will be supported even if not explicitly listed here. USB keyboards USB mice USB printers and USB to parallel printer conversion cables USB hubs Motherboard chipsets: ALi Aladdin-V Intel 82371SB (PIIX3) and 82371AB and EB (PIIX4) chipsets NEC uPD 9210 Host Controller VIA 83C572 USB Host Controller and any other UHCI or OHCI compliant motherboard chipset (no exceptions known). PCI plug-in USB host controllers ADS Electronics PCI plug-in card (2 ports) Entrega PCI plug-in card (4 ports) Specific USB devices reported to be working: Agiler Mouse 29UO Andromeda hub Apple iMac mouse and keyboard ATen parallel printer adapter Belkin F4U002 parallel printer adapter and Belkin mouse BTC BTC7935 keyboard with mouse port Cherry G81-3504 Chic mouse Cypress mouse Entrega USB-to-parallel printer adapter Genius Niche mouse Iomega USB Zip 100 MB Kensington Mouse-in-a-Box Logitech M2452 keyboard Logictech wheel mouse (3 buttons) Logitech PS/2 / USB mouse (3 buttons) MacAlly mouse (3 buttons) MacAlly self-powered hub (4 ports) Microsoft Intellimouse (3 buttons) Microsoft keyboard NEC hub Trust Ami Mouse (3 buttons) ISDN (European DSS1 [Q.921/Q.931] protocol) Asuscom I-IN100-ST-DV (experimental, may work) Asuscom ISDNlink 128K AVM A1 AVM Fritz!Card classic AVM Fritz!Card PCI AVM Fritz!Card PCMCIA AVM Fritz!Card PnP Creatix ISDN-S0/8 Creatix ISDN-S0/16 Creatix ISDN-S0 PnP Dr.Neuhaus Niccy 1008 Dr.Neuhaus Niccy 1016 Dr.Neuhaus Niccy GO@ (ISA PnP) Dynalink IS64PH (no longer maintained) ELSA 1000pro ISA ELSA 1000pro PCI ELSA PCC-16 ITK ix1 micro ITK ix1 micro V.3 Sagem Cybermod (ISA PnP, may work) Sedlbauer Win Speed Siemens I-Surf 2.0 Stollman Tina-pp (under development) Teles S0/8 Teles S0/16 - Teles S0/16.3 (the “c” Versions - like 16.3c + Teles S0/16.3 (the c Versions - like 16.3c - are unsupported!) Teles S0 PnP (experimental, may work) 3Com/USRobotics Sportster ISDN TA intern (non-PnP version) Miscellaneous Devices AST 4 port serial card using shared IRQ ARNET 8 port serial card using shared IRQ ARNET (now Digiboard) Sync 570/i high-speed serial Boca BB1004 4-Port serial card (Modems NOT supported) Boca IOAT66 6-Port serial card (Modems supported) Boca BB1008 8-Port serial card (Modems NOT supported) Boca BB2016 16-Port serial card (Modems supported) Cyclades Cyclom-y Serial Board Moxa SmartIO CI-104J 4-Port serial card STB 4 port card using shared IRQ SDL Communications RISCom/8 Serial Board SDL Communications RISCom/N2 and N2pci high-speed sync serial boards Specialix SI/XIO/SX multiport serial cards, with both the - older SIHOST2.x and the new “enhanced” + older SIHOST2.x and the new enhanced (transputer based, aka JET) host cards; ISA, EISA and PCI are supported Stallion multiport serial boards: EasyIO, EasyConnection 8/32 & 8/64, ONboard 4/16 and Brumby Adlib, SoundBlaster, SoundBlaster Pro, ProAudioSpectrum, Gravis UltraSound, and Roland MPU-401 sound cards Connectix QuickCam Matrox Meteor Video frame grabber Creative Labs Video Spigot frame grabber Cortex1 frame grabber Various frame grabbers based ont he the Brooktree Bt848 and Bt878 chip HP4020, HP6020, Philips CDD2000/CDD2660 and Plasmon CD-R drives Bus mice PS/2 mice Standard PC Joystick X-10 power controllers GPIB and Transputer drives Genius and Mustek hand scanners Floppy tape drives (some rather old models only, driver is rather stale) Lucent Technologies WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 PCMCIA and ISA standard speed (2Mbps) and turbo speed (6Mbps) wireless network adapters and workalikes (NCR WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11, Cabletron RoamAbout 802.11 DS) The ISA versions of these adapters are actually PCMCIA cards combined with an ISA to PCMCIA bridge card, so both kinds of devices work with the same driver. FreeBSD currently does NOT support IBM's microchannel (MCA) bus. Troubleshooting The following section covers basic installation troubleshooting, such as common problems people have reported. There are also a few questions and answers for people wishing to dual-boot FreeBSD with MS-DOS. What to do if something goes wrong... Due to various limitations of the PC architecture, it is impossible for probing to be 100% reliable, however, there are a few things you can do if it fails. Check the supported hardware list to make sure your hardware is supported. If your hardware is supported and you still experience lock-ups or other problems, reset your computer, and when the visual kernel configuration option is given, choose it. This will allow you to go through your hardware and supply information to the system about it. The kernel on the boot disks is configured assuming that most hardware devices are in their factory default configuration in terms of IRQs, IO addresses, and DMA channels. If your hardware has been reconfigured, you will most likely need to use the configuration editor to tell FreeBSD where to find things. It is also possible that a probe for a device not present will cause a later probe for another device that is present to fail. In that case, the probes for the conflicting driver(s) should be disabled. Do not disable any drivers you will need during the installation, such as your screen (sc0). If the installation wedges or fails mysteriously after leaving the configuration editor, you have probably removed or changed something you should not have. Reboot and try again. In configuration mode, you can: List the device drivers installed in the kernel. Change device drivers for hardware that is not present in your system. Change IRQs, DRQs, and IO port addresses used by a device driver. After adjusting the kernel to match your hardware configuration, type Q to boot with the new settings. Once the installation has completed, any changes you made in the configuration mode will be permanent so you do not have to reconfigure every time you boot. It is still highly likely that you will eventually want to build a custom kernel. MS-DOS User's Questions and Answers Many users wish to install FreeBSD on PCs inhabited by MS-DOS. Here are some commonly asked questions about installing FreeBSD on such systems. Help, I have no space! Do I need to delete everything first? If your machine is already running MS-DOS and has little or no free space available for the FreeBSD installation, all hope is not lost! You may find the FIPS utility, provided in the tools directory on the FreeBSD CDROM or various FreeBSD FTP sites to be quite useful. FIPS allows you to split an existing MS-DOS partition into two pieces, preserving the original partition and allowing you to install onto the second free piece. You first defragment your MS-DOS partition using the Windows DEFRAG utility (go into Explorer, right-click on the hard drive, and choose to defrag your hard drive), or Norton Disk Tools. You then must run FIPS. It will prompt you for the rest of the information it needs. Afterwards, you can reboot and install FreeBSD on the new free slice. See the Distributions menu for an estimate of how much free space you will need for the kind of installation you want. There is also a very useful product from PowerQuest called Partition Magic. This application has far more functionality than FIPS, and is highly recommended if you plan to often add/remove operating systems (like me). However, it does cost money, and if you plan to install FreeBSD once and then leave it there, FIPS will probably be fine for you. Can I use compressed MS-DOS filesystems from FreeBSD? No. If you are using a utility such as Stacker(tm) or DoubleSpace(tm), FreeBSD will only be able to use whatever portion of the filesystem you leave uncompressed. The rest of the filesystem will show up as one large file (the stacked/double spaced file!). Do not remove that file or you will probably regret it greatly! It is probably better to create another uncompressed primary MS-DOS partition and use this for communications between MS-DOS and FreeBSD. Can I mount my extended MS-DOS partition? Yes. DOS extended partitions are mapped in at the end - of the other “slices” in FreeBSD, e.g., your + of the other slices in FreeBSD, e.g., your D: drive might be /dev/da0s5, your E: drive, /dev/da0s6, and so on. This example assumes, of course, that your extended partition is on SCSI drive 0. For IDE drives, substitute ad for da appropriately if installing 4.0-RELEASE or later, and substitute wd for da if you are installing a version of FreeBSD prior to 4.0. You otherwise mount extended partitions exactly like you would any other DOS drive, for example: &prompt.root; mount -t msdos /dev/ad0s5 /dos_d diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/internals/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/internals/chapter.sgml index b7a7d3fbeb..feb3ee10b1 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/internals/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/internals/chapter.sgml @@ -1,3222 +1,3222 @@ FreeBSD Internals DMA: What it is and How it Works Copyright © 1995,1997 &a.uhclem;, All Rights Reserved. 10 December 1996. Last Update 8 October 1997. Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a method of allowing data to be moved from one location to another in a computer without intervention from the central processor (CPU). The way that the DMA function is implemented varies between computer architectures, so this discussion will limit itself to the implementation and workings of the DMA subsystem on the IBM Personal Computer (PC), the IBM PC/AT and all of its successors and clones. The PC DMA subsystem is based on the Intel 8237 DMA controller. The 8237 contains four DMA channels that can be programmed independently and any one of the channels may be active at any moment. These channels are numbered 0, 1, 2 and 3. Starting with the PC/AT, IBM added a second 8237 chip, and numbered those channels 4, 5, 6 and 7. The original DMA controller (0, 1, 2 and 3) moves one byte in each transfer. The second DMA controller (4, 5, 6, and 7) moves 16-bits from two adjacent memory locations in each transfer, with the first byte always coming from an even-numbered address. The two controllers are identical components and the difference in transfer size is caused by the way the second controller is wired into the system. The 8237 has two electrical signals for each channel, named DRQ and -DACK. There are additional signals with the names HRQ (Hold Request), HLDA (Hold Acknowledge), -EOP (End of Process), and the bus control signals -MEMR (Memory Read), -MEMW (Memory Write), -IOR (I/O Read), and -IOW (I/O Write). - The 8237 DMA is known as a “fly-by” DMA controller. + The 8237 DMA is known as a fly-by DMA controller. This means that the data being moved from one location to another does not pass through the DMA chip and is not stored in the DMA chip. Subsequently, the DMA can only transfer data between an I/O port and a memory address, but not between two I/O ports or two memory locations. The 8237 does allow two channels to be connected together to allow - memory-to-memory DMA operations in a non-“fly-by” mode, + memory-to-memory DMA operations in a non-fly-by mode, but nobody in the PC industry uses this scarce resource this way since it is faster to move data between memory locations using the CPU. In the PC architecture, each DMA channel is normally activated only when the hardware that uses a given DMA channel requests a transfer by asserting the DRQ line for that channel. A Sample DMA transfer Here is an example of the steps that occur to cause and perform a DMA transfer. In this example, the floppy disk controller (FDC) has just read a byte from a diskette and wants the DMA to place it in memory at location 0x00123456. The process begins by the FDC asserting the DRQ2 signal (the DRQ line for DMA channel 2) to alert the DMA controller. The DMA controller will note that the DRQ2 signal is asserted. The DMA controller will then make sure that DMA channel 2 has been programmed and is unmasked (enabled). The DMA controller also makes sure that none of the other DMA channels are active or want to be active and have a higher priority. Once these checks are complete, the DMA asks the CPU to release the bus so that the DMA may use the bus. The DMA requests the bus by asserting the HRQ signal which goes to the CPU. The CPU detects the HRQ signal, and will complete executing the current instruction. Once the processor has reached a state where it can release the bus, it will. Now all of the signals normally generated by the CPU (-MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and a few others) are placed in a tri-stated condition (neither high or low) and then the CPU asserts the HLDA signal which tells the DMA controller that it is now in charge of the bus. Depending on the processor, the CPU may be able to execute a few additional instructions now that it no longer has the bus, but the CPU will eventually have to wait when it reaches an instruction that must read something from memory that is not in the internal processor cache or pipeline. - Now that the DMA “is in charge”, the DMA activates its + Now that the DMA is in charge, the DMA activates its -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW output signals, and the address outputs from the DMA are set to 0x3456, which will be used to direct the byte that is about to transferred to a specific memory location. The DMA will then let the device that requested the DMA transfer know that the transfer is commencing. This is done by asserting the -DACK signal, or in the case of the floppy disk controller, -DACK2 is asserted. The floppy disk controller is now responsible for placing the byte to be transferred on the bus Data lines. Unless the floppy controller needs more time to get the data byte on the bus (and if the peripheral does need more time it alerts the DMA via the READY signal), the DMA will wait one DMA clock, and then de-assert the -MEMW and -IOR signals so that the memory will latch and store the byte that was on the bus, and the FDC will know that the byte has been transferred. Since the DMA cycle only transfers a single byte at a time, the FDC now drops the DRQ2 signal, so the DMA knows that it is no longer needed. The DMA will de-assert the -DACK2 signal, so that the FDC knows it must stop placing data on the bus. The DMA will now check to see if any of the other DMA channels have any work to do. If none of the channels have their DRQ lines asserted, the DMA controller has completed its work and will now tri-state the -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and address signals. Finally, the DMA will de-assert the HRQ signal. The CPU sees this, and de-asserts the HOLDA signal. Now the CPU activates its -MEMR, -MEMW, -IOR, -IOW and address lines, and it resumes executing instructions and accessing main memory and the peripherals. For a typical floppy disk sector, the above process is repeated 512 times, once for each byte. Each time a byte is transferred, the address register in the DMA is incremented and the counter in the DMA that shows how many bytes are to be transferred is decremented. When the counter reaches zero, the DMA asserts the EOP signal, which indicates that the counter has reached zero and no more data will be transferred until the DMA controller is reprogrammed by the CPU. This event is also called the Terminal Count (TC). There is only one EOP signal, and since only DMA channel can be active at any instant, the DMA channel that is currently active must be the DMA channel that just completed its task. If a peripheral wants to generate an interrupt when the transfer of a buffer is complete, it can test for its -DACKn signal and the EOP signal both being asserted at the same time. When that happens, it means the DMA will not transfer any more information for that peripheral without intervention by the CPU. The peripheral can then assert one of the interrupt signals to get the processors' attention. In the PC architecture, the DMA chip itself is not capable of generating an interrupt. The peripheral and its associated hardware is responsible for generating any interrupt that occurs. Subsequently, it is possible to have a peripheral that uses DMA but does not use interrupts. It is important to understand that although the CPU always releases the bus to the DMA when the DMA makes the request, this action is invisible to both applications and the operating systems, except for slight changes in the amount of time the processor takes to execute instructions when the DMA is active. Subsequently, the processor must poll the peripheral, poll the registers in the DMA chip, or receive an interrupt from the peripheral to know for certain when a DMA transfer has completed. DMA Page Registers and 16Meg address space limitations You may have noticed earlier that instead of the DMA setting the address lines to 0x00123456 as we said earlier, the DMA only set 0x3456. The reason for this takes a bit of explaining. When the original IBM PC was designed, IBM elected to use both DMA and interrupt controller chips that were designed for use with the 8085, an 8-bit processor with an address space of 16 bits (64K). Since the IBM PC supported more than 64K of memory, something had to be done to allow the DMA to read or write memory locations above the 64K mark. What IBM did to solve this problem was to add an external data latch for each DMA channel that holds the upper bits of the address to be read to or written from. Whenever a DMA channel is active, the contents of that latch are written to the address bus and kept there until the DMA operation for the channel ends. IBM called - these latches “Page Registers”. + these latches Page Registers. So for our example above, the DMA would put the 0x3456 part of the address on the bus, and the Page Register for DMA channel 2 would put 0x0012xxxx on the bus. Together, these two values form the complete address in memory that is to be accessed. Because the Page Register latch is independent of the DMA chip, the area of memory to be read or written must not span a 64K physical boundary. For example, if the DMA accesses memory location 0xffff, after that transfer the DMA will then increment the address register and the DMA will access the next byte at location 0x0000, not 0x10000. The results of letting this happen are probably not intended. - “Physical” 64K boundaries should not be confused - with 8086-mode 64K “Segments”, which are created by + Physical 64K boundaries should not be confused + with 8086-mode 64K Segments, which are created by mathematically adding a segment register with an offset register. Page Registers have no address overlap and are mathematically OR-ed together. To further complicate matters, the external DMA address latches on the PC/AT hold only eight bits, so that gives us 8+16=24 bits, which means that the DMA can only point at memory locations between 0 and 16Meg. For newer computers that allow more than 16Meg of memory, the standard PC-compatible DMA cannot access memory locations above 16Meg. To get around this restriction, operating systems will reserve a RAM buffer in an area below 16Meg that also does not span a physical 64K boundary. Then the DMA will be programmed to transfer data from the peripheral and into that buffer. Once the DMA has moved the data into this buffer, the operating system will then copy the data from the buffer to the address where the data is really supposed to be stored. When writing data from an address above 16Meg to a DMA-based peripheral, the data must be first copied from where it resides into a buffer located below 16Meg, and then the DMA can copy the data from the buffer to the hardware. In FreeBSD, these reserved buffers are - called “Bounce Buffers”. In the MS-DOS world, they are - sometimes called “Smart Buffers”. + called Bounce Buffers. In the MS-DOS world, they are + sometimes called Smart Buffers. A new implementation of the 8237, called the 82374, allows 16 bits of page register to be specified, allows access to the entire 32 bit address space, without the use of bounce buffers. DMA Operational Modes and Settings The 8237 DMA can be operated in several modes. The main ones are: Single A single byte (or word) is transferred. The DMA must release and re-acquire the bus for each additional byte. This is commonly-used by devices that cannot transfer the entire block of data immediately. The peripheral will request the DMA each time it is ready for another transfer. The standard PC-compatible floppy disk controller (NEC 765) only has a one-byte buffer, so it uses this mode. Block/Demand Once the DMA acquires the system bus, an entire block of data is transferred, up to a maximum of 64K. If the peripheral needs additional time, it can assert the READY signal to suspend the transfer briefly. READY should not be used excessively, and for slow peripheral transfers, the Single Transfer Mode should be used instead. The difference between Block and Demand is that once a Block transfer is started, it runs until the transfer count reaches zero. DRQ only needs to be asserted until -DACK is asserted. Demand Mode will transfer one more bytes until DRQ is de-asserted, at which point the DMA suspends the transfer and releases the bus back to the CPU. When DRQ is asserted later, the transfer resumes where it was suspended. Older hard disk controllers used Demand Mode until CPU speeds increased to the point that it was more efficient to transfer the data using the CPU, particularly if the memory locations used in the transfer were above the 16Meg mark. Cascade This mechanism allows a DMA channel to request the bus, but then the attached peripheral device is responsible for placing the addressing information on the bus instead of the DMA. This - is also used to implement a technique known as “Bus - Mastering”. + is also used to implement a technique known as Bus + Mastering. When a DMA channel in Cascade Mode receives control of the bus, the DMA does not place addresses and I/O control signals on the bus like the DMA normally does when it is active. Instead, the DMA only asserts the -DACK signal for the active DMA channel. At this point it is up to the peripheral connected to that DMA channel to provide address and bus control signals. The peripheral has complete control over the system bus, and can do reads and/or writes to any address below 16Meg. When the peripheral is finished with the bus, it de-asserts the DRQ line, and the DMA controller can then return control to the CPU or to some other DMA channel. Cascade Mode can be used to chain multiple DMA controllers together, and this is exactly what DMA Channel 4 is used for in the PC architecture. When a peripheral requests the bus on DMA channels 0, 1, 2 or 3, the slave DMA controller asserts HLDREQ, but this wire is actually connected to DRQ4 on the primary DMA controller instead of to the CPU. The primary DMA controller, thinking it has work to do on Channel 4, requests the bus from the CPU using HLDREQ signal. Once the CPU grants the bus to the primary DMA controller, -DACK4 is asserted, and that wire is actually connected to the HLDA signal on the slave DMA controller. The slave DMA controller then transfers data for the DMA channel that requested it (0, 1, 2 or 3), or the slave DMA may grant the bus to a peripheral that wants to perform its own bus-mastering, such as a SCSI controller. Because of this wiring arrangement, only DMA channels 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 are usable with peripherals on PC/AT systems. DMA channel 0 was reserved for refresh operations in early IBM PC computers, but is generally available for use by peripherals in modern systems. When a peripheral is performing Bus Mastering, it is important that the peripheral transmit data to or from memory constantly while it holds the system bus. If the peripheral cannot do this, it must release the bus frequently so that the system can perform refresh operations on main memory. The Dynamic RAM used in all PCs for main memory must be accessed frequently to keep the bits stored in the components - “charged”. Dynamic RAM essentially consists of + charged. Dynamic RAM essentially consists of millions of capacitors with each one holding one bit of data. These capacitors are charged with power to represent a 1 or drained to represent a 0. Because all capacitors leak, power must be added at regular intervals to keep the 1 values intact. The RAM chips actually handle the task of pumping power back into all of the appropriate locations in RAM, but they must be told when to do it by the rest of the computer so that the refresh activity won't interfere with the computer wanting to access RAM normally. If the computer is unable to refresh memory, the contents of memory will become corrupted in just a few milliseconds. - Since memory read and write cycles “count” as + Since memory read and write cycles count as refresh cycles (a dynamic RAM refresh cycle is actually an incomplete memory read cycle), as long as the peripheral controller continues reading or writing data to sequential memory locations, that action will refresh all of memory. Bus-mastering is found in some SCSI host interfaces and other high-performance peripheral controllers. Autoinitialize This mode causes the DMA to perform Byte, Block or Demand transfers, but when the DMA transfer counter reaches zero, the counter and address are set back to where they were when the DMA channel was originally programmed. This means that as long as the peripheral requests transfers, they will be granted. It is up to the CPU to move new data into the fixed buffer ahead of where the DMA is about to transfer it when doing output operations, and read new data out of the buffer behind where the DMA is writing when doing input operations. This technique is frequently used on audio devices that have - small or no hardware “sample” buffers. There is - additional CPU overhead to manage this “circular” + small or no hardware sample buffers. There is + additional CPU overhead to manage this circular buffer, but in some cases this may be the only way to eliminate the latency that occurs when the DMA counter reaches zero and the DMA stops transfers until it is reprogrammed. Programming the DMA The DMA channel that is to be programmed should always be - “masked” before loading any settings. This is because the + masked before loading any settings. This is because the hardware might unexpectedly assert the DRQ for that channel, and the DMA might respond, even though not all of the parameters have been loaded or updated. Once masked, the host must specify the direction of the transfer (memory-to-I/O or I/O-to-memory), what mode of DMA operation is to be used for the transfer (Single, Block, Demand, Cascade, etc), and finally the address and length of the transfer are loaded. The length that is loaded is one less than the amount you expect the DMA to transfer. The LSB and MSB of the address and length are written to the same 8-bit I/O port, so another port must be written to first to guarantee that the DMA accepts the first byte as the LSB and the second byte as the MSB of the length and address. Then, be sure to update the Page Register, which is external to the DMA and is accessed through a different set of I/O ports. Once all the settings are ready, the DMA channel can be un-masked. - That DMA channel is now considered to be “armed”, and will + That DMA channel is now considered to be armed, and will respond when the DRQ line for that channel is asserted. Refer to a hardware data book for precise programming details for the 8237. You will also need to refer to the I/O port map for the PC system, which describes where the DMA and Page Register ports are located. A complete port map table is located below. DMA Port Map All systems based on the IBM-PC and PC/AT have the DMA hardware located at the same I/O ports. The complete list is provided below. Ports assigned to DMA Controller #2 are undefined on non-AT designs. 0x00–0x1f DMA Controller #1 (Channels 0, 1, 2 and 3) DMA Address and Count Registers 0x00 write Channel 0 starting address 0x00 read Channel 0 current address 0x01 write Channel 0 starting word count 0x01 read Channel 0 remaining word count 0x02 write Channel 1 starting address 0x02 read Channel 1 current address 0x03 write Channel 1 starting word count 0x03 read Channel 1 remaining word count 0x04 write Channel 2 starting address 0x04 read Channel 2 current address 0x05 write Channel 2 starting word count 0x05 read Channel 2 remaining word count 0x06 write Channel 3 starting address 0x06 read Channel 3 current address 0x07 write Channel 3 starting word count 0x07 read Channel 3 remaining word count DMA Command Registers 0x08 write Command Register 0x08 read Status Register 0x09 write Request Register 0x09 read - 0x0a write Single Mask Register Bit 0x0a read - 0x0b write Mode Register 0x0b read - 0x0c write Clear LSB/MSB Flip-Flop 0x0c read - 0x0d write Master Clear/Reset 0x0d read Temporary Register (not available on newer versions) 0x0e write Clear Mask Register 0x0e read - 0x0f write Write All Mask Register Bits 0x0f read Read All Mask Register Bits (only in Intel 82374) 0xc0–0xdf DMA Controller #2 (Channels 4, 5, 6 and 7) DMA Address and Count Registers 0xc0 write Channel 4 starting address 0xc0 read Channel 4 current address 0xc2 write Channel 4 starting word count 0xc2 read Channel 4 remaining word count 0xc4 write Channel 5 starting address 0xc4 read Channel 5 current address 0xc6 write Channel 5 starting word count 0xc6 read Channel 5 remaining word count 0xc8 write Channel 6 starting address 0xc8 read Channel 6 current address 0xca write Channel 6 starting word count 0xca read Channel 6 remaining word count 0xcc write Channel 7 starting address 0xcc read Channel 7 current address 0xce write Channel 7 starting word count 0xce read Channel 7 remaining word count DMA Command Registers 0xd0 write Command Register 0xd0 read Status Register 0xd2 write Request Register 0xd2 read - 0xd4 write Single Mask Register Bit 0xd4 read - 0xd6 write Mode Register 0xd6 read - 0xd8 write Clear LSB/MSB Flip-Flop 0xd8 read - 0xda write Master Clear/Reset 0xda read Temporary Register (not present in Intel 82374) 0xdc write Clear Mask Register 0xdc read - 0xde write Write All Mask Register Bits 0xdf read Read All Mask Register Bits (only in Intel 82374) 0x80–0x9f DMA Page Registers 0x87 r/w Channel 0 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x83 r/w Channel 1 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x81 r/w Channel 2 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x82 r/w Channel 3 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x8b r/w Channel 5 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x89 r/w Channel 6 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x8a r/w Channel 7 Low byte (23-16) page Register 0x8f r/w Low byte page Refresh 0x400–0x4ff 82374 Enhanced DMA Registers The Intel 82374 EISA System Component (ESC) was introduced in early 1996 and includes a DMA controller that provides a superset of 8237 functionality as well as other PC-compatible core peripheral components in a single package. This chip is targeted at both EISA and PCI platforms, and provides modern DMA features like scatter-gather, ring buffers as well as direct access by the system DMA to all 32 bits of address space. If these features are used, code should also be included to provide similar functionality in the previous 16 years worth of PC-compatible computers. For compatibility reasons, some of the 82374 registers must be programmed after programming the traditional 8237 registers for each transfer. Writing to a traditional 8237 register forces the contents of some of the 82374 enhanced registers to zero to provide backward software compatibility. 0x401 r/w Channel 0 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x403 r/w Channel 1 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x405 r/w Channel 2 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x407 r/w Channel 3 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x4c6 r/w Channel 5 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x4ca r/w Channel 6 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x4ce r/w Channel 7 High byte (bits 23-16) word count 0x487 r/w Channel 0 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x483 r/w Channel 1 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x481 r/w Channel 2 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x482 r/w Channel 3 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x48b r/w Channel 5 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x489 r/w Channel 6 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x48a r/w Channel 6 High byte (bits 31-24) page Register 0x48f r/w High byte page Refresh 0x4e0 r/w Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4e1 r/w Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4e2 r/w Channel 0 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4e4 r/w Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4e5 r/w Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4e6 r/w Channel 1 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4e8 r/w Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4e9 r/w Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4ea r/w Channel 2 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4ec r/w Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4ed r/w Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4ee r/w Channel 3 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4f4 r/w Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4f5 r/w Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4f6 r/w Channel 5 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4f8 r/w Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4f9 r/w Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4fa r/w Channel 6 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x4fc r/w Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 7-2) 0x4fd r/w Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 15-8) 0x4fe r/w Channel 7 Stop Register (bits 23-16) 0x40a write Channels 0-3 Chaining Mode Register 0x40a read Channel Interrupt Status Register 0x4d4 write Channels 4-7 Chaining Mode Register 0x4d4 read Chaining Mode Status 0x40c read Chain Buffer Expiration Control Register 0x410 write Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x411 write Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x412 write Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x413 write Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x415 write Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x416 write Channel 6 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x417 write Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Command Register 0x418 read Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x419 read Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41a read Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41b read Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41d read Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41e read Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x41f read Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Status Register 0x420-0x423 r/w Channel 0 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x424-0x427 r/w Channel 1 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x428-0x42b r/w Channel 2 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x42c-0x42f r/w Channel 3 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x434-0x437 r/w Channel 5 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x438-0x43b r/w Channel 6 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register 0x43c-0x43f r/w Channel 7 Scatter-Gather Descriptor Table Pointer Register The FreeBSD VM System Contributed by &a.dillon;. 6 Feb 1999 Management of physical memory—<literal>vm_page_t</literal> Physical memory is managed on a page-by-page basis through the vm_page_t structure. Pages of physical memory are categorized through the placement of their respective vm_page_t structures on one of several paging queues. A page can be in a wired, active, inactive, cache, or free state. Except for the wired state, the page is typically placed in a doubly link list queue representing the state that it is in. Wired pages are not placed on any queue. FreeBSD implements a more involved paging queue for cached and free pages in order to implement page coloring. Each of these states involves multiple queues arranged according to the size of the processor's L1 and L2 caches. When a new page needs to be allocated, FreeBSD attempts to obtain one that is reasonably well aligned from the point of view of the L1 and L2 caches relative to the VM object the page is being allocated for. Additionally, a page may be held with a reference count or locked - with a busy count. The VM system also implements an “ultimate - locked” state for a page using the PG_BUSY bit in the page's + with a busy count. The VM system also implements an ultimate + locked state for a page using the PG_BUSY bit in the page's flags. In general terms, each of the paging queues operates in a LRU fashion. A page is typically placed in a wired or active state initially. When wired, the page is usually associated with a page table somewhere. The VM system ages the page by scanning pages in a more active paging queue (LRU) in order to move them to a less-active paging queue. Pages that get moved into the cache are still associated with a VM object but are candidates for immediate reuse. Pages in the free queue are truly free. FreeBSD attempts to minimize the number of pages in the free queue, but a certain minimum number of truly free pages must be maintained in order to accommodate page allocation at interrupt time. If a process attempts to access a page that does not exist in its page table but does exist in one of the paging queues ( such as the inactive or cache queues), a relatively inexpensive page reactivation fault occurs which causes the page to be reactivated. If the page does not exist in system memory at all, the process must block while the page is brought in from disk. FreeBSD dynamically tunes its paging queues and attempts to maintain reasonable ratios of pages in the various queues as well as attempts to maintain a reasonable breakdown of clean vs dirty pages. The amount of rebalancing that occurs depends on the system's memory load. This rebalancing is implemented by the pageout daemon and involves laundering dirty pages (syncing them with their backing store), noticing when pages are activity referenced (resetting their position in the LRU queues or moving them between queues), migrating pages between queues when the queues are out of balance, and so forth. FreeBSD's VM system is willing to take a reasonable number of reactivation page faults to determine how active or how idle a page actually is. This leads to better decisions being made as to when to launder or swap-out a page. The unified buffer cache—<literal>vm_object_t</literal> - FreeBSD implements the idea of a generic “VM object”. + FreeBSD implements the idea of a generic VM object. VM objects can be associated with backing store of various types—unbacked, swap-backed, physical device-backed, or file-backed storage. Since the filesystem uses the same VM objects to manage in-core data relating to files, the result is a unified buffer cache. VM objects can be shadowed. That is, they can be stacked on top of each other. For example, you might have a swap-backed VM object stacked on top of a file-backed VM object in order to implement a MAP_PRIVATE mmap()ing. This stacking is also used to implement various sharing properties, including, copy-on-write, for forked address spaces. It should be noted that a vm_page_t can only be associated with one VM object at a time. The VM object shadowing implements the perceived sharing of the same page across multiple instances. Filesystem I/O—<literal>struct buf</literal> vnode-backed VM objects, such as file-backed objects, generally need to maintain their own clean/dirty info independent from the VM system's idea of clean/dirty. For example, when the VM system decides to synchronize a physical page to its backing store, the VM system needs to mark the page clean before the page is actually written to its backing s tore. Additionally, filesystems need to be able to map portions of a file or file metadata into KVM in order to operate on it. The entities used to manage this are known as filesystem buffers, struct buf's, and also known as bp's. When a filesystem needs to operate on a portion of a VM object, it typically maps part of the object into a struct buf and the maps the pages in the struct buf into KVM. In the same manner, disk I/O is typically issued by mapping portions of objects into buffer structures and then issuing the I/O on the buffer structures. The underlying vm_page_t's are typically busied for the duration of the I/O. Filesystem buffers also have their own notion of being busy, which is useful to filesystem driver code which would rather operate on filesystem buffers instead of hard VM pages. FreeBSD reserves a limited amount of KVM to hold mappings from struct bufs, but it should be made clear that this KVM is used solely to hold mappings and does not limit the ability to cache data. Physical data caching is strictly a function of vm_page_t's, not filesystem buffers. However, since filesystem buffers are used placehold I/O, they do inherently limit the amount of concurrent I/O possible. As there are usually a few thousand filesystem buffers available, this is not usually a problem. Mapping Page Tables - vm_map_t, vm_entry_t FreeBSD separates the physical page table topology from the VM system. All hard per-process page tables can be reconstructed on the fly and are usually considered throwaway. Special page tables such as those managing KVM are typically permanently preallocated. These page tables are not throwaway. FreeBSD associates portions of vm_objects with address ranges in virtual memory through vm_map_t and vm_entry_t structures. Page tables are directly synthesized from the vm_map_t/vm_entry_t/ vm_object_t hierarchy. Remember when I mentioned that physical pages are only directly associated with a vm_object. Well, that isn't quite true. vm_page_t's are also linked into page tables that they are actively associated with. One vm_page_t can be linked into several pmaps, as page tables are called. However, the hierarchical association holds so all references to the same page in the same object reference the same vm_page_t and thus give us buffer cache unification across the board. KVM Memory Mapping FreeBSD uses KVM to hold various kernel structures. The single largest entity held in KVM is the filesystem buffer cache. That is, mappings relating to struct buf entities. Unlike Linux, FreeBSD does NOT map all of physical memory into KVM. This means that FreeBSD can handle memory configurations up to 4G on 32 bit platforms. In fact, if the mmu were capable of it, FreeBSD could theoretically handle memory configurations up to 8TB on a 32 bit platform. However, since most 32 bit platforms are only capable of mapping 4GB of ram, this is a moot point. KVM is managed through several mechanisms. The main mechanism used to manage KVM is the zone allocator. The zone allocator takes a chunk of KVM and splits it up into constant-sized blocks of memory in order to allocate a specific type of structure. You can use vmstat -m to get an overview of current KVM utilization broken down by zone. Tuning the FreeBSD VM system A concerted effort has been made to make the FreeBSD kernel dynamically tune itself. Typically you do not need to mess with anything beyond the maxusers and NMBCLUSTERS kernel config options. That is, kernel compilation options specified in (typically) /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/CONFIG_FILE. A description of all available kernel configuration options can be found in /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. In a large system configuration you may wish to increase maxusers. Values typically range from 10 to 128. Note that raising maxusers too high can cause the system to overflow available KVM resulting in unpredictable operation. It is better to leave maxusers at some reasonable number and add other options, such as NMBCLUSTERS, to increase specific resources. If your system is going to use the network heavily, you may want to increase NMBCLUSTERS. Typical values range from 1024 to 4096. The NBUF parameter is also traditionally used to scale the system. This parameter determines the amount of KVA the system can use to map filesystem buffers for I/O. Note that this parameter has nothing whatsoever to do with the unified buffer cache! This parameter is dynamically tuned in 3.0-CURRENT and later kernels and should generally not be adjusted manually. We recommend that you not try to specify an NBUF parameter. Let the system pick it. Too small a value can result in extremely inefficient filesystem operation while too large a value can starve the page queues by causing too many pages to become wired down. By default, FreeBSD kernels are not optimized. You can set debugging and optimization flags with the makeoptions directive in the kernel configuration. Note that you should not use unless you can accommodate the large (typically 7 MB+) kernels that result. makeoptions DEBUG="-g" makeoptions COPTFLAGS="-O2 -pipe" Sysctl provides a way to tune kernel parameters at run-time. You typically do not need to mess with any of the sysctl variables, especially the VM related ones. Run time VM and system tuning is relatively straightforward. First, use softupdates on your UFS/FFS filesystems whenever possible. /usr/src/contrib/sys/softupdates/README contains instructions (and restrictions) on how to configure it up. Second, configure sufficient swap. You should have a swap partition configured on each physical disk, up to four, even on your - “work” disks. You should have at least 2x the swap space + work disks. You should have at least 2x the swap space as you have main memory, and possibly even more if you do not have a lot of memory. You should also size your swap partition based on the maximum memory configuration you ever intend to put on the machine so you do not have to repartition your disks later on. If you want to be able to accommodate a crash dump, your first swap partition must be at least as large as main memory and /var/crash must have sufficient free space to hold the dump. NFS-based swap is perfectly acceptable on -4.x or later systems, but you must be aware that the NFS server will take the brunt of the paging load. IPv6/IPsec Implementation Contributed by &a.shin;, 5 March 2000. This section should explain IPv6 and IPsec related implementation internals. These functionalities are derived from KAME project IPv6 Conformance The IPv6 related functions conforms, or tries to conform to the latest set of IPv6 specifications. For future reference we list some of the relevant documents below (NOTE: this is not a complete list - this is too hard to maintain...). For details please refer to specific chapter in the document, RFCs, manpages, or comments in the source code. Conformance tests have been performed on the KAME STABLE kit at TAHI project. Results can be viewed at http://www.tahi.org/report/KAME/ . We also attended Univ. of New Hampshire IOL tests (http://www.iol.unh.edu/) in the past, with our past snapshots. RFC1639: FTP Operation Over Big Address Records (FOOBAR) RFC2428 is preferred over RFC1639. FTP clients will first try RFC2428, then RFC1639 if failed. RFC1886: DNS Extensions to support IPv6 RFC1933: Transition Mechanisms for IPv6 Hosts and Routers IPv4 compatible address is not supported. automatic tunneling (described in 4.3 of this RFC) is not supported. &man.gif.4; interface implements IPv[46]-over-IPv[46] tunnel in a generic way, and it covers "configured tunnel" described in the spec. See 23.5.1.5 in this document for details. RFC1981: Path MTU Discovery for IPv6 RFC2080: RIPng for IPv6 usr.sbin/route6d support this. RFC2292: Advanced Sockets API for IPv6 For supported library functions/kernel APIs, see sys/netinet6/ADVAPI. RFC2362: Protocol Independent Multicast-Sparse Mode (PIM-SM) RFC2362 defines packet formats for PIM-SM. draft-ietf-pim-ipv6-01.txt is written based on this. RFC2373: IPv6 Addressing Architecture supports node required addresses, and conforms to the scope requirement. RFC2374: An IPv6 Aggregatable Global Unicast Address Format supports 64-bit length of Interface ID. RFC2375: IPv6 Multicast Address Assignments Userland applications use the well-known addresses assigned in the RFC. RFC2428: FTP Extensions for IPv6 and NATs RFC2428 is preferred over RFC1639. ftp clients will first try RFC2428, then RFC1639 if failed. RFC2460: IPv6 specification RFC2461: Neighbor discovery for IPv6 See 23.5.1.2 in this document for details. RFC2462: IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration See 23.5.1.4 in this document for details. RFC2463: ICMPv6 for IPv6 specification See 23.5.1.9 in this document for details. RFC2464: Transmission of IPv6 Packets over Ethernet Networks RFC2465: MIB for IPv6: Textual Conventions and General Group Necessary statistics are gathered by the kernel. Actual IPv6 MIB support is provided as patchkit for ucd-snmp. RFC2466: MIB for IPv6: ICMPv6 group Necessary statistics are gathered by the kernel. Actual IPv6 MIB support is provided as patchkit for ucd-snmp. RFC2467: Transmission of IPv6 Packets over FDDI Networks RFC2497: Transmission of IPv6 packet over ARCnet Networks RFC2553: Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6 IPv4 mapped address (3.7) and special behavior of IPv6 wildcard bind socket (3.8) are supported. See 23.5.1.12 in this document for details. RFC2675: IPv6 Jumbograms See 23.5.1.7 in this document for details. RFC2710: Multicast Listener Discovery for IPv6 RFC2711: IPv6 router alert option draft-ietf-ipngwg-router-renum-08: Router renumbering for IPv6 draft-ietf-ipngwg-icmp-namelookups-02: IPv6 Name Lookups Through ICMP draft-ietf-ipngwg-icmp-name-lookups-03: IPv6 Name Lookups Through ICMP draft-ietf-pim-ipv6-01.txt: PIM for IPv6 &man.pim6dd.8; implements dense mode. &man.pim6sd.8; implements sparse mode. draft-itojun-ipv6-tcp-to-anycast-00: Disconnecting TCP connection toward IPv6 anycast address draft-yamamoto-wideipv6-comm-model-00 See 23.5.1.6 in this document for details. draft-ietf-ipngwg-scopedaddr-format-00.txt : An Extension of Format for IPv6 Scoped Addresses Neighbor Discovery Neighbor Discovery is fairly stable. Currently Address Resolution, Duplicated Address Detection, and Neighbor Unreachability Detection are supported. In the near future we will be adding Proxy Neighbor Advertisement support in the kernel and Unsolicited Neighbor Advertisement transmission command as admin tool. If DAD fails, the address will be marked "duplicated" and message will be generated to syslog (and usually to console). The "duplicated" mark can be checked with &man.ifconfig.8;. It is administrators' responsibility to check for and recover from DAD failures. The behavior should be improved in the near future. Some of the network driver loops multicast packets back to itself, even if instructed not to do so (especially in promiscuous mode). In such cases DAD may fail, because DAD engine sees inbound NS packet (actually from the node itself) and considers it as a sign of duplicate. You may want to look at #if condition marked "heuristics" in sys/netinet6/nd6_nbr.c:nd6_dad_timer() as workaround (note that the code fragment in "heuristics" section is not spec conformant). Neighbor Discovery specification (RFC2461) does not talk about neighbor cache handling in the following cases: when there was no neighbor cache entry, node received unsolicited RS/NS/NA/redirect packet without link-layer address neighbor cache handling on medium without link-layer address (we need a neighbor cache entry for IsRouter bit) For first case, we implemented workaround based on discussions on IETF ipngwg mailing list. For more details, see the comments in the source code and email thread started from (IPng 7155), dated Feb 6 1999. IPv6 on-link determination rule (RFC2461) is quite different from assumptions in BSD network code. At this moment, no on-link determination rule is supported where default router list is empty (RFC2461, section 5.2, last sentence in 2nd paragraph - note that the spec misuse the word "host" and "node" in several places in the section). To avoid possible DoS attacks and infinite loops, only 10 options on ND packet is accepted now. Therefore, if you have 20 prefix options attached to RA, only the first 10 prefixes will be recognized. If this troubles you, please ask it on FREEBSD-CURRENT mailing list and/or modify nd6_maxndopt in sys/netinet6/nd6.c. If there are high demands we may provide sysctl knob for the variable. Scope Index IPv6 uses scoped addresses. Therefore, it is very important to specify scope index (interface index for link-local address, or site index for site-local address) with an IPv6 address. Without scope index, scoped IPv6 address is ambiguous to the kernel, and kernel will not be able to determine the outbound interface for a packet. Ordinary userland applications should use advanced API (RFC2292) to specify scope index, or interface index. For similar purpose, sin6_scope_id member in sockaddr_in6 structure is defined in RFC2553. However, the semantics for sin6_scope_id is rather vague. If you care about portability of your application, we suggest you to use advanced API rather than sin6_scope_id. In the kernel, an interface index for link-local scoped address is embedded into 2nd 16bit-word (3rd and 4th byte) in IPv6 address. For example, you may see something like: fe80:1::200:f8ff:fe01:6317 in the routing table and interface address structure (struct in6_ifaddr). The address above is a link-local unicast address which belongs to a network interface whose interface identifier is 1. The embedded index enables us to identify IPv6 link local addresses over multiple interfaces effectively and with only a little code change. Routing daemons and configuration programs, like &man.route6d.8; and &man.ifconfig.8;, will need to manipulate the "embedded" scope index. These programs use routing sockets and ioctls (like SIOCGIFADDR_IN6) and the kernel API will return IPv6 addresses with 2nd 16bit-word filled in. The APIs are for manipulating kernel internal structure. Programs that use these APIs have to be prepared about differences in kernels anyway. When you specify scoped address to the command line, NEVER write the embedded form (such as ff02:1::1 or fe80:2::fedc). This is not supposed to work. Always use standard form, like ff02::1 or fe80::fedc, with command line option for specifying interface (like ping6 -I ne0 ff02::1). In general, if a command does not have command line option to specify outgoing interface, that command is not ready to accept scoped address. This may seem to be opposite from IPv6's premise to support "dentist office" situation. We believe that specifications need some improvements for this. Some of the userland tools support extended numeric IPv6 syntax, as documented in draft-ietf-ipngwg-scopedaddr-format-00.txt. You can specify outgoing link, by using name of the outgoing interface like "fe80::1%ne0". This way you will be able to specify link-local scoped address without much trouble. To use this extension in your program, you'll need to use &man.getaddrinfo.3;, and &man.getnameinfo.3; with NI_WITHSCOPEID. The implementation currently assumes 1-to-1 relationship between a link and an interface, which is stronger than what specs say. Plug and Play Most of the IPv6 stateless address autoconfiguration is implemeted in the kernel. Neighbor Discovery functions are implemented in the kernel as a whole. Router Advertisement (RA) input for hosts is implemented in the kernel. Router Solicitation (RS) output for endhosts, RS input for routers, and RA output for routers are implemented in the userland. Assignment of link-local, and special addresses IPv6 link-local address is generated from IEEE802 adddress (ethernet MAC address). Each of interface is assigned an IPv6 link-local address automatically, when the interface becomes up (IFF_UP). Also, direct route for the link-local address is added to routing table. Here is an output of netstat command: Internet6: Destination Gateway Flags Netif Expire fe80:1::%ed0/64 link#1 UC ed0 fe80:2::%ep0/64 link#2 UC ep0 Interfaces that has no IEEE802 address (pseudo interfaces like tunnel interfaces, or ppp interfaces) will borrow IEEE802 address from other interfaces, such as ethernet interfaces, whenever possible. If there is no IEEE802 hardware attached, last-resort pseudorandom value, which is from MD5(hostname), will be used as source of link-local address. If it is not suitable for your usage, you will need to configure the link-local address manually. If an interface is not capable of handling IPv6 (such as lack of multicast support), link-local address will not be assigned to that interface. See section 2 for details. Each interface joins the solicited multicast address and the link-local all-nodes multicast addresses (e.g. fe80::1:ff01:6317 and ff02::1, respectively, on the link the interface is attached). In addition to a link-local address, the loopback address (::1) will be assigned to the loopback interface. Also, ::1/128 and ff01::/32 are automatically added to routing table, and loopback interface joins node-local multicast group ff01::1. Stateless address autoconfiguration on hosts In IPv6 specification, nodes are separated into two categories: routers and hosts. Routers forward packets addressed to others, hosts does not forward the packets. net.inet6.ip6.forwarding defines whether this node is router or host (router if it is 1, host if it is 0). When a host hears Router Advertisement from the router, a host may autoconfigure itself by stateless address autoconfiguration. This behavior can be controlled by net.inet6.ip6.accept_rtadv (host autoconfigures itself if it is set to 1). By autoconfiguration, network address prefix for the receiving interface (usually global address prefix) is added. Default route is also configured. Routers periodically generate Router Advertisement packets. To request an adjacent router to generate RA packet, a host can transmit Router Solicitation. To generate a RS packet at any time, use the rtsol command. &man.rtsold.8; daemon is also available. &man.rtsold.8; generates Router Solicitation whenever necessary, and it works great for nomadic usage (notebooks/laptops). If one wishes to ignore Router Advertisements, use sysctl to set net.inet6.ip6.accept_rtadv to 0. To generate Router Advertisement from a router, use the &man.rtadvd.8 daemon. Note that, IPv6 specification assumes the following items, and nonconforming cases are left unspecified: Only hosts will listen to router advertisements Hosts have single network interface (except loopback) Therefore, this is unwise to enable net.inet6.ip6.accept_rtadv on routers, or multi-interface host. A misconfigured node can behave strange (nonconforming configuration allowed for those who would like to do some experiments). To summarize the sysctl knob: accept_rtadv forwarding role of the node --- --- --- 0 0 host (to be manually configured) 0 1 router 1 0 autoconfigured host (spec assumes that host has single interface only, autoconfigured host with multiple interface is out-of-scope) 1 1 invalid, or experimental (out-of-scope of spec) RFC2462 has validation rule against incoming RA prefix information option, in 5.5.3 (e). This is to protect hosts from malicious (or misconfigured) routers that advertise very short prefix lifetime. There was an update from Jim Bound to ipngwg mailing list (look for "(ipng 6712)" in the archive) and it is implemented Jim's update. See 23.5.1.2 in the document for relationship between DAD and autoconfiguration. Generic tunnel interface GIF (Generic InterFace) is a pseudo interface for configured tunnel. Details are described in &man.gif.4; manpage. Currently v6 in v6 v6 in v4 v4 in v6 v4 in v4 are available. Use &man.gifconfig.8; to assign physical (outer) source and destination address to gif interfaces. Configuration that uses same address family for inner and outer IP header (v4 in v4, or v6 in v6) is dangerous. It is very easy to configure interfaces and routing tables to perform infinite level of tunneling. Please be warned. gif can be configured to be ECN-friendly. See 23.5.4.5 for ECN-friendliness of tunnels, and &man.gif.4; manpage for how to configure. If you would like to configure an IPv4-in-IPv6 tunnel with gif interface, read &man.gif.4; manpage carefully. You will need to remove IPv6 link-local address automatically assigned to the gif interface. Source Address Selection Current source selection rule is scope oriented (there are some exceptions - see below). For a given destination, a source IPv6 address is selected by the following rule: If the source address is explicitly specified by the user (e.g. via the advanced API), the specified address is used. If there is an address assigned to the outgoing interface (which is usually determined by looking up the routing table) that has the same scope as the destination address, the address is used. This is the most typical case. If there is no address that satisfies the above condition, choose a global address assigned to one of the interfaces on the sending node. If there is no address that satisfies the above condition, and destination address is site local scope, choose a site local address assigned to one of the interfaces on the sending node. If there is no address that satisfies the above condition, choose the address associated with the routing table entry for the destination. This is the last resort, which may cause scope violation. For instance, ::1 is selected for ff01::1, fe80:1::200:f8ff:fe01:6317 for fe80:1::2a0:24ff:feab:839b (note that embedded interface index - described in 23.5.1.3 - helps us choose the right source address. Those embedded indices will not be on the wire). If the outgoing interface has multiple address for the scope, a source is selected longest match basis (rule 3). Suppose 3ffe:501:808:1:200:f8ff:fe01:6317 and 3ffe:2001:9:124:200:f8ff:fe01:6317 are given to the outgoing interface. 3ffe:501:808:1:200:f8ff:fe01:6317 is chosen as the source for the destination 3ffe:501:800::1. Note that the above rule is not documented in the IPv6 spec. It is considered "up to implementation" item. There are some cases where we do not use the above rule. One example is connected TCP session, and we use the address kept in tcb as the source. Another example is source address for Neighbor Advertisement. Under the spec (RFC2461 7.2.2) NA's source should be the target address of the corresponding NS's target. In this case we follow the spec rather than the above longest-match rule. For new connections (when rule 1 does not apply), deprecated addresses (addresses with preferred lifetime = 0) will not be chosen as source address if other choises are available. If no other choices are available, deprecated address will be used as a last resort. If there are multiple choice of deprecated addresses, the above scope rule will be used to choose from those deprecated addreses. If you would like to prohibit the use of deprecated address for some reason, configure net.inet6.ip6.use_deprecated to 0. The issue related to deprecated address is described in RFC2462 5.5.4 (NOTE: there is some debate underway in IETF ipngwg on how to use "deprecated" address). Jumbo Payload The Jumbo Payload hop-by-hop option is implemented and can be used to send IPv6 packets with payloads longer than 65,535 octets. But currently no physical interface whose MTU is more than 65,535 is supported, so such payloads can be seen only on the loopback interface (i.e. lo0). If you want to try jumbo payloads, you first have to reconfigure the kernel so that the MTU of the loopback interface is more than 65,535 bytes; add the following to the kernel configuration file: options "LARGE_LOMTU" #To test jumbo payload and recompile the new kernel. Then you can test jumbo payloads by the &man.ping6.8; command with -b and -s options. The -b option must be specified to enlarge the size of the socket buffer and the -s option specifies the length of the packet, which should be more than 65,535. For example, type as follows: &prompt.user; ping6 -b 70000 -s 68000 ::1 The IPv6 specification requires that the Jumbo Payload option must not be used in a packet that carries a fragment header. If this condition is broken, an ICMPv6 Parameter Problem message must be sent to the sender. specification is followed, but you cannot usually see an ICMPv6 error caused by this requirement. When an IPv6 packet is received, the frame length is checked and compared to the length specified in the payload length field of the IPv6 header or in the value of the Jumbo Payload option, if any. If the former is shorter than the latter, the packet is discarded and statistics are incremented. You can see the statistics as output of &man.netstat.8; command with `-s -p ip6' option: &prompt.user; netstat -s -p ip6 ip6: (snip) 1 with data size < data length So, kernel does not send an ICMPv6 error unless the erroneous packet is an actual Jumbo Payload, that is, its packet size is more than 65,535 bytes. As described above, currently no physical interface with such a huge MTU is supported, so it rarely returns an ICMPv6 error. TCP/UDP over jumbogram is not supported at this moment. This is because we have no medium (other than loopback) to test this. Contact us if you need this. IPsec does not work on jumbograms. This is due to some specification twists in supporting AH with jumbograms (AH header size influences payload length, and this makes it real hard to authenticate inbound packet with jumbo payload option as well as AH). There are fundamental issues in *BSD support for jumbograms. We would like to address those, but we need more time to finalize these. To name a few: mbuf pkthdr.len field is typed as "int" in 4.4BSD, so it will not hold jumbogram with len > 2G on 32bit architecture CPUs. If we would like to support jumbogram properly, the field must be expanded to hold 4G + IPv6 header + link-layer header. Therefore, it must be expanded to at least int64_t (u_int32_t is NOT enough). We mistakingly use "int" to hold packet length in many places. We need to convert them into larger integral type. It needs a great care, as we may experience overflow during packet length computation. We mistakingly check for ip6_plen field of IPv6 header for packet payload length in various places. We should be checking mbuf pkthdr.len instead. ip6_input() will perform sanity check on jumbo payload option on input, and we can safely use mbuf pkthdr.len afterwards. TCP code needs a careful update in bunch of places, of course. Loop prevention in header processing IPv6 specification allows arbitrary number of extension headers to be placed onto packets. If we implement IPv6 packet processing code in the way BSD IPv4 code is implemented, kernel stack may overflow due to long function call chain. sys/netinet6 code is carefully designed to avoid kernel stack overflow. Because of this, sys/netinet6 code defines its own protocol switch structure, as "struct ip6protosw" (see netinet6/ip6protosw.h). There is no such update to IPv4 part (sys/netinet) for compatibility, but small change is added to its pr_input() prototype. So "struct ipprotosw" is also defined. Because of this, if you receive IPsec-over-IPv4 packet with massive number of IPsec headers, kernel stack may blow up. IPsec-over-IPv6 is okay. (Off-course, for those all IPsec headers to be processed, each such IPsec header must pass each IPsec check. So an anonymous attacker won't be able to do such an attack.) ICMPv6 After RFC2463 was published, IETF ipngwg has decided to disallow ICMPv6 error packet against ICMPv6 redirect, to prevent ICMPv6 storm on a network medium. This is already implemented into the kernel. Applications For userland programming, we support IPv6 socket API as specified in RFC2553, RFC2292 and upcoming internet drafts. TCP/UDP over IPv6 is available and quite stable. You can enjoy &man.telnet.1;, &man.ftp.1;, &man.rlogin.1;, &man.rsh.1;, &man.ssh.1, etc. These applications are protocol independent. That is, they automatically chooses IPv4 or IPv6 according to DNS. Kernel Internals While ip_forward() calls ip_output(), ip6_forward() directly calls if_output() since routers must not divide IPv6 packets into fragments. ICMPv6 should contain the original packet as long as possible up to 1280. UDP6/IP6 port unreach, for instance, should contain all extension headers and the *unchanged* UDP6 and IP6 headers. So, all IP6 functions except TCP never convert network byte order into host byte order, to save the original packet. tcp_input(), udp6_input() and icmp6_input() can't assume that IP6 header is preceding the transport headers due to extension headers. So, in6_cksum() was implemented to handle packets whose IP6 header and transport header is not continuous. TCP/IP6 nor UDP6/IP6 header structure don't exist for checksum calculation. To process IP6 header, extension headers and transport headers easily, network drivers are now required to store packets in one internal mbuf or one or more external mbufs. A typical old driver prepares two internal mbufs for 96 - 204 bytes data, however, now such packet data is stored in one external mbuf. netstat -s -p ip6 tells you whether or not your driver conforms such requirement. In the following example, "cce0" violates the requirement. (For more information, refer to Section 2.) Mbuf statistics: 317 one mbuf two or more mbuf:: lo0 = 8 cce0 = 10 3282 one ext mbuf 0 two or more ext mbuf Each input function calls IP6_EXTHDR_CHECK in the beginning to check if the region between IP6 and its header is continuous. IP6_EXTHDR_CHECK calls m_pullup() only if the mbuf has M_LOOP flag, that is, the packet comes from the loopback interface. m_pullup() is never called for packets coming from physical network interfaces. Both IP and IP6 reassemble functions never call m_pullup(). IPv4 mapped address and IPv6 wildcard socket RFC2553 describes IPv4 mapped address (3.7) and special behavior of IPv6 wildcard bind socket (3.8). The spec allows you to: Accept IPv4 connections by AF_INET6 wildcard bind socket. Transmit IPv4 packet over AF_INET6 socket by using special form of the address like ::ffff:10.1.1.1. but the spec itself is very complicated and does not specify how the socket layer should behave. Here we call the former one "listening side" and the latter one "initiating side", for reference purposes. You can perform wildcard bind on both of the adderss families, on the same port. The following table show the behavior of FreeBSD 4.x. listening side initiating side (AF_INET6 wildcard (connetion to ::ffff:10.1.1.1) socket gets IPv4 conn.) --- --- FreeBSD 4.x configurable supported default: enabled The following sections will give you more details, and how you can configure the behavior. Comments on listening side: It looks that RFC2553 talks too little on wildcard bind issue, especially on the port space issue, failure mode and relationship between AF_INET/INET6 wildcard bind. There can be several separate interpretation for this RFC which conform to it but behaves differently. So, to implement portable application you should assume nothing about the behavior in the kernel. Using &man.getaddrinfo.3; is the safest way. Port number space and wildcard bind issues were discussed in detail on ipv6imp mailing list, in mid March 1999 and it looks that there's no concrete consensus (means, up to implementers). You may want to check the mailing list archives. If a server application would like to accept IPv4 and IPv6 connections, there will be two alternatives. One is using AF_INET and AF_INET6 socket (you'll need two sockets). Use &man.getaddrinfo.3; with AI_PASSIVE into ai_flags, and &man.socket.2; and &man.bind.2; to all the addresses returned. By opening multiple sockets, you can accept connections onto the socket with proper address family. IPv4 connections will be accepted by AF_INET socket, and IPv6 connections will be accepted by AF_INET6 socket. Another way is using one AF_INET6 wildcard bind socket. Use &man.getaddrinfo.3; with AI_PASSIVE into ai_flags and with AF_INET6 into ai_family, and set the 1st argument hostname to NULL. And &man.socket.2; and &man.bind.2; to the address returned. (should be IPv6 unspecified addr). You can accept either of IPv4 and IPv6 packet via this one socket. To support only IPv6 traffic on AF_INET6 wildcard binded socket portably, always check the peer address when a connection is made toward AF_INET6 listening socket. If the address is IPv4 mapped address, you may want to reject the connection. You can check the condition by using IN6_IS_ADDR_V4MAPPED() macro. To resolve this issue more easily, there is system dependent &man.setsockopt.2; option, IPV6_BINDV6ONLY, used like below. int on; setsockopt(s, IPPROTO_IPV6, IPV6_BINDV6ONLY, (char *)&on, sizeof (on)) < 0)); When this call succeed, then this socket only receive IPv6 packets. Comments on initiating side: Advise to application implementers: to implement a portable IPv6 application (which works on multiple IPv6 kernels), we believe that the following is the key to the success: NEVER hardcode AF_INET nor AF_INET6. Use &man.getaddrinfo.3; and &man.getnameinfo.3; throughout the system. Never use gethostby*(), getaddrby*(), inet_*() or getipnodeby*(). (To update existing applications to be IPv6 aware easily, sometime getipnodeby*() will be useful. But if possible, try to rewrite the code to use &man.getaddrinfo.3; and &man.getnameinfo.3;.) If you would like to connect to destination, use &man.getaddrinfo.3; and try all the destination returned, like &man.telnet.1; does. Some of the IPv6 stack is shipped with buggy &man.getaddrinfo.3;. Ship a minimal working version with your application and use that as last resort. If you would like to use AF_INET6 socket for both IPv4 and IPv6 outgoing connection, you will need to use &man.getipnodebyname.3;. When you would like to update your existing appication to be IPv6 aware with minimal effort, this approach might be choosed. But please note that it is a temporal solution, because &man.getipnodebyname.3; itself is not recommended as it does not handle scoped IPv6 addresses at all. For IPv6 name resolution, &man.getaddrinfo.3; is the preferred API. So you should rewrite your application to use &man.getaddrinfo.3;, when you get the time to do it. When writing applications that make outgoing connections, story goes much simpler if you treat AF_INET and AF_INET6 as totally seaprate address family. {set,get}sockopt issue goes simpler, DNS issue will be made simpler. We do not recommend you to rely upon IPv4 mapped address. unified tcp and inpcb code FreeBSD 4.x uses shared tcp code between IPv4 and IPv6 (from sys/netinet/tcp*) and separete udp4/6 code. It uses unified inpcb structure. The platform can be configured to support IPv4 mapped address. Kernel configuration is summarized as follows: By default, AF_INET6 socket will grab IPv4 connections in certain condition, and can initiate connection to IPv4 destination embedded in IPv4 mapped IPv6 address. You can disable it on entire system with sysctl like below. sysctl -w net.inet6.ip6.mapped_addr=0 listening side Each socket can be configured to support special AF_INET6 wildcard bind (enabled by default). You can disable it on each socket basis with &man.setsockopt.2; like below. int on; setsockopt(s, IPPROTO_IPV6, IPV6_BINDV6ONLY, (char *)&on, sizeof (on)) < 0)); Wildcard AF_INET6 socket grabs IPv4 connection if and only if the following conditions are satisfied: there's no AF_INET socket that matches the IPv4 connection the AF_INET6 socket is configured to accept IPv4 traffic, i.e. getsockopt(IPV6_BINDV6ONLY) returns 0. There's no problem with open/close ordering. initiating side FreeBSD 4.x supports outgoing connetion to IPv4 mapped address (::ffff:10.1.1.1), if the node is configured to support IPv4 mapped address. sockaddr_storage When RFC2553 was about to be finalized, there was discusson on how struct sockaddr_storage members are named. One proposal is to prepend "__" to the members (like "__ss_len") as they should not be touched. The other proposal was that don't prepend it (like "ss_len") as we need to touch those members directly. There was no clear consensus on it. As a result, RFC2553 defines struct sockaddr_storage as follows: struct sockaddr_storage { u_char __ss_len; /* address length */ u_char __ss_family; /* address family */ /* and bunch of padding */ }; On the contrary, XNET draft defines as follows: struct sockaddr_storage { u_char ss_len; /* address length */ u_char ss_family; /* address family */ /* and bunch of padding */ }; In December 1999, it was agreed that RFC2553bis should pick the latter (XNET) definition. Current implementation conforms to XNET definition, based on RFC2553bis discusson. If you look at multiple IPv6 implementations, you will be able to see both definitions. As an userland programmer, the most portable way of dealing with it is to: ensure ss_family and/or ss_len are available on the platform, by using GNU autoconf, have -Dss_family=__ss_family to unify all occurences (including header file) into __ss_family, or never touch __ss_family. cast to sockaddr * and use sa_family like: struct sockaddr_storage ss; family = ((struct sockaddr *)&ss)->sa_family Network Drivers Now following two items are required to be supported by standard drivers: mbuf clustering requirement. In this stable release, we changed MINCLSIZE into MHLEN+1 for all the operating systems in order to make all the drivers behave as we expect. multicast. If &man.ifmcstat.8; yields no multicast group for a interface, that interface has to be patched. If any of the driver don't support the requirements, then the driver can't be used for IPv6 and/or IPsec communication. If you find any problem with your card using IPv6/IPsec, then, please report it to freebsd-bugs@FreeBSD.org. (NOTE: In the past we required all pcmcia drivers to have a call to in6_ifattach(). We have no such requirement any more) Translator We categorize IPv4/IPv6 translator into 4 types: Translator A --- It is used in the early stage of transition to make it possible to establish a connection from an IPv6 host in an IPv6 island to an IPv4 host in the IPv4 ocean. Translator B --- It is used in the early stage of transition to make it possible to establish a connection from an IPv4 host in the IPv4 ocean to an IPv6 host in an IPv6 island. Translator C --- It is used in the late stage of transition to make it possible to establish a connection from an IPv4 host in an IPv4 island to an IPv6 host in the IPv6 ocean. Translator D --- It is used in the late stage of transition to make it possible to establish a connection from an IPv6 host in the IPv6 ocean to an IPv4 host in an IPv4 island. TCP relay translator for category A is supported. This is called "FAITH". We also provide IP header translator for category A. (The latter is not yet put into FreeBSD 4.x yet.) FAITH TCP relay translator FAITH system uses TCP relay daemon called &man.faithd.8; helped by the kernel. FAITH will reserve an IPv6 address prefix, and relay TCP connection toward that prefix to IPv4 destination. For example, if the reserved IPv6 prefix is 3ffe:0501:0200:ffff::, and the IPv6 destination for TCP connection is 3ffe:0501:0200:ffff::163.221.202.12, the connection will be relayed toward IPv4 destination 163.221.202.12. destination IPv4 node (163.221.202.12) ^ | IPv4 tcp toward 163.221.202.12 FAITH-relay dual stack node ^ | IPv6 TCP toward 3ffe:0501:0200:ffff::163.221.202.12 source IPv6 node &man.faithd.8; must be invoked on FAITH-relay dual stack node. For more details, consult src/usr.sbin/faithd/README IPsec IPsec is mainly organized by three components. Policy Management Key Management AH and ESP handling Policy Management The kernel implements experimental policy management code. There are two way to manage security policy. One is to configure per-socket policy using &man.setsockopt.2;. In this cases, policy configuration is described in &man.ipsec.set.policy.3;. The other is to configure kernel packet filter-based policy using PF_KEY interface, via &man.setkey.8;. The policy entry is not re-ordered with its indexes, so the order of entry when you add is very significant. Key Management The key management code implemented in this kit (sys/netkey) is a home-brew PFKEY v2 implementation. This conforms to RFC2367. The home-brew IKE daemon, "racoon" is included in the kit (kame/kame/racoon). Basically you'll need to run racoon as daemon, then setup a policy to require keys (like ping -P 'out ipsec esp/transport//use'). The kernel will contact racoon daemon as necessary to exchange keys. AH and ESP handling IPsec module is implemented as "hooks" to the standard IPv4/IPv6 processing. When sending a packet, ip{,6}_output() checks if ESP/AH processing is required by checking if a matching SPD (Security Policy Database) is found. If ESP/AH is needed, {esp,ah}{4,6}_output() will be called and mbuf will be updated accordingly. When a packet is received, {esp,ah}4_input() will be called based on protocol number, i.e. (*inetsw[proto])(). {esp,ah}4_input() will decrypt/check authenticity of the packet, and strips off daisy-chained header and padding for ESP/AH. It is safe to strip off the ESP/AH header on packet reception, since we will never use the received packet in "as is" form. By using ESP/AH, TCP4/6 effective data segment size will be affected by extra daisy-chained headers inserted by ESP/AH. Our code takes care of the case. Basic crypto functions can be found in directory "sys/crypto". ESP/AH transform are listed in {esp,ah}_core.c with wrapper functions. If you wish to add some algorithm, add wrapper function in {esp,ah}_core.c, and add your crypto algorithm code into sys/crypto. Tunnel mode is partially supported in this release, with the following restrictions: IPsec tunnel is not combined with GIF generic tunneling interface. It needs a great care because we may create an infinite loop between ip_output() and tunnelifp->if_output(). Opinion varies if it is better to unify them, or not. MTU and Don't Fragment bit (IPv4) considerations need more checking, but basically works fine. Authentication model for AH tunnel must be revisited. We'll need to improve the policy management engine, eventually. Conformance to RFCs and IDs The IPsec code in the kernel conforms (or, tries to conform) to the following standards: "old IPsec" specification documented in rfc182[5-9].txt "new IPsec" specification documented in rfc240[1-6].txt, rfc241[01].txt, rfc2451.txt and draft-mcdonald-simple-ipsec-api-01.txt (draft expired, but you can take from ftp://ftp.kame.net/pub/internet-drafts/). (NOTE: IKE specifications, rfc241[7-9].txt are implemented in userland, as "racoon" IKE daemon) Currently supported algorithms are: old IPsec AH null crypto checksum (no document, just for debugging) keyed MD5 with 128bit crypto checksum (rfc1828.txt) keyed SHA1 with 128bit crypto checksum (no document) HMAC MD5 with 128bit crypto checksum (rfc2085.txt) HMAC SHA1 with 128bit crypto checksum (no document) old IPsec ESP null encryption (no document, similar to rfc2410.txt) DES-CBC mode (rfc1829.txt) new IPsec AH null crypto checksum (no document, just for debugging) keyed MD5 with 96bit crypto checksum (no document) keyed SHA1 with 96bit crypto checksum (no document) HMAC MD5 with 96bit crypto checksum (rfc2403.txt) HMAC SHA1 with 96bit crypto checksum (rfc2404.txt) new IPsec ESP null encryption (rfc2410.txt) DES-CBC with derived IV (draft-ietf-ipsec-ciph-des-derived-01.txt, draft expired) DES-CBC with explicit IV (rfc2405.txt) 3DES-CBC with explicit IV (rfc2451.txt) BLOWFISH CBC (rfc2451.txt) CAST128 CBC (rfc2451.txt) RC5 CBC (rfc2451.txt) each of the above can be combined with: ESP authentication with HMAC-MD5(96bit) ESP authentication with HMAC-SHA1(96bit) The following algorithms are NOT supported: old IPsec AH HMAC MD5 with 128bit crypto checksum + 64bit replay prevention (rfc2085.txt) keyed SHA1 with 160bit crypto checksum + 32bit padding (rfc1852.txt) IPsec (in kernel) and IKE (in userland as "racoon") has been tested at several interoperability test events, and it is known to interoperate with many other implementations well. Also, current IPsec implementation as quite wide coverage for IPsec crypto algorithms documented in RFC (we cover algorithms without intellectual property issues only). ECN consideration on IPsec tunnels ECN-friendly IPsec tunnel is supported as described in draft-ipsec-ecn-00.txt. Normal IPsec tunnel is described in RFC2401. On encapsulation, IPv4 TOS field (or, IPv6 traffic class field) will be copied from inner IP header to outer IP header. On decapsulation outer IP header will be simply dropped. The decapsulation rule is not compatible with ECN, since ECN bit on the outer IP TOS/traffic class field will be lost. To make IPsec tunnel ECN-friendly, we should modify encapsulation and decapsulation procedure. This is described in http://www.aciri.org/floyd/papers/draft-ipsec-ecn-00.txt, chapter 3. IPsec tunnel implementation can give you three behaviors, by setting net.inet.ipsec.ecn (or net.inet6.ipsec6.ecn) to some value: RFC2401: no consideration for ECN (sysctl value -1) ECN forbidden (sysctl value 0) ECN allowed (sysctl value 1) Note that the behavior is configurable in per-node manner, not per-SA manner (draft-ipsec-ecn-00 wants per-SA configuration, but it looks too much for me). The behavior is summarized as follows (see source code for more detail): encapsulate decapsulate --- --- RFC2401 copy all TOS bits drop TOS bits on outer from inner to outer. (use inner TOS bits as is) ECN forbidden copy TOS bits except for ECN drop TOS bits on outer (masked with 0xfc) from inner (use inner TOS bits as is) to outer. set ECN bits to 0. ECN allowed copy TOS bits except for ECN use inner TOS bits with some CE (masked with 0xfe) from change. if outer ECN CE bit inner to outer. is 1, enable ECN CE bit on set ECN CE bit to 0. the inner. General strategy for configuration is as follows: if both IPsec tunnel endpoint are capable of ECN-friendly behavior, you'd better configure both end to "ECN allowed" (sysctl value 1). if the other end is very strict about TOS bit, use "RFC2401" (sysctl value -1). in other cases, use "ECN forbidden" (sysctl value 0). The default behavior is "ECN forbidden" (sysctl value 0). For more information, please refer to: http://www.aciri.org/floyd/papers/draft-ipsec-ecn-00.txt, RFC2481 (Explicit Congestion Notification), src/sys/netinet6/{ah,esp}_input.c (Thanks goes to Kenjiro Cho kjc@csl.sony.co.jp for detailed analysis) Interoperability Here are (some of) platforms that KAME code have tested IPsec/IKE interoperability in the past. Note that both ends may have modified their implementation, so use the following list just for reference purposes. Altiga, Ashley-laurent (vpcom.com), Data Fellows (F-Secure), Ericsson ACC, FreeS/WAN, HITACHI, IBM AIX, IIJ, Intel, Microsoft WinNT, NIST (linux IPsec + plutoplus), Netscreen, OpenBSD, RedCreek, Routerware, SSH, Secure Computing, Soliton, Toshiba, VPNet, Yamaha RT100i diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml index 03e088addb..32d77bdbe4 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/introduction/chapter.sgml @@ -1,718 +1,718 @@ Introduction Restructured, reorganized, and parts rewritten by &a.jim;, 17 January 2000. Synopsis Thank you for your interest in FreeBSD! The following chapter covers various items about the FreeBSD Project, such as its history, goals, development model, and so on. FreeBSD is a 4.4BSD-Lite2 based operating system for the Intel architecture (x86) and DEC Alpha based systems. Ports to other architectures are also underway. For a brief overview of FreeBSD, see the next section. You can also read about the history of FreeBSD, or the current release. If you are interested in contributing something to the Project (code, hardware, unmarked bills), see the contributing to FreeBSD section. Welcome to FreeBSD! Since you are still here reading this, you most likely have some idea as to what FreeBSD is and what it can do for you. If you are new to FreeBSD, read on for more information. What is FreeBSD? In general, FreeBSD is a state-of-the-art operating system based on 4.4BSD-Lite2. It runs on computer systems based on the Intel architecture (x86), and also the DEC Alpha architecture. FreeBSD is used to power some of the biggest sites on the Internet, including: Yahoo! Hotmail Apache Be, Inc. Blue Mountain Arts Pair Networks Whistle Communications Walnut Creek CDROM and many more. What can FreeBSD do? FreeBSD has many noteworthy features. Some of these are: Preemptive multitasking with dynamic priority adjustment to ensure smooth and fair sharing of the computer between applications and users, even under the heaviest of loads. Multi-user facilities which allow many people to use a FreeBSD system simultaneously for a variety of things. This means, for example, that system peripherals such as printers and tape drives are properly shared between all users on the system or the network and that individual resource limits can be placed on users or groups of users, protecting critical system resources from over-use. Strong TCP/IP networking with support for industry standards such as SLIP, PPP, NFS, DHCP and NIS support. This means that your FreeBSD machine can inter-operate easily with other systems as well act as an enterprise server, providing vital functions such as NFS (remote file access) and e-mail services or putting your organization on the Internet with WWW, FTP, routing and firewall (security) services. Memory protection ensures that applications (or users) cannot interfere with each other. One application crashing will not affect others in any way. FreeBSD is a 32-bit operating system (64-bit on the Alpha) and was designed as such from the ground up. The industry standard X Window System (X11R6) provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for the cost of a common VGA card and monitor and comes with full sources. Binary compatibility with many programs built for Linux, SCO, SVR4, BSDI and NetBSD. Thousands of ready-to-run applications are available from the FreeBSD ports and packages collection. Why search the net when you can find it all right here? Thousands of additional and easy-to-port applications are available on the Internet. FreeBSD is source code compatible with most popular commercial Unix systems and thus most applications require few, if any, changes to compile. Demand paged virtual memory and - “merged VM/buffer cache” design efficiently + merged VM/buffer cache design efficiently satisfies applications with large appetites for memory while still maintaining interactive response to other users. SMP support for machines with multiple CPUs (Intel only). A full complement of C, C++, Fortran, and Perl development tools. Many additional languages for advanced research and development are also available in the ports and packages collection. Source code for the entire system means you have the greatest degree of control over your environment. Why be locked into a proprietary solution and at the mercy of your vendor when you can have a truly Open System? Extensive on-line documentation. And many more! FreeBSD is based on the 4.4BSD-Lite2 release from Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California at Berkeley, and carries on the distinguished tradition of BSD systems development. In addition to the fine work provided by CSRG, the FreeBSD Project has put in many thousands of hours in fine tuning the system for maximum performance and reliability in real-life load situations. As many of the commercial giants struggle to field PC operating systems with such features, performance and reliability, FreeBSD can offer them now! The applications to which FreeBSD can be put are truly limited only by your own imagination. From software development to factory automation, inventory control to azimuth correction of remote satellite antennae; if it can be done with a commercial UNIX product then it is more than likely that you can do it with FreeBSD, too! FreeBSD also benefits significantly from the literally thousands of high quality applications developed by research centers and universities around the world, often available at little to no cost. Commercial applications are also available and appearing in greater numbers every day. Because the source code for FreeBSD itself is generally available, the system can also be customized to an almost unheard of degree for special applications or projects, and in ways not generally possible with operating systems from most major commercial vendors. Here is just a sampling of some of the applications in which people are currently using FreeBSD: Internet Services: The robust TCP/IP networking built into FreeBSD makes it an ideal platform for a variety of Internet services such as: FTP servers World Wide Web servers (standard or secure [SSL]) - Firewalls and NAT (“IP masquerading”) + Firewalls and NAT (IP masquerading) gateways. Electronic Mail servers USENET News or Bulletin Board Systems And more... With FreeBSD, you can easily start out small with an inexpensive 386 class PC and upgrade all the way up to a quad-processor Xeon with RAID storage as your enterprise grows. Education: Are you a student of computer science or a related engineering field? There is no better way of learning about operating systems, computer architecture and networking than the hands on, under the hood experience that FreeBSD can provide. A number of freely available CAD, mathematical and graphic design packages also make it highly useful to those whose primary interest in a computer is to get other work done! Research: With source code for the entire system available, FreeBSD is an excellent platform for research in operating systems as well as other branches of computer science. FreeBSD's freely available nature also makes it possible for remote groups to collaborate on ideas or shared development without having to worry about special licensing agreements or limitations on what may be discussed in open forums. Networking: Need a new router? A name server (DNS)? A firewall to keep people out of your internal network? FreeBSD can easily turn that unused 386 or 486 PC sitting in the corner into an advanced router with sophisticated packet-filtering capabilities. X Window workstation: FreeBSD is a fine choice for an inexpensive X terminal solution, either using the freely available XFree86 server or one of the excellent commercial servers provided by X Inside. Unlike an X terminal, FreeBSD allows many applications to be run locally, if desired, thus relieving the burden on a central - server. FreeBSD can even boot “diskless”, making + server. FreeBSD can even boot diskless, making individual workstations even cheaper and easier to administer. Software Development: The basic FreeBSD system comes with a full complement of development tools including the renowned GNU C/C++ compiler and debugger. FreeBSD is available in both source and binary form on CDROM and via anonymous FTP. See Obtaining FreeBSD for more details. About the FreeBSD Project The following section provides some background information on the project, including a brief history, project goals, and the development model of the project. A Brief History of FreeBSD Contributed by &a.jkh;. The FreeBSD project had its genesis in the early part of 1993, - partially as an outgrowth of the “Unofficial 386BSD - Patchkit” by the patchkit's last 3 coordinators: Nate + partially as an outgrowth of the Unofficial 386BSD + Patchkit by the patchkit's last 3 coordinators: Nate Williams, Rod Grimes and myself. Our original goal was to produce an intermediate snapshot of 386BSD in order to fix a number of problems with it that the patchkit mechanism just was not capable of solving. Some of you may remember the early working title for the project being - “386BSD 0.5” or “386BSD Interim” in + 386BSD 0.5 or 386BSD Interim in reference to that fact. 386BSD was Bill Jolitz's operating system, which had been up to that point suffering rather severely from almost a year's worth of neglect. As the patchkit swelled ever more uncomfortably with each passing day, we were in unanimous agreement that something had to be done and decided to try and assist Bill by providing - this interim “cleanup” snapshot. Those plans came to + this interim cleanup snapshot. Those plans came to a rude halt when Bill Jolitz suddenly decided to withdraw his sanction from the project without any clear indication of what would be done instead. It did not take us long to decide that the goal remained worthwhile, even without Bill's support, and so we adopted the - name “FreeBSD”, coined by David Greenman. Our initial + name FreeBSD, coined by David Greenman. Our initial objectives were set after consulting with the system's current users and, once it became clear that the project was on the road to perhaps even becoming a reality, I contacted Walnut Creek CDROM with an eye towards improving FreeBSD's distribution channels for those many unfortunates without easy access to the Internet. Walnut Creek CDROM not only supported the idea of distributing FreeBSD on CD but also went so far as to provide the project with a machine to work on and a fast Internet connection. Without Walnut Creek CDROM's almost unprecedented degree of faith in what was, at the time, a completely unknown project, it is quite unlikely that FreeBSD would have gotten as far, as fast, as it has today. The first CDROM (and general net-wide) distribution was FreeBSD 1.0, released in December of 1993. This was based on the - 4.3BSD-Lite (“Net/2”) tape from U.C. Berkeley, with + 4.3BSD-Lite (Net/2) tape from U.C. Berkeley, with many components also provided by 386BSD and the Free Software Foundation. It was a fairly reasonable success for a first offering, and we followed it with the highly successful FreeBSD 1.1 release in May of 1994. Around this time, some rather unexpected storm clouds formed on the horizon as Novell and U.C. Berkeley settled their long-running lawsuit over the legal status of the Berkeley Net/2 tape. A condition of that settlement was U.C. Berkeley's - concession that large parts of Net/2 were “encumbered” + concession that large parts of Net/2 were encumbered code and the property of Novell, who had in turn acquired it from AT&T some time previously. What Berkeley got in return was - Novell's “blessing” that the 4.4BSD-Lite release, when + Novell's blessing that the 4.4BSD-Lite release, when it was finally released, would be declared unencumbered and all existing Net/2 users would be strongly encouraged to switch. This included FreeBSD, and the project was given until the end of July 1994 to stop shipping its own Net/2 based product. Under the terms of that agreement, the project was allowed one last release before the deadline, that release being FreeBSD 1.1.5.1. FreeBSD then set about the arduous task of literally re-inventing itself from a completely new and rather incomplete - set of 4.4BSD-Lite bits. The “Lite” releases were + set of 4.4BSD-Lite bits. The Lite releases were light in part because Berkeley's CSRG had removed large chunks of code required for actually constructing a bootable running system (due to various legal requirements) and the fact that the Intel port of 4.4 was highly incomplete. It took the project until November of 1994 to make this transition, at which point it released FreeBSD 2.0 to the net and on CDROM (in late December). Despite being still more than a little rough around the edges, the release was a significant success and was followed by the more robust and easier to install FreeBSD 2.0.5 release in June of 1995. We released FreeBSD 2.1.5 in August of 1996, and it appeared to be popular enough among the ISP and commercial communities that another release along the 2.1-STABLE branch was merited. This was FreeBSD 2.1.7.1, released in February 1997 and capping the end of mainstream development on 2.1-STABLE. Now in maintenance mode, only security enhancements and other critical bug fixes will be done on this branch (RELENG_2_1_0). FreeBSD 2.2 was branched from the development mainline - (“-CURRENT”) in November 1996 as the RELENG_2_2 + (-CURRENT) in November 1996 as the RELENG_2_2 branch, and the first full release (2.2.1) was released in April 1997. Further releases along the 2.2 branch were done in the summer and fall of '97, the last of which (2.2.8) appeared in November 1998. The first official 3.0 release appeared in October 1998 and spelled the beginning of the end for the 2.2 branch. The tree branched again on Jan 20, 1999, leading to the 4.0-CURRENT and 3.X-STABLE branches. From 3.X-STABLE, 3.1 was released on February 15, 1999, 3.2 on May 15, 1999, and 3.3 on September 16, 1999. The most current release on this branch is 3.4, which was released on December 20, 1999. There was another branch on March 13, 2000, which saw the emergence of the 5.0-CURRENT and 4.X-STABLE branches. The only release from this branch so far is &rel.current;-RELEASE. Long-term development projects continue to take place in the 5.0-CURRENT branch, and SNAPshot releases of 5.0 on CDROM (and, of course, on the net) are continually made available as work progresses. FreeBSD Project Goals Contributed by &a.jkh;. The goals of the FreeBSD Project are to provide software that may be used for any purpose and without strings attached. Many of us have a significant investment in the code (and project) and would certainly not mind a little financial compensation now and then, but we are definitely not prepared to insist on it. We - believe that our first and foremost “mission” is to + believe that our first and foremost mission is to provide code to any and all comers, and for whatever purpose, so that the code gets the widest possible use and provides the widest possible benefit. This is, I believe, one of the most fundamental goals of Free Software and one that we enthusiastically support. That code in our source tree which falls under the GNU General Public License (GPL) or Library General Public License (LGPL) comes with slightly more strings attached, though at least on the side of enforced access rather than the usual opposite. Due to the additional complexities that can evolve in the commercial use of GPL software we do, however, prefer software submitted under the more relaxed BSD copyright when it's a reasonable option to do so. The FreeBSD Development Model Contributed by &a.asami;. The development of FreeBSD is a very open and flexible process, FreeBSD being literally built from the contributions of hundreds of people around the world, as can be seen from our list of contributors. We are constantly on the lookout for new developers and ideas, and those interested in becoming more closely involved with the project need simply contact us at the &a.hackers;. The &a.announce; is also available to those wishing to make other FreeBSD users aware of major areas of work. Useful things to know about the FreeBSD project and its development process, whether working independently or in close cooperation: The CVS repository The central source tree for FreeBSD is maintained by CVS (Concurrent Version System), a freely available source code control tool that comes bundled with FreeBSD. The primary CVS repository resides on a machine in Concord CA, USA from where it is replicated to numerous mirror machines throughout the world. The CVS tree, as well as the -CURRENT and -STABLE trees which are checked out of it, can be easily replicated to your own machine as well. Please refer to the Synchronizing your source tree section for more information on doing this. The committers list The committers are the people who have write access to the CVS tree, and are thus authorized to make modifications - to the FreeBSD source (the term “committer” + to the FreeBSD source (the term committer comes from the &man.cvs.1; commit command, which is used to bring new changes into the CVS repository). The best way of making submissions for review by the committers list is to use the &man.send-pr.1; command, though if something appears to be jammed in the system then you may also reach them by sending mail to cvs-committers@FreeBSD.org. The FreeBSD core team The FreeBSD core team would be equivalent to the board of directors if the FreeBSD Project were a company. The primary task of the core team is to make sure the project, as a whole, is in good shape and is heading in the right directions. Inviting dedicated and responsible developers to join our group of committers is one of the functions of the core team, as is the recruitment of new core team members as others move on. Most current members of the core team started as committers whose addiction to the project got the better of them. Some core team members also have specific areas of responsibility, meaning that they are committed to ensuring that some large portion of the system works as advertised. Most members of the core team are volunteers when it comes to FreeBSD development and do not benefit from the - project financially, so “commitment” should - also not be misconstrued as meaning “guaranteed - support.” The “board of directors” + project financially, so commitment should + also not be misconstrued as meaning guaranteed + support. The board of directors analogy above is not actually very accurate, and it may be more suitable to say that these are the people who gave up their lives in favor of FreeBSD against their better judgment! ;-) Outside contributors Last, but definitely not least, the largest group of developers are the users themselves who provide feedback and bug fixes to us on an almost constant basis. The primary way of keeping in touch with FreeBSD's more non-centralized development is to subscribe to the &a.hackers; (see mailing list info) where such things are discussed. The list of those who have contributed something, which made its way into our source tree, is a long and growing one, so why not join it by contributing something back to FreeBSD today? :-) Providing code is not the only way of contributing to the project; for a more complete list of things that need doing, please refer to the how to contribute section in this handbook. In summary, our development model is organized as a loose set of concentric circles. The centralized model is designed for the convenience of the users of FreeBSD, who are thereby provided with an easy way of tracking one central code base, not to keep potential contributors out! Our desire is to present a stable operating system with a large set of coherent application programs that the users can easily install and use, and this model works very well in accomplishing that. All we ask of those who would join us as FreeBSD developers is some of the same dedication its current people have to its continued success! The Current FreeBSD Release FreeBSD is a freely available, full source 4.4BSD-Lite2 based release for Intel i386, i486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Celeron, Pentium II, Pentium III (or compatible) and DEC Alpha based computer systems. It is based primarily on software from U.C. Berkeley's CSRG group, with some enhancements from NetBSD, OpenBSD, 386BSD, and the Free Software Foundation. Since our release of FreeBSD 2.0 in late 94, the performance, feature set, and stability of FreeBSD has improved dramatically. The largest change is a revamped virtual memory system with a merged VM/file buffer cache that not only increases performance, but also reduces FreeBSD's memory footprint, making a 5MB configuration a more acceptable minimum. Other enhancements include full NIS client and server support, transaction TCP support, dial-on-demand PPP, integrated DHCP support, an improved SCSI subsystem, ISDN support, support for ATM, FDDI, Fast and Gigabit Ethernet (1000Mbit) adapters, improved support for the latest Adaptec controllers and many hundreds of bug fixes. We have also taken the comments and suggestions of many of our users to heart and have attempted to provide what we hope is a more sane and easily understood installation process. Your feedback on this (constantly evolving) process is especially welcome! In addition to the base distributions, FreeBSD offers a ported software collection with hundreds of commonly sought-after programs. By mid-January 2000, there were nearly 3000 ports! The list of ports ranges from http (WWW) servers, to games, languages, editors and almost everything in between. The entire ports collection requires approximately 50MB of storage, all ports being - expressed as “deltas” to their original sources. This + expressed as deltas to their original sources. This makes it much easier for us to update ports, and greatly reduces the disk space demands made by the older 1.0 ports collection. To compile a port, you simply change to the directory of the program you wish to install, type make install, and let the system do the rest. The full original distribution for each port you build is retrieved dynamically off the CDROM or a local FTP site, so you need only enough disk space to build the ports you want. Almost every port is also provided as a pre-compiled - “package”, which can be installed with a simple command + package, which can be installed with a simple command (pkg_add) by those who do not wish to compile their own ports from source. A number of additional documents which you may find very helpful in the process of installing and using FreeBSD may now also be found in the /usr/share/doc directory on any machine running FreeBSD 2.1 or later. You may view the locally installed manuals with any HTML capable browser using the following URLs: The FreeBSD Handbook file:/usr/share/doc/handbook/handbook.html The FreeBSD FAQ file:/usr/share/doc/FAQ/FAQ.html You can also visit the master (and most frequently updated) copies at http://www.FreeBSD.org/. The core of FreeBSD does not contain DES code which would inhibit its being exported outside the United States. There is an add-on package to the core distribution, for use only in the United States, which contains the programs that normally use DES. The auxiliary packages provided separately can be used by anyone. A freely (from outside the U.S.) exportable European distribution of DES for our non-U.S. users also exists and is described in the FreeBSD FAQ. If password security for FreeBSD is all you need, and you have no requirement for copying encrypted passwords from different hosts (Suns, DEC machines, etc) into FreeBSD password entries, then FreeBSD's MD5 based security may be all you require! We feel that our default security model is more than a match for DES, and without any messy export issues to deal with. If you are outside (or even inside) the U.S., give it a try! diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml index 343b18cfaa..2ada01d765 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kernelconfig/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1133 +1,1133 @@ Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel Synopsis Updated and restructured by &a.jim;, March 2000. Originally contributed by &a.jehamby;, 6 October 1995. The following chapter of the handbook covers everything you will need to know in order to build a custom kernel. If you are wondering what the benefits of a custom kernel are, or would like to know how to configure, compile, and install a custom kernel, this chapter is for you. Why Build a Custom Kernel? Building a custom kernel is one of the most important rites of passage nearly every UNIX user must endure. This process, while time consuming, will provide many benefits to your FreeBSD system. Unlike the GENERIC kernel, which must support a wide range of hardware, a custom kernel only contains support for your PC's hardware. This has a number of benefits, such as: Faster boot time. Since the kernel will only probe the hardware you have on your system, the time it takes your system to boot will decrease dramatically. Less memory use. A custom kernel often uses less memory than the GENERIC kernel, which is important because the kernel is one process that must always be present in memory. For this reason, a custom kernel is especially useful on a system with a small amount of RAM. Additional hardware support. A custom kernel allows you to add in support for devices such as sound cards, which are not present in the GENERIC kernel. Building and Installing a Custom Kernel First, let us take a quick tour of the kernel build directory. All directories mentioned will be relative to the main /usr/src/sys directory, which is also accessible through /sys. There are a number of subdirectories here representing different parts of the kernel, but the most important, for our purposes, are arch/conf, where you will edit your custom kernel configuration, and compile, which is the staging area where your kernel will be built. arch represents either i386, alpha, or pc98 (an alternative development branch of PC hardware, popular in Japan). Everything inside a particular architecture's directory deals with that architecture only; the rest of the code is common to all platforms to which FreeBSD could potentially be ported. Notice the logical organization of the directory structure, with each supported device, filesystem, and option in its own subdirectory. If there is not a /usr/src/sys directory on your system, then the kernel source has not been been installed. The easiest way to do this is by running /stand/sysinstall as root, choosing Configure, then Distributions, then src, then sys. Next, move to the arch/conf directory and copy the GENERIC configuration file to the name you want to give your kernel. For example: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf &prompt.root; cp GENERIC MYKERNEL Traditionally, this name is in all capital letters and, if you are maintaining multiple FreeBSD machines with different hardware, it is a good idea to name it after your machine's hostname. We will call it MYKERNEL for the purpose of this example. You must execute these and all of the following commands under the root account or you will get permission denied errors. Now, edit MYKERNEL with your favorite text editor. If you are just starting out, the only editor available will probably be vi, which is too complex to explain here, but is covered well in many books in the bibliography. However, FreeBSD does - offer an easier editor called “ee” which, if you are a + offer an easier editor called ee which, if you are a beginner, should be your editor of choice. Feel free to change the comment lines at the top to reflect your configuration or the changes you have made to differentiate it from GENERIC. If you have build a kernel under SunOS or some other BSD operating system, much of this file will be very familiar to you. If you are coming from some other operating system such as DOS, on the other hand, the GENERIC configuration file might seem overwhelming to you, so follow the descriptions in the Configuration File section slowly and carefully. If you are trying to upgrade your kernel from an older version of FreeBSD, you will probably have to get a new version of &man.config.8; from the same place you got the new kernel sources. It is located in /usr/src/usr.sbin, so you will need to download those sources as well. Re-build and install it before running the next commands. When you are finished, type the following to compile and install your kernel: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/config MYKERNEL &prompt.root; cd ../../compile/MYKERNEL &prompt.root; make depend &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install The new kernel will be copied to the root directory as /kernel and the old kernel will be moved to /kernel.old. Now, shutdown the system and reboot to use your kernel. In case something goes wrong, there are some troubleshooting instructions at the end of this document. Be sure to read the section which explains how to recover in case your new kernel does not boot. If you have added any new devices (such as sound cards) you may have to add some device nodes to your /dev directory before you can use them. The Configuration File The general format of a configuration file is quite simple. Each line contains a keyword and one or more arguments. For simplicity, most lines only contain one argument. Anything following a # is considered a comment and ignored. The following sections describe each keyword, generally in the order they are listed in GENERIC, although some related keywords have been grouped together in a single section (such as Networking) even though they are actually scattered throughout the GENERIC file. An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the device lines is present in the LINT configuration file, located in the same directory as GENERIC. If you are in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. Quoting numbers In all versions of FreeBSD up to and including 3.X, &man.config.8; required that any strings in the configuration file that contained numbers used as text had to be enclosed in double quotes. This requirement was removed in the 4.X branch, which this book covers, so if you are on a pre-4.X system, see the /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT and /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC files on your system for examples. The following is an example GENERIC kernel configuration file with various additional comments where needed for clarity. This example should match your copy in /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC fairly closely. For details of all the possible kernel options, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. # # GENERIC -- Generic kernel configuration file for FreeBSD/i386 # # For more information on this file, please read the handbook section on # Kernel Configuration Files: # # http://www.freebsd.org/handbook/kernelconfig-config.html # # The handbook is also available locally in /usr/share/doc/handbook # if you've installed the doc distribution, otherwise always see the # FreeBSD World Wide Web server (http://www.FreeBSD.ORG/) for the # latest information. # # An exhaustive list of options and more detailed explanations of the # device lines is also present in the ./LINT configuration file. If you are # in doubt as to the purpose or necessity of a line, check first in LINT. # # $FreeBSD: src/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC,v 1.246 2000/03/09 16:32:55 jlemon Exp $ The following are the mandatory keywords required in every kernel you build: machine i386 This is the machine architecture. It must be either i386, alpha, or pc98. cpu I386_CPU cpu I486_CPU cpu I586_CPU cpu I686_CPU The above specifies the type of CPU you have in your system. You may have multiple instances of the CPU line (i.e., you are not sure whether you should use I586_CPU or I686_CPU), however, for a custom kernel, it is best to specify only the CPU you have. If you are unsure which type your CPU use, you can use the dmesg command to view your boot up messages. The Alpha architechture has different values for cpu_type. They include: cpu EV4 cpu EV5 If you are using an Alpha machine, you should be using one of the above CPU types. ident GENERIC This is the identification of the kernel. You should change this to whatever you named your kernel, in our previous example, MYKERNEL. The value you put in the ident string will print when you boot up the kernel, so it is useful to give a kernel a different name if you want to keep it separate from your usual kernel (i.e., you want to build an experimental kernel). maxusers 32 The maxusers option sets the size of a number of important system tables. This number is supposed to be roughly equal to the number of simultaneous users you expect to have on your machine. However, under normal circumstances, you will want to set maxusers to at least 4, especially if you are using the X Window System or compiling software. The reason is that the most important table set by maxusers is the maximum number of processes, which is set to 20 + 16 * maxusers, so if you set maxusers to 1, then you can only have 36 simultaneous processes, including the 18 or so that the system starts up at boot time, and the 15 or so you will probably create when you start the X Window System. Even a simple task like reading a man page will start up nine processes to filter, decompress, and view it. Setting maxusers to 64 will allow you to have up to 1044 simultaneous processes, which should be enough for nearly all uses. If, however, you see the dreaded proc table full error when trying to start another program, or are running a server with a large number of simultaneous users (like ftp.FreeBSD.org), you can always increase the number and rebuild. maxusers does not limit the number of users which can log into your machine. It simply sets various table sizes to reasonable values considering the maximum number of users you will likely have on your system and how many processes each of them will be running. One keyword which does limit the number of simultaneous remote logins is pseudo-device pty 16. Everything that follows is more or less optional. See the notes underneath or next to each option for more information. #makeoptions DEBUG=-g #Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols options MATH_EMULATE #Support for x87 emulation This line allows the kernel to simulate a math co-processor if your computer does not have one (386 or 486SX). If you have a 486DX, or a 386 or 486SX (with a separate 387 or 487 chip), or higher (Pentium, PentiumII, etc.), you can comment this line out. The normal math co-processor emulation routines that come with FreeBSD are not very accurate. If you do not have a math co-processor, and you need the best accuracy, it is recommended that you change this option to GPL_MATH_EMULATION to use the GNU math support, which is not included by default for licensing reasons. options INET #InterNETworking Networking support. Leave this in, even if you do not plan to be connected to a network. Most programs require at least loopback networking (i.e., making network connections within your PC), so this is essentially mandatory. options INET6 #IPv6 communications protocols This enables the IPv6 communication protocols. options FFS #Berkeley Fast Filesystem options FFS_ROOT #FFS usable as root device [keep this!] This is the basic hard drive filesystem. Leave it in if you boot from the hard disk. options MFS #Memory Filesystem options MD_ROOT #MD is a potential root device This is the memory-mapped filesystem. This is basically a RAM disk for fast storage of temporary files, useful if you have a lot of swap space that you want to take advantage of. A perfect place to mount an MFS partition is on the /tmp directory, since many programs store temporary data here. To mount an MFS RAM disk on /tmp, add the following line to /etc/fstab: /dev/ad1s2b /tmp mfs rw 0 0 Now you simply need to either reboot, or run the command mount /tmp. options NFS #Network Filesystem options NFS_ROOT #NFS usable as root device, NFS required The network filesystem. Unless you plan to mount partitions from a UNIX file server over ethernet, you can comment these out. options MSDOSFS #MSDOS Filesystem The MS-DOS filesystem. Unless you plan to mount a DOS formatted hard drive partition at boot time, you can safely comment this out. It will be automatically loaded the first time you mount a DOS partition, as described above. Also, the excellent mtools software (in the ports collection) allows you to access DOS floppies without having to mount and unmount them (and does not require MSDOSFS at all). options CD9660 #ISO 9660 Filesystem options CD9660_ROOT #CD-ROM usable as root, CD9660 required The ISO 9660 filesystem for CDROMs. Comment it out if you do not have a CDROM drive or only mount data CDs occasionally (since it will be dynamically loaded the first time you mount a data CD). Audio CDs do not need this filesystem. options PROCFS #Process filesystem - The process filesystem. This is a “pretend” + The process filesystem. This is a pretend filesystem mounted on /proc which allows programs like &man.ps.1; to give you more information on what processes are running. options COMPAT_43 #Compatible with BSD 4.3 [KEEP THIS!] Compatibility with 4.3BSD. Leave this in; some programs will act strangely if you comment this out. options SCSI_DELAY=15000 #Delay (in ms) before probing SCSI This causes the kernel to pause for 15 seconds before probing each SCSI device in your system. If you only have IDE hard drives, you can ignore this, otherwise you will probably want to lower this number, perhaps to 5 seconds, to speed up booting. Of course, if you do this, and FreeBSD has trouble recognizing your SCSI devices, you will have to raise it back up. options UCONSOLE #Allow users to grab the console Allow users to grab the console, which is useful for X users. For example, you can create a console xterm by typing xterm -C, which will display any write, talk, and any other messages you receive, as well as any console messages sent by the kernel. options USERCONFIG #boot -c editor This option allows you to boot the configuration editor from the boot menu. options VISUAL_USERCONFIG #visual boot -c editor This option allows you to boot the visual configuration editor from the boot menu. options KTRACE #ktrace(1) support This enables kernel process tracing, which is useful in debugging. options SYSVSHM #SYSV-style shared memory This option provides for System V shared memory. The most common use of this is the XSHM extension in X, which many graphics-intensive programs will automatically take advantage of for extra speed. If you use X, you'll definitely want to include this. options SYSVSEM #SYSV-style semaphores Support for System V semaphores. Less commonly used but only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. options SYSVMSG #SYSV-style message queues Support for System V messages. Again, only adds a few hundred bytes to the kernel. The &man.ipcs.1; command will list any processes using each of these System V facilities. options P1003_1B #Posix P1003_1B real-time extentions options _KPOSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING Real-time extensions added in the 1993 POSIX. Certain applications in the ports collection use these (such as Star Office). options ICMP_BANDLIM #Rate limit bad replies This option enables ICMP error response bandwidth limiting. You typically want this option as it will help protect the machine from denial of service packet attacks. # To make an SMP kernel, the next two are needed #options SMP # Symmetric MultiProcessor Kernel #options APIC_IO # Symmetric (APIC) I/O The above are both required for SMP support. # Optionally these may need tweaked, (defaults shown): #options NCPU=2 # number of CPUs #options NBUS=4 # number of busses #options NAPIC=1 # number of IO APICs #options NINTR=24 # number of INTs These are some additional SMP knobs. device isa All PCs supported by FreeBSD have one of these. If you have an IBM PS/2 (Micro Channel Architecture), you cannot run FreeBSD at this time (support is being worked on). device eisa Include this if you have an EISA motherboard. This enables auto-detection and configuration support for all devices on the EISA bus. device pci Include this if you have a PCI motherboard. This enables auto-detection of PCI cards and gatewaying from the PCI to ISA bus. # Floppy drives device fdc0 at isa? port IO_FD1 irq 6 drq 2 device fd0 at fdc0 drive 0 device fd1 at fdc0 drive 1 This is the floppy drive controller. fd0 is the A: floppy drive, and fd1 is the B: drive. device ata This driver supports all ATA and ATAPI devices. You only need one device ata line for the kernel to detect all PCI ATA/ATAPI devices on modern machines. device atadisk # ATA disk drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI disk drives. device atapicd # ATAPI CDROM drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI CDROM drives. device atapifd # ATAPI floppy drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI floppy drives. device atapist # ATAPI tape drives This is needed along with device ata for ATAPI tape drives. options ATA_STATIC_ID #Static device numbering This makes the controller number static (like the old driver) or else the device numbers are dynamically allocated. #options ATA_ENABLE_ATAPI_DMA #Enable DMA on ATAPI devices This enables DMA on the ATAPI device. Since many ATAPI devices claim to support DMA, but it does not actually work, this is turned off by default. # ATA and ATAPI devices device ata0 at isa? port IO_WD1 irq 14 device ata1 at isa? port IO_WD2 irq 15 Use the above for older, non-PCI systems. # SCSI Controllers device ahb # EISA AHA1742 family device ahc # AHA2940 and onboard AIC7xxx devices device amd # AMD 53C974 (Teckram DC-390(T)) device dpt # DPT Smartcache - See LINT for options! device isp # Qlogic family device ncr # NCR/Symbios Logic device sym # NCR/Symbios Logic (newer chipsets) device adv0 at isa? device adw device bt0 at isa? device aha0 at isa? device aic0 at isa? SCSI controllers. Comment out any you do not have in your system. If you have an IDE only system, you can remove these altogether. # SCSI peripherals device scbus # SCSI bus (required) device da # Direct Access (disks) device sa # Sequential Access (tape etc) device cd # CD device pass # Passthrough device (direct SCSI access) SCSI peripherals. Again, comment out any you do not have, or if you have only IDE hardware, you can remove them completely. # RAID controllers device ida # Compaq Smart RAID device amr # AMI MegaRAID device mlx # Mylex DAC960 family Supported RAID controllers. If you do not have any of these, you can comment them out or remove them. # atkbdc0 controls both the keyboard and the PS/2 mouse device atkbdc0 at isa? port IO_KBD The keyboard controller (atkbdc) provides I/O services for the AT keyboard and PS/2 style pointing devices. This controller is required by the keyboard driver (atkbd) and the PS/2 pointing device driver (psm). device atkbd0 at atkbdc? irq 1 The atkbd driver, together with atkbdc controller, provides access to the AT 84 keyboard or the AT enhanced keyboard which is connected to the AT keyboard controller. device psm0 at atkbdc? irq 12 Use this device if your mouse plugs into the PS/2 mouse port. device vga0 at isa? The video card driver. # splash screen/screen saver pseudo-device splash Splash screen at start up! Screen savers require this too. # syscons is the default console driver, resembling an SCO console device sc0 at isa? sc0 is the default console driver, which resembles a SCO console. Since most full-screen programs access the console through a terminal database library like termcap, it should not matter whether you use this or vt0, the VT220 compatible console driver. When you log in, set your TERM variable to scoansi if full-screen programs have trouble running under this console. # Enable this and PCVT_FREEBSD for pcvt vt220 compatible console driver #device vt0 at isa? #options XSERVER # support for X server on a vt console #options FAT_CURSOR # start with block cursor # If you have a ThinkPAD, uncomment this along with the rest of the PCVT lines #options PCVT_SCANSET=2 # IBM keyboards are non-std This is a VT220-compatible console driver, backward compatible to VT100/102. It works well on some laptops which have hardware incompatibilities with sc0. Also set your TERM variable to vt100 or vt220 when you log in. This driver might also prove useful when connecting to a large number of different machines over the network, where termcap or terminfo entries for the sc0 device are often not available — vt100 should be available on virtually any platform. # Floating point support - do not disable. device npx0 at nexus? port IO_NPX irq 13 npx0 is the interface to the floating point math unit in FreeBSD, which is either the hardware co-processor or the software math emulator. This is not optional. # Power management support (see LINT for more options) device apm0 at nexus? disable flags 0x20 # Advanced Power Management Advanced Power Management support. Useful for laptops. # PCCARD (PCMCIA) support device card device pcic0 at isa? irq 10 port 0x3e0 iomem 0xd0000 device pcic1 at isa? irq 11 port 0x3e2 iomem 0xd4000 disable PCMCIA support. You need this if you are installing on a laptop. # Serial (COM) ports device sio0 at isa? port IO_COM1 flags 0x10 irq 4 device sio1 at isa? port IO_COM2 irq 3 device sio2 at isa? disable port IO_COM3 irq 5 device sio3 at isa? disable port IO_COM4 irq 9 These are the four serial ports referred to as COM1 through COM4 in the MS-DOS/Windows world. If you have an internal modem on COM4 and a serial port at COM2, you will have to change the IRQ of the modem to 2 (for obscure technical reasons, IRQ2 = IRQ 9) in order to access it from FreeBSD. If you have a multiport serial card, check the manual page for &man.sio.4; for more information on the proper values for these lines. Some video cards (notably those based on S3 chips) use IO addresses in the form of 0x*2e8, and since many cheap serial cards do not fully decode the 16-bit IO address space, they clash with these cards making the COM4 port practically unavailable. Each serial port is required to have a unique IRQ (unless you are using one of the multiport cards where shared interrupts are supported), so the default IRQs for COM3 and COM4 cannot be used. # Parallel port device ppc0 at isa? irq 7 This is the ISA-bus parallel port interface. device ppbus # Parallel port bus (required) Provides support for the parallel port bus. device lpt # Printer Support for parallel port printers. All three of the above are required to enable parallel printer support. device plip # TCP/IP over parallel This is the driver for the parallel network interface. device ppi # Parallel port interface device - The general-purpose I/O (“geek port”) + IEEE1284 + The general-purpose I/O (geek port) + IEEE1284 I/O. #device vpo # Requires scbus and da This is for an Iomega Zip drive. It requires scbus and da support. Best performance is achieved with ports in EPP 1.9 mode. # PCI Ethernet NICs. -device de # DEC/Intel DC21x4x (“Tulip”) +device de # DEC/Intel DC21x4x (Tulip) device fxp # Intel EtherExpress PRO/100B (82557, 82558) -device tx # SMC 9432TX (83c170 “EPIC”) -device vx # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (“Vortex”) -device wx # Intel Gigabit Ethernet Card (“Wiseman”) +device tx # SMC 9432TX (83c170 EPIC) +device vx # 3Com 3c590, 3c595 (Vortex) +device wx # Intel Gigabit Ethernet Card (Wiseman) Various PCI network card drivers. Comment out or remove any of these not present in your system. # PCI Ethernet NICs that use the common MII bus controller code. device miibus # MII bus support MII bus support is required for some PCI 10/100 ethernet NICs, namely those which use MII-compliant transceivers or implement transceiver control interfaces taht operate like an MII. Adding device miibus to the kernel config pulls in support for the generic miibus API and all of the PHY drivers, including a generic one for PHYs that are not specifically handled by an individual driver device dc # DEC/Intel 21143 and various workalikes device rl # RealTek 8129/8139 -device sf # Adaptec AIC-6915 (“Starfire”) +device sf # Adaptec AIC-6915 (Starfire) device sis # Silicon Integrated Systems SiS 900/SiS 7016 device ste # Sundance ST201 (D-Link DFE-550TX) device tl # Texas Instruments ThunderLAN device vr # VIA Rhine, Rhine II device wb # Winbond W89C840F -device xl # 3Com 3c90x (“Boomerang”, “Cyclone”) +device xl # 3Com 3c90x (Boomerang, Cyclone) Drivers that use the MII bus controller code. # ISA Ethernet NICs. device ed0 at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 iomem 0xd8000 device ex device ep # WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the WaveLAN/IEEE really # exists only as a PCMCIA device, so there is no ISA attatement needed # and resources will always be dynamically assigned by the pccard code. device wi # Aironet 4500/4800 802.11 wireless NICs. Note: the declaration below will # work for PCMCIA and PCI cards, as well as ISA cards set to ISA PnP # mode (the factory default). If you set the switches on your ISA # card for a manually chosen I/O address and IRQ, you must specify # those paremeters here. device an # The probe order of these is presently determined by i386/isa/isa_compat.c. device ie0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 iomem 0xd0000 device fe0 at isa? port 0x300 device le0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 5 iomem 0xd0000 device lnc0 at isa? port 0x280 irq 10 drq 0 device cs0 at isa? port 0x300 device sn0 at isa? port 0x300 irq 10 # requires PCCARD (PCMCIA) support to be activated #device xe0 at isa? ISA ethernet drivers. See /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT for which cards are supported by which driver. # Pseudo devices - the number indicates how many units to allocated. pseudo-device loop # Network loopback This is the generic loopback device for TCP/IP. If you telnet or FTP to localhost (a.k.a., 127.0.0.1 it will come back at you through this pseudo-device. This is mandatory. pseudo-device ether # Ethernet support ether is only needed if you have an Ethernet card. It includes generic Ethernet protocol code. pseudo-device sl 1 # Kernel SLIP sl is for SLIP support. This has been almost entirely supplanted by PPP, which is easier to set up, better suited for modem-to-modem connection, and more powerful. The number after sl specifies how many simultaneous SLIP sessions to support. pseudo-device ppp 1 # Kernel PPP This is for kernel PPP support for dial-up connections. There is also a version of PPP implemented as a userland application that uses tun and offers more flexibility and features such as demand dialing. The number after ppp specifies how many simultaneous PPP connections to support. pseudo-device tun # Packet tunnel. This is used by the userland PPP software. The number after tun specifies the number of simultaneous PPP sessions to support. See the PPP section of this book for more information. pseudo-device pty # Pseudo-ttys (telnet etc) - This is a “pseudo-terminal” or simulated login port. + This is a pseudo-terminal or simulated login port. It is used by incoming telnet and rlogin sessions, xterm, and some other applications such as emacs. The number indicates the number of ptys to create. If you need more than the default of 16 simultaneous xterm windows and/or remote logins, be sure to increase this number accordingly, up to a maximum of 256. -pseudo-device md # Memory “disks” +pseudo-device md # Memory disks Memory disk pseudo-devices. pseudo-device gif 4 # IPv6 and IPv4 tunneling This implements IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv6 tunneling, IPv4 over IPv4 tunneling, and IPv6 over IPv6 tunneling. pseudo-device faith 1 # IPv6-to-IPv4 relaying (translation) This pseudo-device captures packets that are sent to it and diverts them to the IPv4/IPv6 translation daemon. # The `bpf' pseudo-device enables the Berkeley Packet Filter. # Be aware of the administrative consequences of enabling this! pseudo-device bpf # Berkeley packet filter This is the Berkeley Packet Filter. This pseudo-device allows network interfaces to be placed in promiscuous mode, capturing every packet on a broadcast network (e.g., an ethernet). These packets can be captured to disk and or examined with the &man.tcpdump.1; program. # USB support #device uhci # UHCI PCI->USB interface #device ohci # OHCI PCI->USB interface #device usb # USB Bus (required) #device ugen # Generic -#device uhid # “Human Interface Devices” +#device uhid # Human Interface Devices #device ukbd # Keyboard #device ulpt # Printer #device umass # Disks/Mass storage - Requires scbus and da #device ums # Mouse # USB Ethernet, requires mii #device aue # ADMtek USB ethernet #device cue # CATC USB ethernet #device kue # Kawasaki LSI USB ethernet Support for various USB devices. For more information and additional devices supported by FreeBSD, see /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/LINT. Making Device Nodes Almost every device in the kernel has a corresponding - “node” entry in the /dev directory. + node entry in the /dev directory. These nodes look like regular files, but are actually special entries into the kernel which programs use to access the device. The shell script /dev/MAKEDEV, which is executed when you first install the operating system, creates nearly all of the device nodes supported. However, it does not create all of them, so when you add support for a new device, it pays to make sure that the appropriate entries are in this directory, and if not, add them. Here is a simple example: Suppose you add the IDE CD-ROM support to the kernel. The line to add is: device acd0 This means that you should look for some entries that start with acd0 in the /dev directory, possibly followed by a letter, such as c, or preceded by the letter - r, which means a “raw” device. It + r, which means a raw device. It turns out that those files are not there, so I must change to the /dev directory and type: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV acd0 When this script finishes, you will find that there are now acd0c and racd0c entries in /dev so you know that it executed correctly. For sound cards, the following command creates the appropriate entries: &prompt.root; sh MAKEDEV snd0 When creating device nodes for devices such as sound cards, if other people have access to your machine, it may be desirable to protect the devices from outside access by adding them to the /etc/fbtab file. See &man.fbtab.5; for more information. Follow this simple procedure for any other non-GENERIC devices which do not have entries. All SCSI controllers use the same set of /dev entries, so you do not need to create these. Also, network cards and SLIP/PPP pseudo-devices do not have entries in /dev at all, so you do not have to worry about these either. If Something Goes Wrong There are four categories of trouble that can occur when building a custom kernel. They are: config fails If the config command fails when you give it your kernel description, you have probably made a simple error somewhere. Fortunately, config will print the line number that it had trouble with, so you can quickly skip to it with vi. For example, if you see: config: line 17: syntax error You can skip to the problem in vi by typing 17G in command mode. Make sure the keyword is typed correctly, by comparing it to the GENERIC kernel or another reference. make fails If the make command fails, it usually signals an error in your kernel description, but not severe enough for config to catch it. Again, look over your configuration, and if you still cannot resolve the problem, send mail to the &a.questions; with your kernel configuration, and it should be diagnosed very quickly. The kernel will not boot If your new kernel does not boot, or fails to recognize your devices, do not panic! Fortunately, BSD has an excellent mechanism for recovering from incompatible kernels. Simply choose the kernel you want to boot from at the FreeBSD boot loader (i.e., boot kernel.old). When reconfiguring a kernel, it is always a good idea to keep a kernel that is known to work on hand. After booting with a good kernel you can check over your configuration file and try to build it again. One helpful resource is the /var/log/messages file which records, among other things, all of the kernel messages from every successful boot. Also, the &man.dmesg.8; command will print the kernel messages from the current boot. If you are having trouble building a kernel, make sure to keep a GENERIC, or some other kernel that is known to work on hand as a different name that will not get erased on the next build. You cannot rely on kernel.old because when installing a new kernel, kernel.old is overwritten with the last installed kernel which may be non-functional. Also, as soon as possible, move the working kernel to the proper kernel location or commands such as &man.ps.1; will not work properly. The proper command to - “unlock” the kernel file that + unlock the kernel file that make installs (in order to move another kernel back permanently) is: &prompt.root; chflags noschg /kernel - And, if you want to “lock” your new kernel + And, if you want to lock your new kernel into place, or any file for that matter, so that it cannot be moved or tampered with: &prompt.root; chflags schg /kernel The kernel works, but ps does not work any more! If you have installed a different version of the kernel from the one that the system utilities have been built with, for example, a 4.X kernel on a 3.X system, many system-status commands like &man.ps.1; and &man.vmstat.8; will not work any more. You must recompile the libkvm library as well as these utilities. This is one reason it is not normally a good idea to use a different version of the kernel from the rest of the operating system. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml index f80715b6da..c7bb721c09 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kerneldebug/chapter.sgml @@ -1,597 +1,597 @@ Kernel Debugging Contributed by &a.paul; and &a.joerg; Debugging a Kernel Crash Dump with <command>kgdb</command> Here are some instructions for getting kernel debugging working on a crash dump. They assume that you have enough swap space for a crash dump. If you have multiple swap partitions and the first one is too small to hold the dump, you can configure your kernel to use an alternate dump device (in the config kernel line), or you can specify an alternate using the &man.dumpon.8; command. The best way to use &man.dumpon.8; is to set the dumpdev variable in /etc/rc.conf. Typically you want to specify one of the swap devices specified in /etc/fstab. Dumps to non-swap devices, tapes for example, are currently not supported. Config your kernel using config -g. See Kernel Configuration for details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel. Use the &man.dumpon.8; command to tell the kernel where to dump to (note that this will have to be done after configuring the partition in question as swap space via &man.swapon.8;). This is normally arranged via /etc/rc.conf and /etc/rc. Alternatively, you can hard-code the dump device via the dump clause in the config line of your kernel config file. This is deprecated and should be used only if you want a crash dump from a kernel that crashes during booting. In the following, the term kgdb refers to - gdb run in “kernel debug mode”. This + gdb run in kernel debug mode. This can be accomplished by either starting the gdb with the option , or by linking and starting it under the name kgdb. This is not being done by default, however, and the idea is basically deprecated since the GNU folks do not like their tools to behave differently when called by another name. This feature may well be discontinued in further releases. When the kernel has been built make a copy of it, say kernel.debug, and then run strip -g on the original. Install the original as normal. You may also install the unstripped kernel, but symbol table lookup time for some programs will drastically increase, and since the whole kernel is loaded entirely at boot time and cannot be swapped out later, several megabytes of physical memory will be wasted. If you are testing a new kernel, for example by typing the new kernel's name at the boot prompt, but need to boot a different one in order to get your system up and running again, boot it only into single user state using the flag at the boot prompt, and then perform the following steps: &prompt.root; fsck -p &prompt.root; mount -a -t ufs # so your file system for /var/crash is writable &prompt.root; savecore -N /kernel.panicked /var/crash &prompt.root; exit # ...to multi-user This instructs &man.savecore.8; to use another kernel for symbol name extraction. It would otherwise default to the currently running kernel and most likely not do anything at all since the crash dump and the kernel symbols differ. Now, after a crash dump, go to /sys/compile/WHATEVER and run kgdb. From kgdb do: symbol-file kernel.debug exec-file /var/crash/kernel.0 core-file /var/crash/vmcore.0 and voila, you can debug the crash dump using the kernel sources just like you can for any other program. Here is a script log of a kgdb session illustrating the procedure. Long lines have been folded to improve readability, and the lines are numbered for reference. Despite this, it is a real-world error trace taken during the development of the pcvt console driver. 1:Script started on Fri Dec 30 23:15:22 1994 2:&prompt.root; cd /sys/compile/URIAH 3:&prompt.root; kgdb kernel /var/crash/vmcore.1 4:Reading symbol data from /usr/src/sys/compile/URIAH/kernel ...done. 5:IdlePTD 1f3000 6:panic: because you said to! 7:current pcb at 1e3f70 8:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/machdep.c...done. 9:(kgdb) where 10:#0 boot (arghowto=256) (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 767) 11:#1 0xf0115159 in panic () 12:#2 0xf01955bd in diediedie () (../../i386/i386/machdep.c line 698) 13:#3 0xf010185e in db_fncall () 14:#4 0xf0101586 in db_command (-266509132, -266509516, -267381073) 15:#5 0xf0101711 in db_command_loop () 16:#6 0xf01040a0 in db_trap () 17:#7 0xf0192976 in kdb_trap (12, 0, -272630436, -266743723) 18:#8 0xf019d2eb in trap_fatal (...) 19:#9 0xf019ce60 in trap_pfault (...) 20:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (...) 21:#11 0xf01932a1 in exception:calltrap () 22:#12 0xf0191503 in cnopen (...) 23:#13 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 24:#14 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 25:#15 0xf012a183 in open () 26:#16 0xf019d4eb in syscall (...) 27:(kgdb) up 10 28:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/trap.c...done. 29:#10 0xf019cb2f in trap (frame={tf_es = -260440048, tf_ds = 16, tf_\ 30:edi = 3072, tf_esi = -266445372, tf_ebp = -272630356, tf_isp = -27\ 31:2630396, tf_ebx = -266427884, tf_edx = 12, tf_ecx = -266427884, tf\ 32:_eax = 64772224, tf_trapno = 12, tf_err = -272695296, tf_eip = -26\ 33:6672343, tf_cs = -266469368, tf_eflags = 66066, tf_esp = 3072, tf_\ 34:ss = -266427884}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 283) 35:283 (void) trap_pfault(&frame, FALSE); 36:(kgdb) frame frame->tf_ebp frame->tf_eip 37:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c...done. 38:#0 0xf01ae729 in pcopen (dev=3072, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(struct p\ 39:roc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/isa/pcvt/pcvt_drv.c line 403) 40:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 41:(kgdb) list 42:398 43:399 tp->t_state |= TS_CARR_ON; 44:400 tp->t_cflag |= CLOCAL; /* cannot be a modem (:-) */ 45:401 46:402 #if PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) 47:403 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp)); 48:404 #else 49:405 return ((*linesw[tp->t_line].l_open)(dev, tp, flag)); 50:406 #endif /* PCVT_NETBSD || (PCVT_FREEBSD >= 200) */ 51:407 } 52:(kgdb) print tp 53:Reading in symbols for ../../i386/i386/cons.c...done. 54:$1 = (struct tty *) 0x1bae 55:(kgdb) print tp->t_line 56:$2 = 1767990816 57:(kgdb) up 58:#1 0xf0191503 in cnopen (dev=0x00000000, flag=3, mode=8192, p=(st\ 59:ruct proc *) 0xf07c0c00) (../../i386/i386/cons.c line 126) 60: return ((*cdevsw[major(dev)].d_open)(dev, flag, mode, p)); 61:(kgdb) up 62:#2 0xf0132c34 in spec_open () 63:(kgdb) up 64:#3 0xf012d014 in vn_open () 65:(kgdb) up 66:#4 0xf012a183 in open () 67:(kgdb) up 68:#5 0xf019d4eb in syscall (frame={tf_es = 39, tf_ds = 39, tf_edi =\ 69: 2158592, tf_esi = 0, tf_ebp = -272638436, tf_isp = -272629788, tf\ 70:_ebx = 7086, tf_edx = 1, tf_ecx = 0, tf_eax = 5, tf_trapno = 582, \ 71:tf_err = 582, tf_eip = 75749, tf_cs = 31, tf_eflags = 582, tf_esp \ 72:= -272638456, tf_ss = 39}) (../../i386/i386/trap.c line 673) 73:673 error = (*callp->sy_call)(p, args, rval); 74:(kgdb) up 75:Initial frame selected; you cannot go up. 76:(kgdb) quit 77:&prompt.root; exit 78:exit 79: 80:Script done on Fri Dec 30 23:18:04 1994 Comments to the above script: line 6: This is a dump taken from within DDB (see below), hence the - panic comment “because you said to!”, and a rather + panic comment because you said to!, and a rather long stack trace; the initial reason for going into DDB has been a page fault trap though. line 20: This is the location of function trap() in the stack trace. line 36: Force usage of a new stack frame; this is no longer necessary now. The stack frames are supposed to point to the right locations now, even in case of a trap. (I do not have a new core dump handy <g>, my kernel has not panicked for a rather long time.) From looking at the code in source line 403, there is a high probability that either the pointer access for - “tp” was messed up, or the array access was out of + tp was messed up, or the array access was out of bounds. line 52: The pointer looks suspicious, but happens to be a valid address. line 56: However, it obviously points to garbage, so we have found our error! (For those unfamiliar with that particular piece of code: tp->t_line refers to the line discipline of the console device here, which must be a rather small integer number.) Debugging a Crash Dump with DDD Examining a kernel crash dump with a graphical debugger like ddd is also possible. Add the option to the ddd command line you would use normally. For example; &prompt.root; ddd -k /var/crash/kernel.0 /var/crash/vmcore.0 You should then be able to go about looking at the crash dump using ddd's graphical interface. Post-Mortem Analysis of a Dump What do you do if a kernel dumped core but you did not expect it, and it is therefore not compiled using config -g? Not everything is lost here. Do not panic! Of course, you still need to enable crash dumps. See above on the options you have to specify in order to do this. Go to your kernel config directory (/usr/src/sys/arch/conf) and edit your configuration file. Uncomment (or add, if it does not exist) the following line makeoptions DEBUG=-g #Build kernel with gdb(1) debug symbols Rebuild the kernel. Due to the time stamp change on the Makefile, there will be some other object files rebuild, for example trap.o. With a bit of luck, the added option will not change anything for the generated code, so you will finally get a new kernel with similar code to the faulting one but some debugging symbols. You should at least verify the old and new sizes with the &man.size.1; command. If there is a mismatch, you probably need to give up here. Go and examine the dump as described above. The debugging symbols might be incomplete for some places, as can be seen in the stack trace in the example above where some functions are displayed without line numbers and argument lists. If you need more debugging symbols, remove the appropriate object files and repeat the kgdb session until you know enough. All this is not guaranteed to work, but it will do it fine in most cases. On-Line Kernel Debugging Using DDB While kgdb as an offline debugger provides a very high level of user interface, there are some things it cannot do. The most important ones being breakpointing and single-stepping kernel code. If you need to do low-level debugging on your kernel, there is an on-line debugger available called DDB. It allows to setting breakpoints, single-stepping kernel functions, examining and changing kernel variables, etc. However, it cannot access kernel source files, and only has access to the global and static symbols, not to the full debug information like kgdb. To configure your kernel to include DDB, add the option line options DDB to your config file, and rebuild. (See Kernel Configuration for details on configuring the FreeBSD kernel. Note that if you have an older version of the boot blocks, your debugger symbols might not be loaded at all. Update the boot blocks; the recent ones load the DDB symbols automagically.) Once your DDB kernel is running, there are several ways to enter DDB. The first, and earliest way is to type the boot flag right at the boot prompt. The kernel will start up in debug mode and enter DDB prior to any device probing. Hence you can even debug the device probe/attach functions. The second scenario is a hot-key on the keyboard, usually Ctrl-Alt-ESC. For syscons, this can be remapped; some of the distributed maps do this, so watch out. There is an option available for serial consoles that allows the use of a serial line BREAK on the console line to enter DDB (options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER in the kernel config file). It is not the default since there are a lot of crappy serial adapters around that gratuitously generate a BREAK condition, for example when pulling the cable. The third way is that any panic condition will branch to DDB if the kernel is configured to use it. For this reason, it is not wise to configure a kernel with DDB for a machine running unattended. The DDB commands roughly resemble some gdb commands. The first thing you probably need to do is to set a breakpoint: b function-name b address Numbers are taken hexadecimal by default, but to make them distinct from symbol names; hexadecimal numbers starting with the letters a-f need to be preceded with 0x (this is optional for other numbers). Simple expressions are allowed, for example: function-name + 0x103. To continue the operation of an interrupted kernel, simply type: c To get a stack trace, use: trace Note that when entering DDB via a hot-key, the kernel is currently servicing an interrupt, so the stack trace might be not of much use for you. If you want to remove a breakpoint, use del del address-expression The first form will be accepted immediately after a breakpoint hit, and deletes the current breakpoint. The second form can remove any breakpoint, but you need to specify the exact address; this can be obtained from: show b To single-step the kernel, try: s This will step into functions, but you can make DDB trace them until the matching return statement is reached by: n This is different from gdb's next statement; it is like gdb's finish. To examine data from memory, use (for example): x/wx 0xf0133fe0,40 x/hd db_symtab_space x/bc termbuf,10 x/s stringbuf for word/halfword/byte access, and hexadecimal/decimal/character/ string display. The number after the comma is the object count. To display the next 0x10 items, simply use: x ,10 Similarly, use x/ia foofunc,10 to disassemble the first 0x10 instructions of foofunc, and display them along with their offset from the beginning of foofunc. To modify memory, use the write command: w/b termbuf 0xa 0xb 0 w/w 0xf0010030 0 0 The command modifier (b/h/w) specifies the size of the data to be written, the first following expression is the address to write to and the remainder is interpreted as data to write to successive memory locations. If you need to know the current registers, use: show reg Alternatively, you can display a single register value by e.g. p $eax and modify it by: set $eax new-value Should you need to call some kernel functions from DDB, simply say: call func(arg1, arg2, ...) The return value will be printed. For a &man.ps.1; style summary of all running processes, use: ps Now you have now examined why your kernel failed, and you wish to reboot. Remember that, depending on the severity of previous malfunctioning, not all parts of the kernel might still be working as expected. Perform one of the following actions to shut down and reboot your system: panic This will cause your kernel to dump core and reboot, so you can later analyze the core on a higher level with kgdb. This command usually must be followed by another continue statement. call boot(0) Which might be a good way to cleanly shut down the running system, sync() all disks, and finally reboot. As long as the disk and file system interfaces of the kernel are not damaged, this might be a good way for an almost clean shutdown. call cpu_reset() is the final way out of disaster and almost the same as hitting the Big Red Button. If you need a short command summary, simply type: help However, it is highly recommended to have a printed copy of the &man.ddb.4; manual page ready for a debugging session. Remember that it is hard to read the on-line manual while single-stepping the kernel. On-Line Kernel Debugging Using Remote GDB This feature has been supported since FreeBSD 2.2, and it is actually a very neat one. GDB has already supported remote debugging for a long time. This is done using a very simple protocol along a serial line. Unlike the other methods described above, you will need two machines for doing this. One is the host providing the debugging environment, including all the sources, and a copy of the kernel binary with all the symbols in it, and the other one is the target machine that simply runs a similar copy of the very same kernel (but stripped of the debugging information). You should configure the kernel in question with config -g, include into the configuration, and compile it as usual. This gives a large blurb of a binary, due to the debugging information. Copy this kernel to the target machine, strip the debugging symbols off with strip -x, and boot it using the boot option. Connect the serial line of the target machine that has "flags 080" set on its sio device to any serial line of the debugging host. Now, on the debugging machine, go to the compile directory of the target kernel, and start gdb: &prompt.user; gdb -k kernel GDB is free software and you are welcome to distribute copies of it under certain conditions; type "show copying" to see the conditions. There is absolutely no warranty for GDB; type "show warranty" for details. GDB 4.16 (i386-unknown-freebsd), Copyright 1996 Free Software Foundation, Inc... (kgdb) Initialize the remote debugging session (assuming the first serial port is being used) by: (kgdb) target remote /dev/cuaa0 Now, on the target host (the one that entered DDB right before even starting the device probe), type: Debugger("Boot flags requested debugger") Stopped at Debugger+0x35: movb $0, edata+0x51bc db> gdb DDB will respond with: Next trap will enter GDB remote protocol mode Every time you type gdb, the mode will be toggled between remote GDB and local DDB. In order to force a next trap immediately, simply type s (step). Your hosting GDB will now gain control over the target kernel: Remote debugging using /dev/cuaa0 Debugger (msg=0xf01b0383 "Boot flags requested debugger") at ../../i386/i386/db_interface.c:257 (kgdb) You can use this session almost as any other GDB session, including full access to the source, running it in gud-mode inside an Emacs window (which gives you an automatic source code display in another Emacs window) etc. Remote GDB can also be used to debug LKMs. First build the LKM with debugging symbols: &prompt.root; cd /usr/src/lkm/linux &prompt.root; make clean; make COPTS=-g Then install this version of the module on the target machine, load it and use modstat to find out where it was loaded: &prompt.root; linux &prompt.root; modstat Type Id Off Loadaddr Size Info Rev Module Name EXEC 0 4 f5109000 001c f510f010 1 linux_mod Take the load address of the module and add 0x20 (probably to account for the a.out header). This is the address that the module code was relocated to. Use the add-symbol-file command in GDB to tell the debugger about the module: (kgdb) add-symbol-file /usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o 0xf5109020 add symbol table from file "/usr/src/lkm/linux/linux_mod.o" at text_addr = 0xf5109020? (y or n) y (kgdb) You now have access to all the symbols in the LKM. Debugging a Console Driver Since you need a console driver to run DDB on, things are more complicated if the console driver itself is failing. You might remember the use of a serial console (either with modified boot blocks, or by specifying at the Boot: prompt), and hook up a standard terminal onto your first serial port. DDB works on any configured console driver, of course also on a serial console. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kernelopts/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kernelopts/chapter.sgml index f39d90a1e6..71e0e85ab3 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kernelopts/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/kernelopts/chapter.sgml @@ -1,165 +1,165 @@ Adding New Kernel Configuration Options Contributed by &a.joerg; You should be familiar with the section about kernel configuration before reading here. What's a <emphasis>Kernel Option</emphasis>, Anyway? The use of kernel options is basically described in the kernel configuration section. - There's also an explanation of “historic” and - “new-style” options. The ultimate goal is to eventually + There's also an explanation of historic and + new-style options. The ultimate goal is to eventually turn all the supported options in the kernel into new-style ones, so for people who correctly did a make depend in their kernel compile directory after running &man.config.8;, the build process will automatically pick up modified options, and only recompile those files where it is necessary. Wiping out the old compile directory on each run of &man.config.8; as it is still done now can then be eliminated again. Basically, a kernel option is nothing else than the definition of a C preprocessor macro for the kernel compilation process. To make the build truly optional, the corresponding part of the kernel source (or kernel .h file) must be written with the option concept in mind, i.e. the default must have been made overridable by the config option. This is usually done with something like: #ifndef THIS_OPTION #define THIS_OPTION (some_default_value) #endif /* THIS_OPTION */ This way, an administrator mentioning another value for the option in his config file will take the default out of effect, and replace it with his new value. Clearly, the new value will be substituted into the source code during the preprocessor run, so it must be a valid C expression in whatever context the default value would have been used. It is also possible to create value-less options that simply enable or disable a particular piece of code by embracing it in #ifdef THAT_OPTION [your code here] #endif Simply mentioning THAT_OPTION in the config file (with or without any value) will then turn on the corresponding piece of code. People familiar with the C language will immediately recognize that - everything could be counted as a “config option” where there + everything could be counted as a config option where there is at least a single #ifdef referencing it... However, it's unlikely that many people would put options notyet,notdef in their config file, and then wonder why the kernel compilation falls over. :-) Clearly, using arbitrary names for the options makes it very hard to track their usage throughout the kernel source tree. That is the rationale behind the new-style option scheme, where each option goes into a separate .h file in the kernel compile directory, which is by convention named opt_foo.h. This way, the usual Makefile dependencies could be applied, and make can determine what needs to be recompiled once an option has been changed. The old-style option mechanism still has one advantage for local options or maybe experimental options that have a short anticipated lifetime: since it is easy to add a new #ifdef to the kernel source, this has already made it a kernel config option. In this case, the administrator using such an option is responsible himself for knowing about its implications (and maybe manually forcing the recompilation of parts of his kernel). Once the transition of all supported options has been done, &man.config.8; will warn whenever an unsupported option appears in the config file, but it will nevertheless include it into the kernel Makefile. Now What Do I Have to Do for it? First, edit sys/conf/options (or sys/<arch>/conf/options.<arch>, e. g. sys/i386/conf/options.i386), and select an opt_foo.h file where your new option would best go into. If there is already something that comes close to the purpose of the new option, pick this. For example, options modifying the overall behaviour of the SCSI subsystem can go into opt_scsi.h. By default, simply mentioning an option in the appropriate option file, say FOO, implies its value will go into the corresponding file opt_foo.h. This can be overridden on the right-hand side of a rule by specifying another filename. If there is no opt_foo.h already available for the intended new option, invent a new name. Make it meaningful, and comment the new section in the options[.<arch>] file. &man.config.8; will automagically pick up the change, and create that file next time it is run. Most options should go in a header file by themselves.. Packing too many options into a single opt_foo.h will cause too many kernel files to be rebuilt when one of the options has been changed in the config file. Finally, find out which kernel files depend on the new option. Unless you have just invented your option, and it does not exist anywhere yet, &prompt.user; find /usr/src/sys -type f | xargs fgrep NEW_OPTION is your friend in finding them. Go and edit all those files, and add #include "opt_foo.h" on top before all the #include <xxx.h> stuff. This sequence is most important as the options could override defaults from the regular include files, if the defaults are of the form #ifndef NEW_OPTION #define NEW_OPTION (something) #endif in the regular header. Adding an option that overrides something in a system header file (i.e., a file sitting in /usr/include/sys/) is almost always a mistake. opt_foo.h cannot be included into those files since it would break the headers more seriously, but if it is not included, then places that include it may get an inconsistent value for the option. Yes, there are precedents for this right now, but that does not make them more correct. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml index d29eb004d5..f7d9341dd1 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/l10n/chapter.sgml @@ -1,920 +1,920 @@ Localization - I18N/L10N Usage and Setup Contributed by &a.ache; Rewritten by Michael Chin-Yuan Wu keichii@mail.utexas.edu, 6 March 2000. Synopsis This section of the handbook discusses the internationalization and localization of FreeBSD to different countries and different settings. If the users wish to use languages other than the system default English, he/she will have to setup the system accordingly. Please note that language support for each language varies in level. Hence, the user should contact the respective FreeBSD local group that is responsible for each language. The author realizes that he may have been incomplete in the description of the i18n process in FreeBSD. Due to the various levels of i18n implementation in both the system and applicational levels, we advise you to refer to individual documentation, man pages, READMEs, and so forth. Should you have any questions or suggestions regarding this chapter, please email the author. The Basics What is i18n/l10n? Developers shortened internationalization into the term i18n, counting the number of letters between the first and the last letters of internationalization. l10n uses the same naming scheme, coming from "localization". Combined together, i18n/l10n methods, protocols, and applications allow users to use languages of their choice. I18n applications are programmed using i18n kits under libraries. It allows for developers to write a simple file and translate displayed menus and texts to each language. We strongly encourage programmers to follow this convention. Why should I use i18n/l10n? I18n/l10n is used whenever you wish to either view, input, or process data in non-English languages. What languages are supported in the i18n effort? I18n and l10n are not FreeBSD specific. Currently, one can choose from most of the major languages of the World, including but not limited to: Chinese, German, Japanese, French, Russian, and others. Using Localization In all its splendor, i18n is not FreeBSD-specific and is a convention. We encourage you to help FreeBSD in following this convention. Localization settings are based on three main terms: Language Code, Country Code, and Encoding. Locale names are constructed from these parts as follows: LanguageCode_CountryCode.Encoding Language and Country Codes In order to localize a FreeBSD system to a specific language (or any other i18n-supporting UNIX's), the user needs to find out the codes for the specify country and language (country codes tell applications what variation of given language to use). In addition, web browsers, SMTP/POP servers, HTTPd's, etc. make decisions based on them. The following are examples of language/country codes: Language/Country Code Description en_US English - United States ru_RU Russian for Russia zh_TW Traditional Chinese for Taiwan Encodings Some languages use non-ASCII encodings that are 8-bit, wide or multibyte characters, see &man.multibyte.3; for more details. Older applications do not recognize them and mistake them for control characters. Newer applications usually do recognize 8-bit characters. Depending on the implementation, users may be required to compile an application with wide or multibyte characters support, or configure it correctly. To be able to input and process wide or multibyte characters, the FreeBSD Ports collection has provided each language with different programs. Refer to the i18n documentation in the respective FreeBSD Port. Specifically, the user needs to look at the application documentation to decide on how to configure it correctly or to pass correct values into the configure/Makefile/compiler. Some things to keep in mind are: Language specific single C chars character sets (see &man.multibyte.3;), i.e., ISO_8859-1, KOI8-R, CP437. Wide or multibyte encodings, f.e. EUC, Big5. You can check the active list of character sets at the IANA Registry. I18n applications In the FreeBSD Ports and Package system, i18n applications have been named with i18n in their names for easy identification. However, they do not always support the language needed. Setting Locale Theoretically, one only needs to export the value of his/her locale name as LANG in the login shell and is usually done through the user's ~/.login_conf or the user login shell configuration (~/.profile, ~/.bashrc, ~/.cshrc). This should set all of the locale subsets (such as LC_CTYPE, LC_CTIME, etc.). Please refer to language-specific FreeBSD documentation for more information. You should set the following two values in your configuration files: LANG for POSIX &man.setlocale.3; family functions MM_CHARSET for applications' MIME character set This includes the user shell config, the specific application config, and the X11 config. Setting Locale Methods There are two methods for setting locale, and both are described below. The first (recommended one) is by assigning the environment variables in login class, and the second is by adding the environment variable assignments to the system's shell startup file. Login Classes Method This method allows environment variables needed for locale name and MIME character sets to be assigned once for every possible shell instead of adding specific shell assignments to each shell's startup file. User Level Setup can be done by an user himself and Administrator Level Setup require superuser priviledges. User Level Setup Here is a minimal example of a .login_conf file in user's home directory which has both variables set for Latin-1 encoding: me:My Account:\ :charset=ISO-8859-1:\ :lang=de_DE.ISO_8859-1: See Administrator Level Setup and &man.login.conf.5; for more details. Administrator Level Setup Check that /etc/login.conf have the correct language user's class. Make sure these settings appear in /etc/login.conf: language_name:accounts_title:\ :charset=MIME_charset:\ :lang=locale_name:\ :tc=default: So sticking with our previous example using Latin-1, it would look like this: german:German Users Accounts:\ :charset=ISO-8859-1:\ :lang=de_DE.ISO_8859-1:\ :tc=default: Changing Login Classes with &man.vipw.8; Use vipw to add new users, and make the entry look like this: user:password:1111:11:language:0:0:User Name:/home/user:/bin/sh Changing Login Classes with &man.adduser.8; Use adduser to add new users, and do the following: Set defaultclass = language in /etc/adduser.conf. Keep in mind you must enter a default class for all users of other languages in this case. An alternative variant is answering the specified language each time that Enter login class: default []: appears from &man.adduser.8; Another alternative is to use the following for each user of a different language that you wish to add: &prompt.root; adduser -class language Changing Login Classes with &man.pw.8; If you use &man.pw.8; for adding new users, call it in this form: &prompt.root; pw useradd user_name -L language Shell Startup File Method This method is not recommended because it requires a different setup for each possible login program chosen. Use the Login Class Method instead. To add the locale name and MIME character set, just set the two environment variables shown below in the /etc/profile and/or /etc/csh.login shell startup files. We will use the German language as an example below: In /etc/profile: LANG=de_DE.ISO_8859-1; export LANG MM_CHARSET=ISO-8859-1; export MM_CHARSET Or in /etc/csh.login: setenv LANG de_DE.ISO_8859-1 setenv MM_CHARSET ISO-8859-1 Alternatively, you can add the above instructions to /usr/share/skel/dot.profile (similar to what was used in /etc/profile above), or /usr/share/skel/dot.login (similar to what was used in /etc/csh.login above). For X11: In $HOME/.xinitrc: LANG=de_DE.ISO_8859-1; export LANG Or: setenv LANG de_DE.ISO_8859-1 Depending on your shell (see above). Console Setup For all single C chars character sets, set the correct console fonts in /etc/rc.conf for the language in question with: font8x16=font_name font8x14=font_name font8x8=font_name The font_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/fonts directory, without the .fnt suffix. Also be sure to set the correct keymap and screenmap for your single C chars character set through /stand/sysinstall. Once inside sysinstall, choose Configure, then Console. Alternatively, you can add the following to /etc/rc.conf: scrnmap=screenmap_name keymap=keymap_name keychange="fkey_number sequence" The screenmap_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/scrnmaps directory, without the .scm suffix. A screenmap with a corresponding mapped font is usually needed as a workaround for expanding bit 8 to bit 9 on a VGA adapter's font character matrix in pseudographics area, i.e., to move letters out of that area if screen font uses a bit 8 column. If you have the following settings, insert the kernel config specified in the paragraph after the list. Console uses a screen font that utilizes 8-bit column font character. The moused daemon is enabled by setting the following in your /etc/rc.conf: moused_enable="YES" A workaround for expanding 8-bit to 9-bit on a VGA adapter is usually needed for the above settings. This workaround disables 8-bit to 9-bit expansion of the font character with the mouse cursor the sc0 console driver. To enable the workaround, insert the following line into the kernel config. options SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03 The keymap_name here is taken from the /usr/share/syscons/keymaps directory, without the .kbd suffix. The keychange is usually needed to program function keys to match the selected terminal type because function key sequences can not be defined in the key map. Also be sure to set the correct console terminal type in /etc/ttys for all ttyv* entries. Current pre-defined correspondences are: Character Set Terminal Type ISO-8859-1 or ISO-8859-15 cons25l1 ISO-8859-2 cons25l2 KOI8-R cons25r CP437 (hardware default) cons25 For wide or multibyte characters languages, use the correct FreeBSD port in your /usr/ports/language directory. Some ports appear as console while the system sees it as serial vtty's, hence you must reserve enough vtty's for both X11 and the pseudo-serial console. Here is a partial list of applications for using other languages in console: Language Location Traditional Chinese (BIG-5) /usr/ports/chinese/big5con Japanese /usr/ports/japanese/ja-kon2-* or /usr/ports/japanese/Mule_Wnn Korean /usr/ports/korean/ko-han X11 Setup Although X11 is not part of the FreeBSD Project, we have included some information here for FreeBSD users. For more details, refer to the XFree86 website or whichever X11 Server you use. In ~/.Xresources, you can additionally tune application specific i18n settings (e.g., fonts, menus, etc.). Displaying Fonts Install the X11 True Type-Common server (XTT-common) and install the language truetype fonts. Setting the correct locale should allow you to view your selected language in menus and such. Inputting Non-English Characters The X11 Input Method (XIM) Protocol is a new standard for all X11 clients. All X11 applications should be written as XIM clients that take input from XIM Input servers. There are several XIM servers available for different languages. Printer Setup Some single C chars character sets are usually hardware coded into printers. Wide or multibyte character sets require special setup and we recommend using apsfilter. You may also convert the document to Postscript or PDF formats using language specific converters. Kernel and File Systems The FreeBSD FFS filesystem is 8-bit clean, so it can be used with any single C chars character set (see &man.multibyte.3;), but there is no character set name stored in the filesystem; i.e., it is raw 8-bit and does not know anything about encoding order. Officially, FFS does not support any form of wide or multibyte character sets yet. However, some wide or multibyte character sets have independent patches for FFS enabling such support. They are only temporary unportable solutions or hacks and we have decided to not include them in the source tree. Refer to respective languages' websites for more informations and the patch files. The FreeBSD MSDOS filesystem has the configurable ability to convert between MSDOS, Unicode character sets and chosen FreeBSD filesystem character sets. See &man.mount.msdos.8; for details. Advanced Topics If you wish to compile i18n applications or program i18n compliant applications, please read this section. Compiling i18n Programs Many FreeBSD Ports have been ported with i18n support. Some of them are marked with -i18n in the port name. These and many other programs have built in support for i18n and need no special consideration. However, some applications such as MySQL need to be have the Makefile configured with the specific charset. This is usually done in the Makefile or done by passing a value to configure in the source. Programming i18n Compliant Applications To make your application more useful for speakers of other languages, we hope that you will program i18n compliant. The GNU gcc compiler, GUI Libraries like QT and GTK support i18n through special handling of strings. Making a program i18n compliant is very easy. It allows contributors to port your application to other languages quickly. Refer to library specific i18n documentation for more details. To the contrary of common perception, i18n compliant code is easy to write. Usually, it only involves wrapping your strings with library specific functions. In addition, please be sure to allow for wide or multibyte characters support. A Call to Unify the i18n effort It has come to our attention that the individual i18n/l10n efforts for each country has been repeating each others' efforts. Many of us have been reinventing the wheel repeatedly and inefficiently. We hope that the various major groups in i18n could congregate into a group effort similiar to the Core Team's responsibility. Currently, we hope that, when you write or port i18n programs, you would send it out to each country's related FreeBSD mailing lists for testing. In the future, we hope to create applications that work in all the languages out-of-the-box without dirty hacks. Perl and Python Perl and Python have i18n and wide characters handling libraries. Please use them for i18n compliance. In older FreeBSD versions, Perl may gives warning about not having a wide characters locale that is already installed in your system. You can set the environmental variable LD_PRELOAD to /usr/lib/libxpg4.so in your shell. In sh-based shells: LD_PRELOAD=/usr/lib/libxpg4.so In C-based shells: setenv LD_PRELOAD /usr/lib/libxpg4.so Localizing FreeBSD to Specific Languages Russian Language (KOI8-R encoding) Originally contributed by &a.ache;. For more information about KOI8-R encoding, see the KOI8-R References (Russian Net Character Set). Locale Setup Put the following lines into your ~/.login_conf file: me:My Account:\ :charset=KOI8-R:\ :lang=ru_RU.KOI8-R: See earlier in this chapter for examples of setting up the locale. Console Setup Add the following to your kernel configuration file: options SC_MOUSE_CHAR=0x03 Use following settings in /etc/rc.conf: keymap="ru.koi8-r" keychange="61 ^[[K" scrnmap="koi8-r2cp866" font8x16="cp866b-8x16" font8x14="cp866-8x14" font8x8="cp866-8x8" Note that the ^[ here stands for a real Escape character (\033) entered directly in /etc/rc.conf, not for sequence of two characters '^' and '['. For each ttyv* entry in /etc/ttys, use cons25r as the terminal type. See earlier in this chapter for examples of setting up the console. Printer Setup Since most printers with Russian characters come with hardware code page CP866, a special output filter is needed for KOI8-R -> CP866 conversion. Such a filter is installed by default as /usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt. A Russian printer /etc/printcap entry should look like: lp|Russian local line printer:\ :sh:of=/usr/libexec/lpr/ru/koi2alt:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/output/lpd:lf=/var/log/lpd-errs: See &man.printcap.5; for a detailed description. MSDOS FS and Russian Filenames The following example &man.fstab.5; entry enables support for Russian filenames in mounted MSDOS filesystems: /dev/ad0s2 /dos/c msdos rw,-W=koi2dos,-L=ru_RU.KOI8-R 0 0 See &man.mount.msdos.8; for a detailed description of the and options. X11 Setup Do non-X locale setup first as described. The Russian KOI8-R locale may not work with old XFree86 releases (lower than 3.3). The XFree86 port from /usr/ports/x11/XFree86 already is the most recent XFree86 version, so it will work if you install XFree86 from the port. This should not be an issue unless you are using an old version of FreeBSD. Go to the /usr/ports/russian/X.language directory and issue the following command: &prompt.root; make install The above port installs the latest version of the KOI8-R fonts. XFree86 3.3 already has some KOI8-R fonts, but these are scaled better. Check the "Files" section in your /etc/XF86Config file. The following lines must be added before any other FontPath entries: FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/misc" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/75dpi" FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/cyrillic/100dpi" If you use a high resolution video mode, swap the 75 dpi and 100 dpi lines. To activate a Russian keyboard, add the following to the "Keyboard" section of your XF86Config file: XkbLayout "ru" XkbOptions "grp:caps_toggle" Also make sure that XkbDisable is turned off (commented out) there. The RUS/LAT switch will be CapsLock. The old CapsLock function is still available via Shift+CapsLock (in LAT mode only). - If you have “Windows” keys on your keyboard, + If you have Windows keys on your keyboard, and notice that some non-alphabetical keys are mapped incorrectly in RUS mode, add the following line in your XF86Config file: XkbVariant "winkeys" The Russian XKB keyboard may not work with old XFree86 versions, see the above note for more information. The Russian XKB keyboard may also not work with non-localized applications as well. Minimally localized applications should call a XtSetLanguageProc (NULL, NULL, NULL); function early in the program. See KOI8-R for X-Window for more instructions on localizing X11 applications. Traditional Chinese Localization for Taiwan The FreeBSD-Taiwan Project has an i18n/l10n tutorial for FreeBSD at http://freebsd.sinica.edu.tw/~ncvs/zh-l10n-tut/index.html using many /usr/ports/chinese/* applications. The editor for the zh-l10n-tut is Clive Lin Clive@CirX.org. You can also cvsup the following collections at freebsd.sinica.edu.tw: Collection Description outta-port tag=. Beta-quality Ports Collection for Chinese zh-l10n-tut tag=. Localizing FreeBSD Tutorial in BIG-5 Traditional Chinese zh-doc tag=. FreeBSD Documenation Translation to BIG-5 Traditional Chinese Chuan-Hsing Shen s874070@mail.yzu.edu.tw has created the Chinese FreeBSD Extension (CFE) using FreeBSD-Taiwan's zh-l10n-tut. The packages and the script files are available at ftp://ftp-cnpa.yzu.edu.tw/FreeBSD/collect/cfe/cfe.txt and ftp://ftp-cnpa.yzu.edu.tw/FreeBSD/collect/cfe/. German Language Localization (For All ISO 8859-1 Languages) Slaven Rezic eserte@cs.tu-berlin.de wrote a tutorial how to use umlauts on a FreeBSD machine. The tutorial is written in German and available at http://www.de.FreeBSD.org/de/umlaute/. Japanese and Korean Language Localization For Japanese, refer to http://www.jp.FreeBSD.org/, and for Korean, refer to http://www.kr.FreeBSD.org/. Non-English FreeBSD Documentation Some FreeBSD contributors have translated parts of FreeBSD to other languages. They are available through links on the main site or in /usr/share/doc. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml index fc4c161153..11581bcb92 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/linuxemu/chapter.sgml @@ -1,785 +1,785 @@ Linux Binary Compatibility Restructured and parts updated by &a.jim;, 22 March 2000. Originally contributed by &a.handy; and &a.rich; Synopsis The following chapter will cover FreeBSD's Linux binary compatibility features, how to install it, and how it works. At this point, you may be asking yourself why exactly, does FreeBSD need to be able to run Linux binaries? The answer to that question is quite simple. Many companies and developers develop - only for Linux, since it is the latest “hot thing” in + only for Linux, since it is the latest hot thing in the computing world. That leaves the rest of us FreeBSD users bugging these same companies and developers to put out native FreeBSD versions of their applications. The problem is, that most of these companies do not really realize how many people would use their product if there were FreeBSD versions too, and most continue to only develop for Linux. So what is a FreeBSD user to do? This is where the Linux binary compatibility of FreeBSD comes into play. In a nutshell, the compatibility allows FreeBSD users to run about 90% of all Linux applications without modification. This includes applications such as Star Office, the Linux version of Netscape, Adobe Acrobat, RealPlayer 5 and 7, VMWare, Oracle, WordPerfect, Doom, Quake, and more. It is also reported that in some situations, Linux binaries perform better on FreeBSD than they do under Linux. There are, however, some Linux-specific operating system features that are not supported under FreeBSD. Linux binaries will not work on FreeBSD if they overly use the Linux /proc filesystem (which is different from FreeBSD's /proc filesystem), or i386-specific calls, such as enabling virtual 8086 mode. For information on installing the Linux binary compatibility mode, see the next section. Installation With the advent of 3.0-RELEASE, it is no longer necessary to specify options LINUX or options COMPAT_LINUX in your kernel configuration. The Linux binary compatibility is now done via a KLD object - (“Kernel LoaDable object”), so it can be installed - “on-the-fly” without having to reboot. You will, + (Kernel LoaDable object), so it can be installed + on-the-fly without having to reboot. You will, however, need to have the following in /etc/rc.conf: - linux_enable=“YES” + linux_enable=YES This, in turn, triggers the following action in /etc/rc.i386: # Start the Linux binary compatibility if requested. # case ${linux_enable} in [Yy][Ee][Ss]) echo -n ' linux'; linux > /dev/null 2>&1 ;; esac If you wish to verify that the KLD is loaded, kldstat will do that: &prompt.user; kldstat Id Refs Address Size Name 1 2 0xc0100000 16bdb8 kernel 7 1 0xc24db000 d000 linux.ko If for some reason you do not want to or cannot load the KLD, then you may statically link the binary compatibility in the kernel by adding options LINUX to your kernel configuration file. Then install your new kernel as described in the kernel configuration section of this handbook. Installing Linux Runtime Libraries This can be done one of two ways, either by using the linux_base port, or by installing them manually. Installing using the linux_base port This is by far the easiest method to use when installing the runtime libraries. It is just like installing any other port from the ports collection. Simply do the following: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/emulators/linux_base &prompt.root; make install distclean You should now have working Linux binary compatibility. Some programs may complain about incorrect minor versions of the system libraries. In general, however, this does not seem to be a problem. Installing libraries manually - If you do not have the “ports” collection + If you do not have the ports collection installed, you can install the libraries by hand instead. You will need the Linux shared libraries that the program depends on and the runtime linker. Also, you will need to create a - “shadow root” directory, + shadow root directory, /compat/linux, for Linux libraries on your FreeBSD system. Any shared libraries opened by Linux programs run under FreeBSD will look in this tree first. So, if a Linux program loads, for example, /lib/libc.so, FreeBSD will first try to open /compat/linux/lib/libc.so, and if that does not exist, it will then try /lib/libc.so. Shared libraries should be installed in the shadow tree /compat/linux/lib rather than the paths that the Linux ld.so reports. Generally, you will need to look for the shared libraries that Linux binaries depend on only the first few times that you install a Linux program on your FreeBSD system. After a while, you will have a sufficient set of Linux shared libraries on your system to be able to run newly imported Linux binaries without any extra work. How to install additional shared libraries What if you install the linux_base port and your application still complains about missing shared libraries? How do you know which shared libraries Linux binaries need, and where to get them? Basically, there are 2 possibilities (when following these instructions you will need to be root on your FreeBSD system). If you have access to a Linux system, see what shared libraries the application needs, and copy them to your FreeBSD system. Look at the following example: Let us assume you have just ftp'd the Linux binary of Doom, and put it on a Linux system you have access to. You then can check which shared libraries it needs by running ldd linuxxdoom, like so: &prompt.user; ldd linuxxdoom libXt.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 libX11.so.3 (DLL Jump 3.1) => /usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) => /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 You would need to get all the files from the last column, and put them under /compat/linux, with the names in the first column as symbolic links pointing to them. This means you eventually have these files on your FreeBSD system: /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libXt.so.3 -> libXt.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/usr/X11/lib/libX11.so.3 -> libX11.so.3.1.0 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
Note that if you already have a Linux shared library with a matching major revision number to the first column of the ldd output, you will not need to copy the file named in the last column to your system, the one you already have should work. It is advisable to copy the shared library anyway if it is a newer version, though. You can remove the old one, as long as you make the symbolic link point to the new one. So, if you have these libraries on your system: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.27 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.27 and you find a new binary that claims to require a later version according to the output of ldd: libc.so.4 (DLL Jump 4.5pl26) -> libc.so.4.6.29 If it is only one or two versions out of date in the in the trailing digit then do not worry about copying /lib/libc.so.4.6.29 too, because the program should work fine with the slightly older version. However, if you like, you can decide to replace the libc.so anyway, and that should leave you with: /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4.6.29 /compat/linux/lib/libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.6.29
The symbolic link mechanism is only needed for Linux binaries. The FreeBSD runtime linker takes care of looking for matching major revision numbers itself and you do not need to worry about it.
Installing Linux ELF binaries ELF binaries sometimes require an extra step of - “branding”. If you attempt to run an unbranded ELF + branding. If you attempt to run an unbranded ELF binary, you will get an error message like the following; &prompt.user; ./my-linux-elf-binary ELF binary type not known Abort To help the FreeBSD kernel distinguish between a FreeBSD ELF binary from a Linux binary, use the &man.brandelf.1; utility. &prompt.user; brandelf -t Linux my-linux-elf-binary The GNU toolchain now places the appropriate branding information into ELF binaries automatically, so you this step should become increasingly more rare in the future. Configuring the host name resolver If DNS does not work or you get this message: resolv+: "bind" is an invalid keyword resolv+: "hosts" is an invalid keyword You will need to configure a /compat/linux/etc/host.conf file containing: order hosts, bind multi on The order here specifies that /etc/hosts is searched first and DNS is searched second. When /compat/linux/etc/host.conf is not installed, linux applications find FreeBSD's /etc/host.conf and complain about the incompatible FreeBSD syntax. You should remove bind if you have not configured a name server using the /etc/resolv.conf file. Installing Mathematica Updated for Mathematica version 4.0 by Murray Stokely murray@cdrom.com and merged with work by Bojan Bistrovic bojanb@physics.odu.edu. This document describes the process of installing the Linux version of Mathematica 4.0 onto a FreeBSD system. The Linux version of Mathematica runs perfectly under FreeBSD however the binaries shipped by Wolfram need to be branded so that FreeBSD knows to use the Linux ABI to execute them. The Linux version of Mathematica or Mathematica for Students can be ordered directly from Wolfram at http://www.wolfram.com/. Branding the Linux binaries The Linux binaries are located in the Unix directory of the Mathematica CDROM distributed by Wolfram. You need to copy this directory tree to your local hard drive so that you can brand the Linux binaries with &man.brandelf.1; before running the installer: &prompt.root; mount /cdrom &prompt.root; cp -rp /cdrom/Unix/ /localdir/ &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Kernel/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/FrontEnd/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux/* &prompt.root; cd /localdir/Installers/Linux/ &prompt.root; ./MathInstaller Obtaining your Mathematica Password Before you can run Mathematica you will have to obtain a - password from Wolfram that corresponds to your “machine - ID”. + password from Wolfram that corresponds to your machine + ID. Once you have installed the Linux compatibility runtime libraries and unpacked Mathematica you can obtain the - “machine ID” by running the program + machine ID by running the program mathinfo in the Install directory. This machine ID is based solely on the MAC address of your first ethernet card. &prompt.root; cd /localdir/Files/SystemFiles/Installation/Binaries/Linux &prompt.root; mathinfo disco.example.com 7115-70839-20412 When you register with Wolfram, either by email, phone or fax, - you will give them the “machine ID” and they will + you will give them the machine ID and they will respond with a corresponding password consisting of groups of numbers. You can then enter this information when you attempt to run Mathematica for the first time exactly as you would for any other Mathematica platform. Running the Mathematica front end over a network Mathematica uses some special fonts to display characters not present in any of the standard font sets (integrals, sums, greek letters, etc.). The X protocol requires these fonts to be install locally. This means you will have to copy these fonts from the CDROM or from a host with Mathematica installed to your local machine. These fonts are normally stored in /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts on the CDROM, or /usr/local/mathematica/SystemFiles/Fonts on your hard drive. The actual fonts are in the subdirectories Type1 and X. There are several ways to use them, as described below. The first way is to copy them into one of the existing font directories in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts. This will require editing the fonts.dir file, adding the font names to it, and changing the number of fonts on the first line. Alternatively, you should also just be able to run mkfontdir in the directory you have copied them to. The second way to do this is to copy the directories to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts: &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts &prompt.root; mkdir X &prompt.root; mkdir MathType1 &prompt.root; cd /cdrom/Unix/Files/SystemFiles/Fonts &prompt.root; cp X/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; cp Type1/* /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1 &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; mkfontdir &prompt.root; cd ../MathType1 &prompt.root; mkfontdir Now add the new font directories to your font path: &prompt.root; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/X &prompt.root; xset fp+ /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/MathType1 &prompt.root; xset fp rehash If you are using the XFree86 server, you can have these font directories loaded automatically by adding them to your XF86Config file. If you do not already have a directory called /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/Type1, you can change the name of the MathType1 directory in the example above to Type1. Installing Oracle Contributed by Marcel Moolenaar marcel@cup.hp.com Preface This document describes the process of installing Oracle 8.0.5 and Oracle 8.0.5.1 Enterprise Edition for Linux onto a FreeBSD machine Installing the Linux environment Make sure you have both linux_base and linux_devtools from the ports collection installed. These ports are added to the collection after the release of FreeBSD 3.2. If you are using FreeBSD 3.2 or an older version for that matter, update your ports collection. You may want to consider updating your FreeBSD version too. If you run into difficulties with linux_base-6.1 or linux_devtools-6.1 you may have to use version 5.2 of these packages. If you want to run the intelligent agent, you'll also need to install the Red Hat tcl package: tcl-8.0.3-20.i386.rpm. The general command for installing packages with the official RPM port is : &prompt.root; rpm -i --ignoreos --root /compat/linux --dbpath /var/lib/rpm package Installation of the package should not generate any errors. Creating the Oracle environment Before you can install Oracle, you need to set up a proper environment. This document only describes what to do specially to run Oracle for Linux on FreeBSD, not what has been described in the Oracle installation guide. Kernel Tuning As described in the Oracle installation guide, you need to set the maximum size of shared memory. Don't use SHMMAX under FreeBSD. SHMMAX is merely calculated out of SHMMAXPGS and PGSIZE. Therefore define SHMMAXPGS. All other options can be used as described in the guide. For example: options SHMMAXPGS=10000 options SHMMNI=100 options SHMSEG=10 options SEMMNS=200 options SEMMNI=70 options SEMMSL=61 Set these options to suit your intended use of Oracle. Also, make sure you have the following options in your kernel config-file: options SYSVSHM #SysV shared memory options SYSVSEM #SysV semaphores options SYSVMSG #SysV interprocess communication Oracle account Create an Oracle account just as you would create any other account. The Oracle account is special only that you need to give it a Linux shell. Add /compat/linux/bin/bash to /etc/shells and set the shell for the Oracle account to /compat/linux/bin/bash. Environment Besides the normal Oracle variables, such as ORACLE_HOME and ORACLE_SID you must set the following environment variables: Variable Value LD_LIBRARY_PATH $ORACLE_HOME/lib CLASSPATH $ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip PATH /compat/linux/bin /compat/linux/sbin /compat/linux/usr/bin /compat/linux/usr/sbin /bin /sbin /usr/bin /usr/sbin /usr/local/bin $ORACLE_HOME/bin It is advised to set all the environment variables in .profile. A complete example is: ORACLE_BASE=/oracle; export ORACLE_BASE ORACLE_HOME=/oracle; export ORACLE_HOME LD_LIBRARY_PATH=$ORACLE_HOME/lib export LD_LIBRARY_PATH ORACLE_SID=ORCL; export ORACLE_SID ORACLE_TERM=386x; export ORACLE_TERM CLASSPATH=$ORACLE_HOME/jdbc/lib/classes111.zip export CLASSPATH PATH=/compat/linux/bin:/compat/linux/sbin:/compat/linux/usr/bin:/compat/linux/usr/sbin:/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/local/bin:$ORACLE_HOME/bin export PATH Installing Oracle Due to a slight inconsistency in the Linux emulator, you need to create a directory named .oracle in /var/tmp before you start the installer. Either make it world writable or let it be owner by the oracle user. You should be able to install Oracle without any problems. If you have problems, check your Oracle distribution and/or configuration first! After you have installed Oracle, apply the patches described in the next two subsections. A frequent problem is that the TCP protocol adapter is not installed right. As a consequence, you cannot start any TCP listeners. The following actions help solve this problem: &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib &prompt.root; make -f ins_network.mk ntcontab.o &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/lib &prompt.root; ar r libnetwork.a ntcontab.o &prompt.root; cd $ORACLE_HOME/network/lib &prompt.root; make -f ins_network.mk install Don't forget to run root.sh again! Patching root.sh When installing Oracle, some actions, which need to be performed as root, are recorded in a shell script called root.sh. root.sh is written in the orainst directory. Apply the following patch to root.sh, to have it use to proper location of chown or alternatively run the script under a Linux native shell. *** orainst/root.sh.orig Tue Oct 6 21:57:33 1998 --- orainst/root.sh Mon Dec 28 15:58:53 1998 *************** *** 31,37 **** # This is the default value for CHOWN # It will redefined later in this script for those ports # which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h ! CHOWN=/bin/chown # # Define variables to be used in this script --- 31,37 ---- # This is the default value for CHOWN # It will redefined later in this script for those ports # which have it conditionally defined in ss_install.h ! CHOWN=/usr/sbin/chown # # Define variables to be used in this script When you don't install Oracle from CD, you can path the source for root.sh. It is called rthd.sh and is located in the orainst directory in the source tree. Patching genclntsh The script genclntsh is used to create a single shared client library. It is used when building the demos. Apply the following patch to comment out the definition of PATH: *** bin/genclntsh.orig Wed Sep 30 07:37:19 1998 --- bin/genclntsh Tue Dec 22 15:36:49 1998 *************** *** 32,38 **** # # Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands #PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH ! PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH # # each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst --- 32,38 ---- # # Explicit path to ensure that we're using the correct commands #PATH=/usr/bin:/usr/ccs/bin export PATH ! #PATH=/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin export PATH # # each product MUST provide a $PRODUCT/admin/shrept.lst Running Oracle When you have followed the instructions, you should be able to run Oracle as if it was run on Linux itself. Advanced Topics If you are curious as to how the Linux binary compatibility works, this is the section you want to read. Most of what follows is based heavily on an email written to &a.chat; by Terry Lambert tlambert@primenet.com (Message ID: <199906020108.SAA07001@usr09.primenet.com>). How Does It Work? - FreeBSD has an abstraction called an “execution class - loader”. This is a wedge into the &man.execve.2; system + FreeBSD has an abstraction called an execution class + loader. This is a wedge into the &man.execve.2; system call. What happens is that FreeBSD has a list of loaders, instead of a single loader with a fallback to the #! loader for running any shell interpreters or shell scripts. Historically, the only loader on the UNIX platform examined the magic number (generally the first 4 or 8 bytes of the file) to see if it was a binary known to the system, and if so, invoked the binary loader. If it was not the binary type for the system, the &man.execve.2; call returned a failure, and the shell attempted to start executing it as shell commands. - The assumption was a default of “whatever the current - shell is”. + The assumption was a default of whatever the current + shell is. Later, a hack was made for &man.sh.1; to examine the first two characters, and if they were :\n, then it invoked the &man.csh.1; shell instead (we believe SCO first made this hack). What FreeBSD does now is go through a list of loaders, with a generic #! loader that knows about interpreters as the characters which follow to the next whitespace next to last, followed by a fallback to /bin/sh. For the Linux ABI support, FreeBSD sees the magic number as an ELF binary (it makes no distinction between FreeBSD, Solaris, Linux, or any other OS which has an ELF image type, at this point). The ELF loader looks for a specialized brand, which is a comment section in the ELF image, and which is not present on SVR4/Solaris ELF binaries. For Linux binaries to function, they must be branded as type Linux; from &man.brandelf.1;: &prompt.root; brandelf -t Linux file When this is done, the ELF loader will see the Linux brand on the file. When the ELF loader sees the Linux brand, the loader replaces a pointer in the proc structure. All system calls are indexed through this pointer (in a traditional UNIX system, this would be the sysent[] structure array, containing the system calls). In addition, the process flagged for special handling of the trap vector for the signal trampoline code, and sever other (minor) fix-ups that are handled by the Linux kernel module. The Linux system call vector contains, among other things, a list of sysent[] entries whose addresses reside in the kernel module. When a system call is called by the Linux binary, the trap code dereferences the system call function pointer off the proc structure, and gets the Linux, not the FreeBSD, system call entry points. In addition, the Linux mode dynamically reroots lookups; this is, in effect, what the union option to FS mounts (not the unionfs!) does. First, an attempt is made to lookup the file in the /compat/linux/original-path directory, then only if that fails, the lookup is done in the /original-path directory. This makes sure that binaries that require other binaries can run (e.g., the Linux toolchain can all run under Linux ABI support). It also means that the Linux binaries can load and exec FreeBSD binaries, if there are no corresponding Linux binaries present, and that you could place a &man.uname.1; command in the /compat/linux directory tree to ensure that the Linux binaries could not tell they were not running on Linux. In effect, there is a Linux kernel in the FreeBSD kernel; the various underlying functions that implement all of the services provided by the kernel are identical to both the FreeBSD system call table entries, and the Linux system call table entries: file system operations, virtual memory operations, signal delivery, System V IPC, etc… The only difference is that FreeBSD binaries get the FreeBSD glue functions, and Linux binaries get the Linux glue functions (most older OS's only had their own glue functions: addresses of functions in a static global sysent[] structure array, instead of addresses of functions dereferenced off a dynamically initialized pointer in the proc structure of the process making the call). Which one is the native FreeBSD ABI? It does not matter. Basically the only difference is that (currently; this could easily be changed in a future release, and probably will be after this) the FreeBSD glue functions are statically linked into the kernel, and the Linux glue functions can be statically linked, or they can be accessed via a kernel module. Yeah, but is this really emulation? No. It is an ABI implementation, not an emulation. There is no emulator (or simulator, to cut off the next question) involved. - So why is it sometimes called “Linux emulation”? + So why is it sometimes called Linux emulation? To make it hard to sell FreeBSD! 8-). Really, it is because the historical implementation was done at a time when there was really no word other than that to describe what was going on; saying that FreeBSD ran Linux binaries was not true, if you did not compile the code in or load a module, and there needed to be a word to describe what was being loaded—hence - “the Linux emulator”. + the Linux emulator. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml index e9031664d9..b22ff63815 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/mail/chapter.sgml @@ -1,484 +1,484 @@ Electronic Mail Rewritten by &a.jim;, 02 December 1999. Original work done by &a.wlloyd;. Synopsis Electronic Mail, better known as email, is one of the most widely used forms of communication today. Millions of people use email every day, and chances are if you are reading this online, you fall into that category and probably even have more than one email address. Electronic Mail configuration is the subject of many System Administration books. If you plan on doing anything beyond setting up one mailhost for your network, you need industrial strength help. Some parts of email configuration are controlled in the Domain Name System (DNS). If you are going to run your own DNS server, be sure to read through the files in /etc/namedb and man -k named. Using Electronic Mail There are five major parts involved in an email exchange. They are: the user program, the server daemon, DNS, a pop or IMAP daemon, and of course, the mailhost itself. The User Program This includes command line programs such as mutt, pine, elm, and mail, and GUI programs such as balsa, xfmail to name a few, and something - more “sophisticated” like a WWW browser. These + more sophisticated like a WWW browser. These programs simply pass off the email transactions to the local “mailhost”, either by + linkend="mail-host">mailhost, either by calling one of the server daemons available or delivering it over TCP. Mailhost Server Daemon This is usually sendmail (by default with FreeBSD) or one of the other mail server daemons such as qmail, postfix, or exim. There are others, but those are the most widely used. The server daemon usually has two functions—it looks after receiving incoming mail and delivers outgoing mail. It does not allow you to connect to it via POP or IMAP to read your mail. You need an additional daemon for that. Be aware that some older versions of sendmail have some serious security problems, however as long as you run a current version of it you should not have any problems. As always, it is a good idea to stay up-to-date with any software you run. Email and DNS The Domain Name System (DNS) and its daemon named play a large role in the delivery of email. In order to deliver mail from your site to another, the server daemon will look up the site in the DNS to determine the host that will receive mail for the destination. It works the same way when you have mail sent to you. The DNS contains the database mapping hostname to an IP address, and a hostname to mailhost. The IP address is specified in an A record. The MX (Mail eXchanger) record specifies the mailhost that will receive mail for you. If you do not have an MX record for your hostname, the mail will be delivered directly to your host. Receiving Mail Receiving mail for your domain is done by the mail host. It will collect mail sent to you and store it for reading or pickup. In order to pick the stored mail up, you will need to connect to the mail host. This is done by either using POP or IMAP. If you want to read mail directly on the mail host, then a POP or IMAP server is not needed. If you want to run a POP or IMAP server, there are two things you need to do: Get a POP or IMAP daemon from the Ports Collection and install it on your system. Modify /etc/inetd.conf to load the POP or IMAP server. The Mail Host The mail host is the name given to a server that is responsible for delivering and receiving mail for your host, and possibly your network. Troubleshooting Here are some frequently asked questions and answers. These have been migrated from the FAQ. Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my site? You will probably find that the host is actually in a different domain; for example, if you are in foo.bar.edu and you wish to reach a host called mumble in the bar.edu domain, you will have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, mumble.bar.edu, instead of just mumble. Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers. However the current version of BIND that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than the domain you are in. So an unqualified host mumble must either be found as mumble.foo.bar.edu, or it will be searched for in the root domain. This is different from the previous behavior, where the search continued across mumble.bar.edu, and mumble.edu. Have a look at RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a security hole. As a good workaround, you can place the line: search foo.bar.edu bar.edu instead of the previous: domain foo.bar.edu into your /etc/resolv.conf. However, make sure that the search order does not go beyond the - “boundary between local and public administration”, + boundary between local and public administration, as RFC 1535 calls it. Sendmail says mail loops back to myself This is answered in the sendmail FAQ as follows: -* I am getting “Local configuration error” messages, such as: +* I am getting Local configuration error messages, such as: 553 relay.domain.net config error: mail loops back to myself 554 <user@domain.net>... Local configuration error How can I solve this problem? You have asked mail to the domain (e.g., domain.net) to be forwarded to a specific host (in this case, relay.domain.net) by using an MX record, but the relay machine does not recognize itself as domain.net. Add domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cw -(if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add “Cw domain.net” +(if you are using FEATURE(use_cw_file)) or add Cw domain.net to /etc/sendmail.cf. The sendmail FAQ is in /usr/src/usr.sbin/sendmail and is recommended reading if you want to do any - “tweaking” of your mail setup. + tweaking of your mail setup. How can I do email with a dialup PPP host? You want to connect a FreeBSD box on a lan, to the Internet. The FreeBSD box will be a mail gateway for the lan. The PPP connection is non-dedicated. There are at least two ways to do this. The other is to use UUCP. The key is to get a Internet site to provide secondary MX service for your domain. For example: bigco.com. MX 10 bigco.com. MX 20 smalliap.com. Only one host should be specified as the final recipient (add Cw bigco.com in /etc/sendmail.cf on bigco.com). When the senders' sendmail is trying to deliver the mail it will try to connect to you over the modem link. It will most likely time out because you are not online. sendmail will automatically deliver it to the secondary MX site, i.e., your Internet provider. The secondary MX site will try every - (sendmail_flags = “-bd -q15m” in - /etc/rc.conf ) 15 minutes to connect to + (sendmail_flags = -bd -q15m in + /etc/rc.conf) 15 minutes to connect to your host to deliver the mail to the primary MX site. You might want to use something like this as a login script. #!/bin/sh # Put me in /usr/local/bin/pppbigco ( sleep 60 ; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q ) & /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pppbigco If you are going to create a separate login script for a user you could use sendmail -qRbigco.com instead in the script above. This will force all mail in your queue for bigco.com to be processed immediately. A further refinement of the situation is as follows. Message stolen from the &a.isp;. > we provide the secondary mx for a customer. The customer connects to > our services several times a day automatically to get the mails to > his primary mx (We do not call his site when a mail for his domains > arrived). Our sendmail sends the mailqueue every 30 minutes. At the > moment he has to stay 30 minutes online to be sure that all mail is > gone to the primary mx. > > Is there a command that would initiate sendmail to send all the mails > now? The user has not root-privileges on our machine of course. -In the “privacy flags” section of sendmail.cf, there is a +In the privacy flags section of sendmail.cf, there is a definition Opgoaway,restrictqrun Remove restrictqrun to allow non-root users to start the queue processing. You might also like to rearrange the MXs. We are the 1st MX for our customers like this, and we have defined: # If we are the best MX for a host, try directly instead of generating # local config error. OwTrue That way a remote site will deliver straight to you, without trying the customer connection. You then send to your customer. Only works for -“hosts”, so you need to get your customer to name their mail -machine “customer.com” as well as -“hostname.customer.com” in the DNS. Just put an A record in -the DNS for “customer.com”. +hosts, so you need to get your customer to name their mail +machine customer.com as well as +hostname.customer.com in the DNS. Just put an A record in +the DNS for customer.com. Advanced Topics The following section covers more involved topics such as mail configuration and setting up mail for your entire domain. Basic Configuration Out of the box, you should be able send email to external hosts as long as you have set up /etc/resolv.conf or are running your own name server. If you would like to have mail for your host delivered to that specific host, there are two methods: Run your own name server and have your own domain. For example, FreeBSD.org Get mail delivered directly to your host. This is done by delivering mail directly to the current DNS name for your machine. For example, example.FreeBSD.org. Regardless of which of the above you choose, in order to have mail delivered directly to your host, you must have a permanent (static) IP address (no dynamic PPP dial-up). If you are behind a firewall, it must pass SMTP traffic on to you. If you want to receive mail at your host itself, you need to be sure of one of two things: Make sure that the MX record in your DNS points to your host's IP address. Make sure there is no MX entry in your DNS for your host. Either of the above will allow you to receive mail directly at your host. Try this: &prompt.root; hostname example.FreeBSD.org &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX If that is what you see, mail directly to yourlogin@example.FreeBSD.org should work without problems. If instead you see something like this: &prompt.root; host example.FreeBSD.org example.FreeBSD.org has address 204.216.27.XX example.FreeBSD.org mail is handled (pri=10) by hub.FreeBSD.org All mail sent to your host (example.FreeBSD.org will end up being collected on hub under the same username instead of being sent directly to your host. The above information is handled by your DNS server. The DNS record that carries mail routing information is the Mail eXchange entry. If no MX record exists, mail will be delivered directly to the host by way of its IP address. The MX entry for freefall.FreeBSD.org at one time looked like this: freefall MX 30 mail.crl.net freefall MX 40 agora.rdrop.com freefall MX 10 freefall.FreeBSD.org freefall MX 20 who.cdrom.com As you can see, freefall had many MX entries. The lowest MX number is the host that ends up receiving the mail in the end while the others will queue mail temporarily if freefall is busy or down. Alternate MX sites should have separate Internet connections from your own in order to be the most useful. Your ISP or other friendly site should have no problem providing this service for you. Mail for your Domain - In order to set up a “mailhost” (a.k.a., mail + In order to set up a mailhost (a.k.a., mail server) you need to have any mail sent to various workstations - directed to it. Basically, you want to “hijack” any + directed to it. Basically, you want to hijack any mail for your domain (in this case *.FreeBSD.org) and divert it to your mail server so your users can check their mail via POP or directly on the server. To make life easiest, a user account with the same username should exist on both machines. Use adduser to do this. The mailhost you will be using must be the designated mail exchange for each workstation on the network. This is done in your DNS configuration like so: example.FreeBSD.org A 204.216.27.XX ; Workstation MX 10 hub.FreeBSD.org ; Mailhost This will redirect mail for the workstation to the mailhost no matter where the A record points. The mail is sent to the MX host. You cannot do this yourself unless you are running a DNS server. If you are not, or cannot, run your own DNS server, talk to your ISP or whoever does your DNS for you. If you're doing virtual email hosting, the following information will come in handy. For the sake of an example, we will assume you have a customer with their own domain, in this case customer1.org and you want all the mail for customer1.org sent to your mailhost, which is named mail.myhost.com. The entry in your DNS should look like this: customer1.org MX 10 mail.myhost.com You do not need an A record if you only want to handle email for the domain. Be aware that this means pinging customer1.org will not work unless an A record exists for it. The last thing that you must do is tell sendmail on your mailhost what domains and/or hostnames it should be accepting mail for. There are a few different ways this can be done. Either of the following will work: Add the hosts to your /etc/sendmail.cw file if you are using the FEATURE(use_cw_file). If you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher, the file is /etc/mail/local-host-names. Add a Cwyour.host.com line to your /etc/sendmail.cf or /etc/mail/sendmail.cf if you are using sendmail 8.10 or higher. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/policies/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/policies/chapter.sgml index 3835571dd6..8e3cb1d5d1 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/policies/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/policies/chapter.sgml @@ -1,398 +1,398 @@ Source Tree Guidelines and Policies Contributed by &a.phk;. This chapter documents various guidelines and policies in force for the FreeBSD source tree. <makevar>MAINTAINER</makevar> on Makefiles June 1996. If a particular portion of the FreeBSD distribution is being maintained by a person or group of persons, they can communicate this fact to the world by adding a MAINTAINER= email-addresses line to the Makefiles covering this portion of the source tree. The semantics of this are as follows: The maintainer owns and is responsible for that code. This means that he is responsible for fixing bugs and answer problem reports pertaining to that piece of the code, and in the case of contributed software, for tracking new versions, as appropriate. Changes to directories which have a maintainer defined shall be sent to the maintainer for review before being committed. Only if the maintainer does not respond for an unacceptable period of time, to several emails, will it be acceptable to commit changes without review by the maintainer. However, it is suggested that you try and have the changes reviewed by someone else if at all possible. It is of course not acceptable to add a person or group as maintainer unless they agree to assume this duty. On the other hand it doesn't have to be a committer and it can easily be a group of people. Contributed Software Contributed by &a.phk; and &a.obrien;. June 1996. Some parts of the FreeBSD distribution consist of software that is actively being maintained outside the FreeBSD project. For historical reasons, we call this contributed software. Some examples are perl, gcc and patch. Over the last couple of years, various methods have been used in dealing with this type of software and all have some number of advantages and drawbacks. No clear winner has emerged. Since this is the case, after some debate one of these methods has - been selected as the “official” method and will be required + been selected as the official method and will be required for future imports of software of this kind. Furthermore, it is strongly suggested that existing contributed software converge on this model over time, as it has significant advantages over the old method, including the ability to easily obtain diffs relative to the - “official” versions of the source by everyone (even without + official versions of the source by everyone (even without cvs access). This will make it significantly easier to return changes to the primary developers of the contributed software. Ultimately, however, it comes down to the people actually doing the work. If using this model is particularly unsuited to the package being dealt with, exceptions to these rules may be granted only with the approval of the core team and with the general consensus of the other developers. The ability to maintain the package in the future will be a key issue in the decisions. Because of some unfortunate design limitations with the RCS file format and CVS's use of vendor branches, minor, trivial and/or cosmetic changes are strongly discouraged on - files that are still tracking the vendor branch. “Spelling - fixes” are explicitly included here under the - “cosmetic” category and are to be avoided for files with + files that are still tracking the vendor branch. Spelling + fixes are explicitly included here under the + cosmetic category and are to be avoided for files with revision 1.1.x.x. The repository bloat impact from a single character change can be rather dramatic. The Tcl embedded programming language will be used as example of how this model works: src/contrib/tcl contains the source as distributed by the maintainers of this package. Parts that are entirely not applicable for FreeBSD can be removed. In the case of Tcl, the mac, win and compat subdirectories were eliminated before the import src/lib/libtcl contains only a "bmake style" Makefile that uses the standard bsd.lib.mk makefile rules to produce the library and install the documentation. src/usr.bin/tclsh contains only a bmake style Makefile which will produce and install the tclsh program and its associated man-pages using the standard bsd.prog.mk rules. src/tools/tools/tcl_bmake contains a couple of shell-scripts that can be of help when the tcl software needs updating. These are not part of the built or installed software. The important thing here is that the src/contrib/tcl directory is created according to the rules: It is supposed to contain the sources as distributed (on a proper CVS vendor-branch and without RCS keyword expansion) with as few FreeBSD-specific changes as possible. The 'easy-import' tool on freefall will assist in doing the import, but if there are any doubts on how to go about it, it is imperative that you ask first and not blunder - ahead and hope it “works out”. CVS is not forgiving of + ahead and hope it works out. CVS is not forgiving of import accidents and a fair amount of effort is required to back out major mistakes. Because of the previously mentioned design limitations with CVS's - vendor branches, it is required that “official” patches from + vendor branches, it is required that official patches from the vendor be applied to the original distributed sources and the result re-imported onto the vendor branch again. Official patches should never be patched into the FreeBSD checked out version and "committed", as this destroys the vendor branch coherency and makes importing future versions rather difficult as there will be conflicts. Since many packages contain files that are meant for compatibility with other architectures and environments that FreeBSD, it is permissible to remove parts of the distribution tree that are of no interest to FreeBSD in order to save space. Files containing copyright notices and release-note kind of information applicable to the remaining files shall not be removed. If it seems easier, the bmake Makefiles can be produced from the dist tree automatically by some utility, something which would hopefully make it even easier to upgrade to a new version. If this is done, be sure to check in such utilities (as necessary) in the src/tools directory along with the port itself so that it is available to future maintainers. In the src/contrib/tcl level directory, a file called FREEBSD-upgrade should be added and it should states things like: Which files have been left out Where the original distribution was obtained from and/or the official master site. Where to send patches back to the original authors Perhaps an overview of the FreeBSD-specific changes that have been made. However, please do not import FREEBSD-upgrade with the contributed source. Rather you should cvs add FREEBSD-upgrade ; cvs ci after the initial import. Example wording from src/contrib/cpio is below: This directory contains virgin sources of the original distribution files on a "vendor" branch. Do not, under any circumstances, attempt to upgrade the files in this directory via patches and a cvs commit. New versions or official-patch versions must be imported. Please remember to import with "-ko" to prevent CVS from corrupting any vendor RCS Ids. For the import of GNU cpio 2.4.2, the following files were removed: INSTALL cpio.info mkdir.c Makefile.in cpio.texi mkinstalldirs To upgrade to a newer version of cpio, when it is available: 1. Unpack the new version into an empty directory. [Do not make ANY changes to the files.] 2. Remove the files listed above and any others that don't apply to FreeBSD. 3. Use the command: cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU cpio v<version>' \ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_<version> For example, to do the import of version 2.4.2, I typed: cvs import -ko -m 'Virgin import of GNU v2.4.2' \ src/contrib/cpio GNU cpio_2_4_2 4. Follow the instructions printed out in step 3 to resolve any conflicts between local FreeBSD changes and the newer version. Do not, under any circumstances, deviate from this procedure. To make local changes to cpio, simply patch and commit to the main branch (aka HEAD). Never make local changes on the GNU branch. All local changes should be submitted to "cpio@gnu.ai.mit.edu" for inclusion in the next vendor release. obrien@FreeBSD.org - 30 March 1997 Encumbered files It might occasionally be necessary to include an encumbered file in the FreeBSD source tree. For example, if a device requires a small piece of binary code to be loaded to it before the device will operate, and we do not have the source to that code, then the binary file is said to be encumbered. The following policies apply to including encumbered files in the FreeBSD source tree. Any file which is interpreted or executed by the system CPU(s) and not in source format is encumbered. Any file with a license more restrictive than BSD or GNU is encumbered. A file which contains downloadable binary data for use by the hardware is not encumbered, unless (1) or (2) apply to it. It must be stored in an architecture neutral ASCII format (file2c or uuencoding is recommended). Any encumbered file requires specific approval from the Core team before it is added to the CVS repository. Encumbered files go in src/contrib or src/sys/contrib. The entire module should be kept together. There is no point in splitting it, unless there is code-sharing with non-encumbered code. Object files are named arch/filename.o.uu>. Kernel files; Should always be referenced in conf/files.* (for build simplicity). Should always be in LINT, but the Core team decides per case if it should be commented out or not. The Core team can, of course, change their minds later on. The Release Engineer decides whether or not it goes in to the release. User-land files; The Core team decides if the code should be part of make world. The Release Engineer decides if it goes in to the release. Shared Libraries Contributed by &a.asami;, &a.peter;, and &a.obrien; 9 December 1996. If you are adding shared library support to a port or other piece of software that doesn't have one, the version numbers should follow these rules. Generally, the resulting numbers will have nothing to do with the release version of the software. The three principles of shared library building are: Start from 1.0 If there is a change that is backwards compatible, bump minor number (note that ELF systems ignore the minor number) If there is an incompatible change, bump major number For instance, added functions and bugfixes result in the minor version number being bumped, while deleted functions, changed function call syntax etc. will force the major version number to change. Stick to version numbers of the form major.minor (x.y). Our a.out dynamic linker does not handle version numbers of the form x.y.z well. Any version number after the y (ie. the third digit) is totally ignored when comparing shared lib version numbers to decide which library to link with. Given two shared - libraries that differ only in the “micro” revision, + libraries that differ only in the micro revision, ld.so will link with the higher one. Ie: if you link with libfoo.so.3.3.3, the linker only records 3.3 in the headers, and will link with anything starting with libfoo.so.3.(anything >= 3).(highest available). ld.so will always use the highest - “minor” revision. Ie: it will use + minor revision. Ie: it will use libc.so.2.2 in preference to libc.so.2.0, even if the program was initially linked with libc.so.2.0. In addition, our ELF dynamic linker does not handle minor version numbers at all. However, one should still specify a major and minor version number as our Makefiles "do the right thing" based on the type of system. For non-port libraries, it is also our policy to change the shared library version number only once between releases. In addition, it is our policy to change the major shared library version number only once between major OS releases. Ie: X.0 to (X+1).0. When you make a change to a system library that requires the version number to be bumped, check the Makefile's commit logs. It is the responsibility of the committer to ensure that the first such change since the release will result in the shared library version number in the Makefile to be updated, and any subsequent changes will not. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml index 4495528aad..0baaa3dd97 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/ports/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4981 +1,4981 @@ Installing Applications: The Ports collection Rewritten by &a.jim;, 22 November 1999. Original work by various people. Synopsis The FreeBSD Ports collection allows you to compile and install a very wide range of applications with a minimum amount of effort. In general, it is a group of skeletons which contain a minimal set of items needed to make an application compile and install cleanly on FreeBSD. Even with all the hype about open standards, getting a program to compile on various UNIX platforms can be a tricky task. Occasionally, you might be lucky enough to find that the program you want compiles cleanly on your system, install everything into all the right directories, and run flawlessly - “out-of-the-box”, but this behavior is somewhat rare. + out-of-the-box, but this behavior is somewhat rare. Most of the time, you find yourself needing to make modifications in order to get the program to work. This is where the FreeBSD Ports collection comes to the rescue. The general idea behind the Ports collection is to eliminate all of the messy steps involved with making things work properly so that the installation is simple and very painless. With the Ports collection, all of the hard work has already been done for you, and you are able to install any of the Ports collection ports by simply typing make install. Using the Ports Collection The following sections provide basic instructions on using the ports collection to install or remove programs from your system. Installing Ports The first thing that should be explained when it comes to the Ports collection is what is actually meant - by a “skeleton”. In a nutshell, a port skeleton is a + by a skeleton. In a nutshell, a port skeleton is a minimal set of files that are needed for a program to compile and install cleanly on FreeBSD. Each port skeleton includes: A Makefile. The Makefile contains various statements that specify how the application should be compiled and where it should be installed on your system A files directory. The files directory contains a file named md5. This file is named after the MD5 algorithm used to determine ports checksums. A checksum is a number generated by adding up all the data in the file you want to check. If any characters change, the checksum will differ from the original and an error message will be displayed so you are able to investigate the changes. The files directory can also contain other files that are required by the port but do not belong elsewhere in the directory structure. A patches directory. This directory contains patches to make the program compile and install on your FreeBSD system. Patches are basically small files that specify changes to particular files. They are in plain text - format, and basically say “Remove line 10” or - “Change line 26 to this ...”. Patches are also - known as “diffs” because they are generated by the + format, and basically say Remove line 10 or + Change line 26 to this .... Patches are also + known as diffs because they are generated by the diff program. A pkg directory. This directory normally contains three files. Occasionally, there will be more than three, but it depends on the port. Most only require three. The files are: COMMENT. This is a one-line description of the program. DESCR. This is a more detailed, often multiple-line, description of the program. PLIST. This is a list of all the files that will be installed by the port. It also tells the ports system what files to remove upon deinstallation. Now that you have enough background information to know what the Ports collection is used for, you are ready to install your first port. There are two ways this can be done, and each is explained below. Before we get into that however, you will need to choose a port to install. There are a few ways to do this, with the easiest method being the ports listing on the FreeBSD web site. You can browse through the ports listed there or use the search function on the site. Each port also includes a description so you can read a bit about each port before deciding to install it. Another method is to use the whereis command. To use whereis, simply type - “whereis <program you want to - install>” at the prompt, and if it is found on + whereis <program you want to + install> at the prompt, and if it is found on your system, you will be told where it is, like so: &prompt.root; whereis xchat xchat: /usr/ports/irc/xchat &prompt.root; This tells us that xchat (an irc client) can be found in the /usr/ports/irc/xchat directory. Yet another way of finding a particular port is by using the Ports collection's built-in search mechanism. To use the search feature, you will need to be in the /usr/ports directory. Once in that directory, run make search key=program-name - where “program-name” is the name of the program you + where program-name is the name of the program you want to find. For example, if you were looking for xchat: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make search key=xchat Port: xchat-1.3.8 Path: /usr/ports/irc/xchat Info: An X11 IRC client using the GTK+ toolkit, and optionally, GNOME Maint: jim@FreeBSD.org Index: irc B-deps: XFree86-3.3.5 bzip2-0.9.5d gettext-0.10.35 giflib-4.1.0 glib-1.2.6 gmake-3.77 gtk-1.2.6 imlib-1.9.8 jpeg-6b png-1.0.3 tiff-3.5.1 R-deps: XFree86-3.3.5 gettext-0.10.35 giflib-4.1.0 glib-1.2.6 gtk-1.2.6 imlib-1.9.8 jpeg-6b png-1.0.3 tiff-3.5.1 The part of the output you want to pay particular attention - to is the “Path:” line, since that tells you where to + to is the Path: line, since that tells you where to find it. The other information provided is not needed in order to install the port directly, so it will not be covered here. You must be the root user to install ports. Now that you have found a port you would like to install, you are ready to do the actual installation. Installing ports from a CDROM As you may have guessed from the title, everything described in this section assumes you have a FreeBSD CDROM set. If you do not, you can order one from the FreeBSD Mall. Assuming that your FreeBSD CDROM is in the drive and is mounted on /cdrom (and the mount point must be /cdrom), you are ready to install the port. To begin, change directories to the directory where the port you want to install lives: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/irc/xchat Once inside the xchat directory, you will see the port skeleton. The next step is to compile (also called build) the port. This is done by simply typing make at the prompt. Once you have done so, you should see something like this: &prompt.root; make >> xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2 doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from file:/cdrom/ports/distfiles/. ===> Extracting for xchat-1.3.8 >> Checksum OK for xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2. ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: bzip2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: gmake - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ===> Patching for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Configuring for xchat-1.3.8 ... [configure output snipped] ... ===> Building for xchat-1.3.8 ... [compilation snipped] ... &prompt.root; Take notice that once the compile is complete you are returned to your prompt. The next step is to install the port. In order to install it, you simply need to tack one word onto the make command, and that word is install: &prompt.root; make install ===> Installing for xchat-1.3.8 ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ... [install routines snipped] ... ===> Generating temporary packing list ===> Installing xchat docs in /usr/X11R6/share/doc/xchat ===> Registering installation for xchat-1.3.8 &prompt.root; Once you are returned to your prompt, you should be able to run the application you just installed. You can save an extra step by just running make install instead of make and make install as two separate steps. Please be aware that the licenses of a few ports do not allow for inclusion on the CDROM. This could be for various reasons, including things such as as registration form needs to be filled out before downloading, if redistribution is not allowed, and so on. If you wish to install a port not included on the CDROM, you will need to be online in order to do so (see the next section). Installing ports from the Internet As with the last section, this section makes an assumption that you have a working Internet connection. If you do not, you will need to do the CDROM installation. Installing a port from the Internet is done exactly the same way as it would be if you were installing from a CDROM. The only difference between the two is that the program's source code is downloaded from the Internet instead of pulled from the CDROM. The steps involved are identical: &prompt.root; make install >> xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2 doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from http://xchat.org/files/v1.3/. Receiving xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2 (305543 bytes): 100% 305543 bytes transferred in 2.9 seconds (102.81 Kbytes/s) ===> Extracting for xchat-1.3.8 >> Checksum OK for xchat-1.3.8.tar.bz2. ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: bzip2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on executable: gmake - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ===> Patching for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Applying FreeBSD patches for xchat-1.3.8 ===> Configuring for xchat-1.3.8 ... [configure output snipped] ... ===> Building for xchat-1.3.8 ... [compilation snipped] ... ===> Installing for xchat-1.3.8 ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: gtk12.2 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: Imlib.5 - found ===> xchat-1.3.8 depends on shared library: X11.6 - found ... [install routines snipped] ... ===> Generating temporary packing list ===> Installing xchat docs in /usr/X11R6/share/doc/xchat ===> Registering installation for xchat-1.3.8 &prompt.root; As you can see, the only difference is the line that tells you where the system is fetching the port from. That about does it for installing ports onto your system. In the section you will learn how to remove a port from your system. Removing Installed Ports Now that you know how to install ports, you are probably wondering how to remove them, just in case you install one and later on you decide that you installed the wrong port. The next few paragraphs will cover just that. Now we will remove our previous example (which was xchat for those of you not paying attention). As with installing ports, the first thing you must do is change to the port directory, which if you remember was /usr/ports/irc/xchat. After you change directories, you are ready to uninstall xchat. This is done with the make deinstall command (makes sense right?): &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/irc/xchat &prompt.root; make deinstall ===> Deinstalling for xchat-1.3.8 &prompt.root; That was easy enough. You have now managed to remove xchat from your system. If you would like to reinstall it, you can do so by running make reinstall from the /usr/ports/irc/xchat directory. Troubleshooting The following sections cover some of the more frequently asked questions about the Ports collection and some basic troubleshooting techniques, and what do to if a port is broken. Some Questions and Answers I thought this was going to be a discussion about modems??! Ah, you must be thinking of the serial ports on the back - of your computer. We are using “port” here to - mean the result of “porting” a program from one + of your computer. We are using port here to + mean the result of porting a program from one version of UNIX to another. I thought you were supposed to use packages to install extra programs? Yes, that is usually the quickest and easiest way of doing it. So why bother with ports then? Several reasons: The licensing conditions of some software distributions forbid binary distribution. They must be distributed as source code. Some people do not trust binary distributions. At least with source code, you can (in theory) read through it and look for potential problems yourself. If you have local patches, you will need the source in order to apply them. You might have opinions on how a program should be compiled that differ from the person who did the package—some people have strong views on what optimization settings should be used, whether to build debug versions and then strip them or not, and so on. Packages are normally built with quite conservative settings. If a port has a compilation option to use code for a specific processor, or a particular add-on board you can enable this yourself in the port, without the people making the package having to produce many, many different packaged versions. The most obvious exception to this rule is paper sizes. If a package can be provided with default support for different paper sizes we will often provide multiple packages, one per paper size. Some people like having code around, so they can read it if they get bored, hack it, borrow from it (license permitting, of course), and so on. If you ain't got the source, it ain't software! ;-) What is a patch? A patch is a small file that specifies how to go from one version of a file to another. It contains plain text, - and basically says things like “delete line 23”, - “add these two lines after line 468”, or - “change line 197 to this”. They are also known + and basically says things like delete line 23, + add these two lines after line 468, or + change line 197 to this. They are also known as diffs because they are generated by the diff program. What is all this about tarballs? It is a file ending in .tar, or with variations such as .tar.gz, .tar.Z, .tar.bz2, and even .tgz. Basically, it is a directory tree that has been archived into a single file (.tar) and optionally compressed (.gz). This technique was originally used for Tape ARchives (hence the name tar), but it is a widely used way of distributing program source code around the Internet. You can see what files are in them, or even extract them yourself by using the standard UNIX tar program, which comes with the base FreeBSD system, like this: &prompt.user; tar tvzf foobar.tar.gz &prompt.user; tar xzvf foobar.tar.gz &prompt.user; tar tvf foobar.tar &prompt.user; tar xvf foobar.tar And a checksum? It is a number generated by adding up all the data in the file you want to check. If any of the characters change, the checksum will no longer be equal to the total, so a simple comparison will allow you to spot the difference. I did what you said for compiling ports from a CDROM and it worked great until I tried to install the kermit port. &prompt.root; make install >> cku190.tar.gz doesn't seem to exist on this system. >> Attempting to fetch from ftp://kermit.columbia.edu/kermit/archives/. Why can it not be found? Have I got a dud CDROM? As was explained in the compiling ports from CDROM section, some ports cannot be put on the CDROM set due to licensing restrictions. Kermit is an example of that. The licensing terms for kermit do not allow us to put the tarball for it on the CDROM, so you will have to fetch it by hand—sorry! The reason why you got all those error messages was because you were not connected to the Internet at the time. Once you have downloaded it from any of the MASTER_SITES (listed in the Makefile), you can restart the install process. I did that, but when I tried to put it into /usr/ports/distfiles I got some error about not having permission. The ports mechanism looks for the tarball in /usr/ports/distfiles, but you will not be able to copy anything there because it is symlinked to the CDROM, which is read-only. You can tell it to look somewhere else by doing: &prompt.root; make DISTDIR=/where/you/put/it install Does the ports scheme only work if you have everything in /usr/ports? My system administrator says I must put everything under /u/people/guests/wurzburger, but it does not seem to work. You can use the PORTSDIR and PREFIX variables to tell the ports mechanism to use different directories. For instance, &prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports install will compile the port in /u/people/guests/wurzburger/ports and install everything under /usr/local. &prompt.root; make PREFIX=/u/people/guests/wurzburger/local install will compile it in /usr/ports and install it in /u/people/guests/wurzburger/local. And of course, &prompt.root; make PORTSDIR=../ports PREFIX=../local install will combine the two (it is too long to write fully on the page, but it should give you the general idea). If you do not fancy typing all that in every time you install a port, it is a good idea to put these variables into your environment. Read the man page for your shell for instructions on doing so. I do not have a FreeBSD CDROM, but I would like to have all the tarballs handy on my system so I do not have to wait for a download every time I install a port. Is there any way to get them all at once? To get every single tarball for the Ports collection, do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make fetch For all the tarballs for a single ports directory, do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory &prompt.root; make fetch and for just one port—well, I think you have guessed already. I know it is probably faster to fetch the tarballs from one of the FreeBSD mirror sites close by. Is there any way to tell the port to fetch them from servers other than the ones listed in the MASTER_SITES? Yes. If you know, for example, that ftp.FreeBSD.org is much closer to you than the sites listed in MASTER_SITES, do as follows: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/directory &prompt.root; make MASTER_SITE_OVERRIDE= \ ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/ fetch I want to know what files make is going to need before it tries to pull them down. make fetch-list will display a list of the files needed for a port. Is there any way to stop the port from compiling? I want to do some hacking on the source before I install it, but it is a bit tiresome to watch it and hit control-C every time. Doing make extract will stop it after it has fetched and extracted the source code. I am trying to make my own port and I want to be able to stop it compiling until I have had a chance to see if my patches worked properly. Is there something like make extract, but for patches? Yep, make patch is what you want. You will probably find the PATCH_DEBUG option useful as well. And by the way, thank you for your efforts! I have heard that some compiler options can cause bugs. Is this true? How can I make sure that I compile ports with the right settings? Yes, with version 2.6.3 of gcc (the version shipped with FreeBSD 2.1.0 and 2.1.5), the option could result in buggy code unless you used the option as well. (Most of the ports do not use ). You should be able to specify the compiler options used by something like: &prompt.root; make CFLAGS='-O2 -fno-strength-reduce' install or by editing /etc/make.conf, but unfortunately not all ports respect this. The surest way is to do make configure, then go into the source directory and inspect the Makefiles by hand, but this can get tedious if the source has lots of sub-directories, each with their own Makefiles. The default FreeBSD compiler options are quite conservative, so if you have not changed them you should not have any problems. There are so many ports it is hard to find the one I want. Is there a list anywhere of what ports are available? Look in the INDEX file in /usr/ports. If you would like to search the ports collection for a keyword, you can do that too. For example, you can find ports relevant to the LISP programming language using: &prompt.user; cd /usr/ports &prompt.user; make search key=lisp I went to install the foo port but the system suddenly stopped compiling it and starting compiling the bar port. What is going on? The foo port needs something that is supplied with bar — for instance, if foo uses graphics, bar might have a library with useful graphics processing routines. Or bar might be a tool that is needed to compile the foo port. I installed the grizzle program from the ports and frankly it is a complete waste of disk space. I want to delete it but I do not know where it put all the files. Any clues? No problem, just do: &prompt.root; pkg_delete grizzle-6.5 Alternatively, you can do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/somewhere/grizzle &prompt.root; make deinstall Hang on a minute, you have to know the version number to use that command. You do not seriously expect me to remember that, do you?? Not at all, you can find it out by doing: &prompt.root; pkg_info -a | grep grizzle Information for grizzle-6.5: grizzle-6.5 - the combined piano tutorial, LOGO interpreter and shoot 'em up arcade game. Talking of disk space, the ports directory seems to be taking up an awful lot of room. Is it safe to go in there and delete things? Yes, if you have installed the program and are fairly certain you will not need the source again, there is no point in keeping it hanging around. The best way to do this is: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make clean which will go through all the ports subdirectories and delete everything except the skeletons for each port. I tried that and it still left all those tarballs or whatever you called them in the distfiles directory. Can I delete those as well? Yes, if you are sure you have finished with them, those can go as well. They can be removed manually, or by using make distclean. I like having lots and lots of programs to play with. Is there any way of installing all the ports in one go? Just do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make install Be careful, as some ports may install files with the same name. If you install two graphics ports and they both install /usr/local/bin/plot then you will obviously have problems. OK, I tried that, but I thought it would take a very long time so I went to bed and left it to get on with it. When I looked at the computer this morning, it had only done three and a half ports. Did something go wrong? No, the problem is that some of the ports need to ask - you questions that we cannot answer for you (eg “Do - you want to print on A4 or US letter sized paper?”) + you questions that we cannot answer for you (eg Do + you want to print on A4 or US letter sized paper?) and they need to have someone on hand to answer them. I really do not want to spend all day staring at the monitor. Any better ideas? OK, do this before you go to bed/work/the local park: &prompt.root cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make -DBATCH install This will install every port that does not require user input. Then, when you come back, do: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports &prompt.root; make -DIS_INTERACTIVE install to finish the job. At work, we are using frobble, which is in your Ports collection, but we have altered it quite a bit to get it to do what we need. Is there any way of making our own packages, so we can distribute it more easily around our sites? No problem, assuming you know how to make patches for your changes: &prompt.root; cd /usr/ports/somewhere/frobble &prompt.root; make extract &prompt.root; cd work/frobble-2.8 [Apply your patches] &prompt.root; cd ../.. &prompt.root; make package This ports stuff is really clever. I am desperate to find out how you did it. What is the secret? Nothing secret about it at all, just look at the bsd.port.mk and bsd.port.subdir.mk files in your makefiles directory. (Readers with an aversion to intricate shell-scripts are advised not to follow this link...) Help! This port is broken! If you come across a port that doesn't work for you, there are a few things you can do, including: - Fix it! The “how to make a - port” section should help you do this. + Fix it! The how to make a + port section should help you do this. Gripe—by email only! Send email to the maintainer of the port first. Type make maintainer or read the Makefile to find the maintainter's email address. Remember to include the name and version of the port (send the $FreeBSD: line from the Makefile) and the output leading up to the error when you email the maintainer. If you do not get a response from the maintainer, you can use send-pr to submit a bug report. Forget about it. This is the easiest route—very - few ports can be classified as “essential”. There's + few ports can be classified as essential. There's also a good chance any problems will be fixed in the next version when the port is updated. Grab the package from an ftp site near you. The - “master” package collection is on master package collection is on ftp.FreeBSD.org in the packages directory, but be sure to check your local mirror first! These are more likely to work than trying to compile from source and are a lot faster as well. Use the &man.pkg.add.1; program to install the package on your system. Advanced Topics The documentation that was here has been moved to its own Porter's Handbook for ease of reference. Please go there if you wish to create and submit your own ports. Advanced Topics Making a port yourself So, now you are interested in making your own port or upgrading an existing one? Great! What follows are some guidelines for creating a new port for FreeBSD. If you want to upgrade an existing port, you should read this and then read . When this document is not sufficiently detailed, you should refer to /usr/ports/Mk/bsd.port.mk, which all port Makefiles include. Even if you do not hack Makefiles daily, it is well commented, and you will still gain much knowledge from it. Additionally, you may send specific questions to &a.ports;. Only a fraction of the variables (VAR) that can be overridden are mentioned in this document. Most (if not all) are documented at the start of bsd.port.mk. This file uses a non-standard tab setting. Emacs and Vim should recognize the setting on loading the file. Both vi and ex can be set to use the correct value by typing :set tabstop=4 once the file has been loaded. Quick Porting This section tells you how to do a quick port. In many cases, it is not enough, but we will see. First, get the original tarball and put it into DISTDIR, which defaults to /usr/ports/distfiles. The following assumes that the software compiled out-of-the-box, i.e., there was absolutely no change required for the port to work on your FreeBSD box. If you needed to change something, you will have to refer to the next section too. Writing the <filename>Makefile</filename> The minimal Makefile would look something like this: # New ports collection makefile for: oneko # Date created: 5 December 1994 # Whom: asami # # $FreeBSD$ # PORTNAME= oneko PORTVERSION= 1.1b CATEGORIES= games MASTER_SITES= ftp://ftp.cs.columbia.edu/archives/X11R5/contrib/ MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.org MAN1= oneko.1 MANCOMPRESSED= yes USE_IMAKE= yes .include <bsd.port.mk> See if you can figure it out. Do not worry about the contents of the $FreeBSD$ line, it will be filled in automatically by CVS when the port is imported to our main ports tree. You can find a more detailed example in the sample Makefile section. Writing the description files There are three description files that are required for any port, whether they actually package or not. They are COMMENT, DESCR, and PLIST, and reside in the pkg subdirectory. <filename>COMMENT</filename> This is the one-line description of the port. Please do not include the package name (or version number of the software) in the comment. The comment should begin with a capital, and end without a period. Here is an example: A cat chasing a mouse all over the screen <filename>DESCR</filename> This is a longer description of the port. One to a few paragraphs concisely explaining what the port does is sufficient. This is not a manual or an in-depth description on how to use or compile the port! Please be careful if you are copying from the README or manpage; too often they are not a concise description of the port or are in an awkward format (e.g., manpages have justified spacing). If the ported software has an official WWW homepage, you should list it here. Prefix one of the websites with WWW: so that automated tools will work correctly. It is recommended that you sign your name at the end of this file, as in: This is a port of oneko, in which a cat chases a poor mouse all over the screen. : (etc.) WWW: http://www.oneko.org/ - Satoshi asami@cs.berkeley.edu <filename>PLIST</filename> This file lists all the files installed by the port. It is - also called the “packing list” because the package is + also called the packing list because the package is generated by packing the files listed here. The pathnames are relative to the installation prefix (usually /usr/local or /usr/X11R6). If you are using the MANn variables (as you should be), do not list any manpages here. Here is a small example: bin/oneko lib/X11/app-defaults/Oneko lib/X11/oneko/cat1.xpm lib/X11/oneko/cat2.xpm lib/X11/oneko/mouse.xpm @dirrm lib/X11/oneko Refer to the &man.pkg.create.1; man page for details on the packing list. You should list all the files, but not the name directories, in the list. Also, if the port creates directories for itself during installation, make sure to add @dirrm lines as necessary to remove them when the port is deleted. It is recommended that you keep all the filenames in this file sorted alphabetically. It will make verifying the changes when you upgrade the port much easier. Creating a packing list manually can be a very tedious task. If the port installs a large numbers of files, creating the packing list automatically might save time. Creating the checksum file Just type make makesum. The ports make rules will automatically generate the file files/md5. Testing the port You should make sure that the port rules do exactly what you want them to do, including packaging up the port. These are the important points you need to verify. PLIST does not contain anything not installed by your port PLIST contains everything that is installed by your port Your port can be installed multiple times using the reinstall target Your port cleans up after itself upon deinstall Recommended test ordering make install make package make deinstall pkg_add package-name make deinstall make reinstall make package Make sure that there are not any warnings issued in any of the package and deinstall stages. After step 3, check to see if all the new directories are correctly deleted. Also, try using the software after step 4, to ensure that it works correctly when installed from a package. Checking your port with <command>portlint</command> Please use portlint to see if your port conforms to our guidelines. The portlint program is part of the ports collection. In particular, you may want to check if the Makefile is in the right shape and the package is named appropriately. Submitting the port First, make sure you have read the DOs and DON'Ts section. Now that you are happy with your port, the only thing remaining is to put it in the main FreeBSD ports tree and make everybody else happy about it too. We do not need your work directory or the pkgname.tgz package, so delete them now. Next, simply include the output of shar `find port_dir` in a bug report and send it with the &man.send-pr.1; program (see Bug Reports and General Commentary for more information about &man.send-pr.1;. If the uncompressed port is larger than 20KB, you should compress it into a tarfile and use &man.uuencode.1; before including it in the bug report (uuencoded tarfiles are acceptable even if the bug report is smaller than 20KB but are not preferred). Be sure to classify the bug report as category ports and class change-request. (Do not mark the report confidential!) One more time, do not include the original source distfile, the work directory, or the package you built with make package. In the past, we asked you to upload new port submissions in our ftp site (ftp.FreeBSD.org). This is no longer recommended as read access is turned off on that incoming/ directory of that site due to the large amount of pirated software showing up there. We will look at your port, get back to you if necessary, and put it in the tree. Your name will also appear in the list of - “Additional FreeBSD contributors” on the FreeBSD + Additional FreeBSD contributors on the FreeBSD Handbook and other files. Isn't that great?!? :-) Slow Porting Ok, so it was not that simple, and the port required some modifications to get it to work. In this section, we will explain, step by step, how to modify it to get it to work with the ports paradigm. How things work First, this is the sequence of events which occurs when the user first types make in your port's directory. You may find that having bsd.port.mk in another window while you read this really helps to understand it. But do not worry if you do not really understand what bsd.port.mk is doing, not many people do... :-> The fetch target is run. The fetch target is responsible for making sure that the tarball exists locally in DISTDIR. If fetch cannot find the required files in DISTDIR it will look up the URL MASTER_SITES, which is set in the Makefile, as well as our main ftp site at ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/, where we put sanctioned distfiles as backup. It will then attempt to fetch the named distribution file with FETCH, assuming that the requesting site has direct access to the Internet. If that succeeds, it will save the file in DISTDIR for future use and proceed. The extract target is run. It looks for your port's distribution file (typically a gzip'd tarball) in DISTDIR and unpacks it into a temporary subdirectory specified by WRKDIR (defaults to work). The patch target is run. First, any patches defined in PATCHFILES are applied. Second, if any patches are found in PATCHDIR (defaults to the patches subdirectory), they are applied at this time in alphabetical order. The configure target is run. This can do any one of many different things. If it exists, scripts/configure is run. If HAS_CONFIGURE or GNU_CONFIGURE is set, WRKSRC/configure is run. If USE_IMAKE is set, XMKMF (default: xmkmf -a) is run. The build target is run. This is responsible for descending into the port's private working directory (WRKSRC) and building it. If USE_GMAKE is set, GNU make will be used, otherwise the system make will be used. The above are the default actions. In addition, you can define targets pre-something or post-something, or put scripts with those names, in the scripts subdirectory, and they will be run before or after the default actions are done. For example, if you have a post-extract target defined in your Makefile, and a file pre-build in the scripts subdirectory, the post-extract target will be called after the regular extraction actions, and the pre-build script will be executed before the default build rules are done. It is recommended that you use Makefile targets if the actions are simple enough, because it will be easier for someone to figure out what kind of non-default action the port requires. The default actions are done by the bsd.port.mk targets do-something. For example, the commands to extract a port are in the target do-extract. If you are not happy with the default target, you can fix it by redefining the do-something target in your Makefile. - The “main” targets (e.g., + The main targets (e.g., extract, configure, etc.) do nothing more than make sure all the stages up to that one are completed and call the real targets or scripts, and they are not intended to be changed. If you want to fix the extraction, fix do-extract, but never ever touch extract! Now that you understand what goes on when the user types make, let us go through the recommended steps to create the perfect port. Getting the original sources Get the original sources (normally) as a compressed tarball (foo.tar.gz or foo.tar.Z) and copy it into DISTDIR. Always use mainstream sources when and where you can. If you cannot find a ftp/http site that is well-connected to the net, or can only find sites that have irritatingly non-standard formats, you might want to put a copy on a reliable ftp or http server that you control (e.g., your home page). Make sure you set MASTER_SITES to reflect your choice. If you cannot find somewhere convenient and reliable to put the distfile (if you are a FreeBSD committer, you can just put it in your public_html/ directory on - freefall), we can “house” it ourselves + freefall), we can house it ourselves by putting it on ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/distfiles/LOCAL_PORTS/ as the last resort. Please refer to this location as MASTER_SITE_LOCAL. Send mail to the &a.ports; if you are not sure what to do. If your port's distfile changes all the time for no good reason, consider putting the distfile in your home page and listing it as the first MASTER_SITES. This will prevent users from getting checksum mismatch errors, and also reduce the workload of maintainers of our ftp site. Also, if there is only one master site for the port, it is recommended that you house a backup at your site and list it as the second MASTER_SITES. If your port requires some additional `patches' that are available on the Internet, fetch them too and put them in DISTDIR. Do not worry if they come from a site other than where you got the main source tarball, we have a way to handle these situations (see the description of PATCHFILES below). Modifying the port Unpack a copy of the tarball in a private directory and make whatever changes are necessary to get the port to compile properly under the current version of FreeBSD. Keep careful track of everything you do, as you will be automating the process shortly. Everything, including the deletion, addition or modification of files should be doable using an automated script or patch file when your port is finished. If your port requires significant user interaction/customization to compile or install, you should take a look at one of Larry Wall's classic Configure scripts and perhaps do something similar yourself. The goal of the new ports collection is - to make each port as “plug-and-play” as possible for the + to make each port as plug-and-play as possible for the end-user while using a minimum of disk space. Unless explicitly stated, patch files, scripts, and other files you have created and contributed to the FreeBSD ports collection are assumed to be covered by the standard BSD copyright conditions. Patching In the preparation of the port, files that have been added or changed can be picked up with a recursive diff for later feeding to patch. Each set of patches you wish to apply should be collected into a file named patch-xx where xx denotes the sequence in which the patches will be applied — these are done in alphabetical order, thus aa first, ab second and so on. These files should be stored in PATCHDIR, from where they will be automatically applied. All patches should be relative to WRKSRC (generally the directory your port's tarball unpacks itself into, that being where the build is done). To make fixes and upgrades easier, you should avoid having more than one patch fix the same file (e.g., patch-aa and patch-ab both changing WRKSRC/foobar.c). Configuring Include any additional customization commands to your configure script and save it in the scripts subdirectory. As mentioned above, you can also do this as Makefile targets and/or scripts with the name pre-configure or post-configure. Handling user input If your port requires user input to build, configure or install, then set IS_INTERACTIVE in your Makefile. This - will allow “overnight builds” to skip your port if the + will allow overnight builds to skip your port if the user sets the variable BATCH in his environment (and if the user sets the variable INTERACTIVE, then only those ports requiring interaction are built). It is also recommended that if there are reasonable default answers to the questions, you check the PACKAGE_BUILDING variable and turn off the interactive script when it is set. This will allow us to build the packages for CD-ROMs and ftp. Configuring the Makefile Configuring the Makefile is pretty simple, and again we suggest that you look at existing examples before starting. Also, there is a sample Makefile in this handbook, so take a look and please follow the ordering of variables and sections in that template to make your port easier for others to read. Now, consider the following problems in sequence as you design your new Makefile: The original source Does it live in DISTDIR as a standard gzip'd tarball named something like foozolix-1.2.tar.gz? If so, you can go on to the next step. If not, you should look at overriding any of the DISTNAME, EXTRACT_CMD, EXTRACT_BEFORE_ARGS, EXTRACT_AFTER_ARGS, EXTRACT_SUFX, or DISTFILES variables, depending on how alien a format your port's distribution file is. (The most common case is EXTRACT_SUFX=.tar.Z, when the tarball is condensed by regular compress, not gzip.) In the worst case, you can simply create your own do-extract target to override the default, though this should be rarely, if ever, necessary. <makevar>PORTNAME</makevar> and <makevar>PORTVERSION</makevar> You should set PORTNAME to be the base name of your port, and PORTVERSION to the version number of the port. <makevar>PKGNAMEPREFIX</makevar> and <makevar>PKGNAMESUFFIX</makevar> Two optional variables, PKGNAMEPREFIX and PKGNAMESUFFIX, are combined with PORTNAME and PORTVERSION to form PKGNAME as ${PKGNAMEPREFIX}${PORTNAME}${PKGNAMESUFFIX}-${PORTVERSION}. Make sure this conforms to our guidelines for a good package name. In particular, you are not allowed to use a hyphen (-) in PORTVERSION. Also, if the package name has the language- or the compiled.specifics part, use PKGNAMEPREFIX and PKGNAMESUFFIX, respectively. Do not make them part of PORTNAME. <makevar>DISTNAME</makevar> DISTNAME is the name of the port as called by the authors of the software. DISTNAME defaults to ${PORTNAME}-${PORTVERSION}, so override it if necessary. DISTNAME is only used in two places. First, the distribution file list (DISTFILES) defaults to ${DISTNAME}${EXTRACT_SUFX}. Second, the distribution file is expected to extract into a subdirectory named WRKSRC, which defaults to work/${DISTNAME}. Note that PKGNAMEPREFIX and PKGNAMESUFFIX do not affect DISTNAME. <makevar>CATEGORIES</makevar> When a package is created, it is put under /usr/ports/packages/All and links are made from one or more subdirectories of /usr/ports/packages. The names of these subdirectories are specified by the variable CATEGORIES. It is intended to make life easier for the user when he is wading through the pile of packages on the ftp site or the CD-ROM. Please take a look at the existing categories and pick the ones that are suitable for your port. This list also determines where in the ports tree the port is imported. If you put more than one category here, it is assumed that the port files will be put in the subdirectory with the name in the first category. See the categories section for more discussion about how to pick the right categories. If your port truly belongs to something that is different from all the existing ones, you can even create a new category name. In that case, please send mail to the &a.ports; to propose a new category. There is no error checking for category names. make package will happily create a new directory if you mistype the category name, so be careful! <makevar>MASTER_SITES</makevar> Record the directory part of the ftp/http-URL pointing at the original tarball in MASTER_SITES. Do not forget the trailing slash (/)! The make macros will try to use this specification for grabbing the distribution file with FETCH if they cannot find it already on the system. It is recommended that you put multiple sites on this list, preferably from different continents. This will safeguard against wide-area network problems, and we are even planning to add support for automatically determining the closest master site and fetching from there! If the original tarball is part of one of the following popular archives: X-contrib, GNU, Perl CPAN, TeX CTAN, or Linux Sunsite, you refer to those sites in an easy compact form using MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB, MASTER_SITE_GNU, MASTER_SITE_PERL_CPAN, MASTER_SITE_TEX_CTAN, and MASTER_SITE_SUNSITE. Simply set MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR to the path with in the archive. Here is an example: MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications The user can also set the MASTER_SITE_* variables in /etc/make.conf to override our choices, and use their favorite mirrors of these popular archives instead. <makevar>PATCHFILES</makevar> If your port requires some additional patches that are available by ftp or http, set PATCHFILES to the names of the files and PATCH_SITES to the URL of the directory that contains them (the format is the same as MASTER_SITES). If the patch is not relative to the top of the source tree (i.e., WRKSRC) because it contains some extra pathnames, set PATCH_DIST_STRIP accordingly. For instance, if all the pathnames in the patch have an extra foozolix-1.0/ in front of the filenames, then set PATCH_DIST_STRIP=-p1. Do not worry if the patches are compressed, they will be decompressed automatically if the filenames end with .gz or .Z. If the patch is distributed with some other files, such as documentation, in a gzip'd tarball, you cannot just use PATCHFILES. If that is the case, add the name and the location of the patch tarball to DISTFILES and MASTER_SITES. Then, from the pre-patch target, apply the patch either by running the patch command from there, or copying the patch file into the PATCHDIR directory and calling it patch-xx. Note the tarball will have been extracted alongside the regular source by then, so there is no need to explicitly extract it if it is a regular gzip'd or compress'd tarball. If you do the latter, take extra care not to overwrite something that already exists in that directory. Also do not forget to add a command to remove the copied patch in the pre-clean target. <makevar>MAINTAINER</makevar> Set your mail-address here. Please. :-) For detailed description of the responsibility of maintainers, refer to MAINTAINER on Makefiles section. Dependencies Many ports depend on other ports. There are five variables that you can use to ensure that all the required bits will be on the user's machine. There are also some pre-supported dependency variables for common cases, plus a few more to control the behaviour of dependencies. <makevar>LIB_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies the shared libraries this port depends on. It is a list of lib:dir:target tuples where lib is the name of the shared library, and dir is the directory in which to find it in case it is not available, and target is the target to call in that directory. For example, LIB_DEPENDS= jpeg.9:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/jpeg:install will check for a shared jpeg library with major version 9, and descend into the graphics/jpeg subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. The target part can be omitted if it is equal to DEPENDS_TARGET (which defaults to install). The lib part is an argument given to ldconfig -r | grep -wF. There shall be no regular expressions in this variable. The dependency is checked twice, once from within the extract target and then from within the install target. Also, the name of the dependency is put in to the package so that pkg_add will automatically install it if it is not on the user's system. <makevar>RUN_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies executables or files this port depends on during run-time. It is a list of path:dir:target tuples where path is the name of the executable or file, and dir is the directory in which to find it in case it is not available, and target is the target to call in that directory. If path starts with a slash (/), it is treated as a file and its existence is tested with test -e; otherwise, it is assumed to be an executable, and which -s is used to determine if the program exists in the user's search path. For example, RUN_DEPENDS= ${PREFIX}/etc/innd:${PORTSDIR}/news/inn \ wish8.0:${PORTSDIR}/x11-toolkits/tk80 will check if the file or directory /usr/local/etc/innd exists, and build and install it from the news/inn subdirectory of the ports tree if it is not found. It will also see if an executable called wish8.0 is in your search path, and descend into the x11-toolkits/tk80 subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. In this case, innd is actually an executable; if an executable is in a place that is not expected to be in a normal user's search path, you should use the full pathname. The dependency is checked from within the install target. Also, the name of the dependency is put in to the package so that pkg_add will automatically install it if it is not on the user's system. The target part can be omitted if it is the same DEPENDS_TARGET. <makevar>BUILD_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies executables or files this port requires to build. Like RUN_DEPENDS, it is a list of path:dir:target tuples. For example, BUILD_DEPENDS= unzip:${PORTSDIR}/archivers/unzip will check for an executable called unzip, and descend into the archivers/unzip subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. - “build” here means everything from extracting to + build here means everything from extracting to compilation. The dependency is checked from within the extract target. The target part can be omitted if it is the same as DEPENDS_TARGET <makevar>FETCH_DEPENDS</makevar> This variable specifies executables or files this port requires to fetch. Like the previous two, it is a list of path:dir:target tuples. For example, FETCH_DEPENDS= ncftp2:${PORTSDIR}/net/ncftp2 will check for an executable called ncftp2, and descend into the net/ncftp2 subdirectory of your ports tree to build and install it if it is not found. The dependency is checked from within the fetch target. The target part can be omitted if it is the same as DEPENDS_TARGET. <makevar>DEPENDS</makevar> If there is a dependency that does not fall into either of the above four categories, or your port requires having the source of the other port extracted in addition to having it installed, then use this variable. This is a list of dir:target, as there is nothing to check, unlike the previous four. The target part can be omitted if it is the same as DEPENDS_TARGET. Common dependency variables Define USE_XLIB=yes if your port requires the X Window System to be installed (it is implied by USE_IMAKE). Define USE_GMAKE=yes if your port requires GNU make instead of BSD make. Define USE_AUTOCONF=yes if your port requires GNU autoconf to be run. Define USE_QT=yes if your port uses the latest qt toolkit. Use USE_PERL5=yes if your port requires version 5 of the perl language. (The last is especially important since some versions of FreeBSD have perl5 as part of the base system while others do not.) Notes on dependencies As mentioned above, the default target to call when a dependency is required is DEPENDS_TARGET. It defaults to install. This is a user variable; it is never defined in a port's Makefile. If your port needs a special way to handle a dependency, use the :target part of the *_DEPENDS variables instead of redefining DEPENDS_TARGET. When you type make clean, its dependencies are automatically cleaned too. If you do not wish this to happen, define the variable NOCLEANDEPENDS in your environment. To depend on another port unconditionally, it is customary to use the string nonexistent as the first field of BUILD_DEPENDS or RUN_DEPENDS. Use this only when you need to the to get to the source of the other port. You can often save compilation time by specifying the target too. For instance BUILD_DEPENDS= /nonexistent:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/jpeg:extract will always descend to the JPEG port and extract it. Do not use DEPENDS unless there is no other way the behaviour you want can be accomplished. It will cause the other port to be always build (and installed, by default), and the dependency will go into the packages as well. If this is really what you need, I recommend you write it as BUILD_DEPENDS and RUN_DEPENDS instead—at least the intention will be clear. Building mechanisms If your package uses GNU make, set USE_GMAKE=yes. If your package uses configure, set HAS_CONFIGURE=yes. If your package uses GNU configure, set GNU_CONFIGURE=yes (this implies HAS_CONFIGURE). If you want to give some extra arguments to configure (the default argument list --prefix=${PREFIX} for GNU configure and empty for non-GNU configure), set those extra arguments in CONFIGURE_ARGS. If your package uses GNU autoconf, set USE_AUTOCONF=yes. This implies GNU_CONFIGURE, and will cause autoconf to be run before configure. If your package is an X application that creates Makefiles from Imakefiles using imake, then set USE_IMAKE=yes. This will cause the configure stage to automatically do an xmkmf -a. If the flag is a problem for your port, set XMKMF=xmkmf. If the port uses imake but does not understand the install.man target, NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES=yes should be set. In addition, the author of the original port should be shot. :-> If your port's source Makefile has something else than all as the main build target, set ALL_TARGET accordingly. Same goes for install and INSTALL_TARGET. Special considerations There are some more things you have to take into account when you create a port. This section explains the most common of those. <command>ldconfig</command> If your port installs a shared library, add a post-install target to your Makefile that runs ${LDCONFIG} -m on the directory where the new library is installed (usually PREFIX/lib) to register it into the shared library cache. Also, add a matching @exec /sbin/ldconfig -m and @unexec /sbin/ldconfig -R pair to your pkg/PLIST file so that a user who installed the package can start using the shared library immediately and deinstallation will not cause the system to still believe the library is there. These lines should immediately follow the line for the shared library itself, as in: lib/libtvl80.so.1 @exec /sbin/ldconfig -m %D/lib @unexec /sbin/ldconfig -R Never, ever, ever add a line that says ldconfig without any arguments to your Makefile or pkg/PLIST. This will reset the shared library cache to the contents of /usr/lib only, and will royally screw up the user's machine ("Help, xinit does not run anymore after I install this port!"). Anybody who does this will be shot and cut in 65,536 pieces by a rusty knife and have his liver chopped out by a bunch of crows and will eternally rot to death in the deepest bowels of hell (not necessarily in that order…) <makevar>MASTERDIR</makevar> If your port needs to build slightly different versions of packages by having a variable (for instance, resolution, or paper size) take different values, create one subdirectory per package to make it easier for users to see what to do, but try to share as many files as possible between ports. Typically you only need a very short Makefile in all but one of the directories if you use variables cleverly. In the sole Makefiles, you can use MASTERDIR to specify the directory where the rest of the files are. Also, use a variable as part of PKGNAMESUFFIX so the packages will have different names. This will be best demonstrated by an example. This is part of japanese/xdvi300/Makefile; PORTNAME= xdvi PORTVERSION= 17 PKGNAMEPREFIX= ja- PKGNAMESUFFIX= ${RESOLUTION} : # default RESOLUTION?= 300 .if ${RESOLUTION} != 118 && ${RESOLUTION} != 240 && \ ${RESOLUTION} != 300 && ${RESOLUTION} != 400 @${ECHO} "Error: invalid value for RESOLUTION: \"${RESOLUTION}\"" @${ECHO} "Possible values are: 118, 240, 300 (default) and 400." @${FALSE} .endif japanese/xdvi300 also has all the regular patches, package files, etc. If you type make there, it will take the default value for the resolution (300) and build the port normally. As for other resolutions, this is the entire xdvi118/Makefile: RESOLUTION= 118 MASTERDIR= ${.CURDIR}/../xdvi300 .include ${MASTERDIR}/Makefile (xdvi240/Makefile and xdvi400/Makefile are similar). The MASTERDIR definition tells bsd.port.mk that the regular set of subdirectories like PATCHDIR and PKGDIR are to be found under xdvi300. The RESOLUTION=118 line will override the RESOLUTION=300 line in xdvi300/Makefile and the port will be built with resolution set to 118. Shared library versions Please read our policy on shared library versioning to understand what to do with shared library versions in general. Do not blindly assume software authors know what they are doing; many of them do not. It is very important that these details are carefully considered, as we have quite a unique situation where we are trying to have dozens of potentially incompatible software pairs co-exist. Careless port imports have caused great trouble regarding shared libraries in the past (ever wondered why the port jpeg-6b has a shared library version of 9?). If in doubt, send a message to the &a.ports;. Most of the time, your job ends by determining the right shared library version and making appropriate patches to implement it. Manpages The MAN[1-9LN] variables will automatically add any manpages to pkg/PLIST (this means you must not list manpages in the PLIST—see generating PLIST for more). It also makes the install stage automatically compress or uncompress manpages depending on the setting of NOMANCOMPRESS in /etc/make.conf. If your port tries to install multiple names for manpages using symlinks or hardlinks, you must use the MLINKS variable to identify these. The link installed by your port will be destroyed and recreated by bsd.port.mk to make sure it points to the correct file. Any manpages listed in MLINKS must not be listed in the PLIST. To specify whether the manpages are compressed upon installation, use the MANCOMPRESSED variable. This variable can take three values, yes, no and maybe. yes means manpages are already installed compressed, no means they are not, and maybe means the software already respects the value of NOMANCOMPRESS so bsd.port.mk does not have to do anything special. MANCOMPRESSED is automatically set to yes if USE_IMAKE is set and NO_INSTALL_MANPAGES is not set, and to no otherwise. You do not have to explicitly define it unless the default is not suitable for your port. If your port anchors its man tree somewhere other than PREFIX, you can use the MANPREFIX to set it. Also, if only manpages in certain sections go in a non-standard place, such as some Perl modules ports, you can set individual man paths using MANsectPREFIX (where sect is one of 1-9, L or N). If your manpages go to language-specific subdirectories, set the name of the languages to MANLANG. The value of this variable defaults to "" (i.e., English only). Here is an example that puts it all together. MAN1= foo.1 MAN3= bar.3 MAN4= baz.4 MLINKS= foo.1 alt-name.8 MANLANG= "" ja MAN3PREFIX= ${PREFIX}/share/foobar MANCOMPRESSED= yes This states that six files are installed by this port; ${PREFIX}/man/man1/foo.1.gz ${PREFIX}/man/ja/man1/foo.1.gz ${PREFIX}/share/foobar/man/man3/bar.3.gz ${PREFIX}/share/foobar/man/ja/man3/bar.3.gz ${PREFIX}/man/man4/baz.4.gz ${PREFIX}/man/ja/man4/baz.4.gz Additionally ${PREFIX}/man/man8/alt-name.8.gz may or may not be installed by your port. Regardless, a symlink will be made to join the foo(1) manpage and alt-name(8) manpage. Ports that require Motif There are many programs that require a Motif library (available from several commercial vendors, while there is a free clone reported to be able to run many applications in x11-toolkits/lesstif) to compile. Since it is a popular toolkit and their licenses usually permit redistribution of statically linked binaries, we have made special provisions for handling ports that require Motif in a way that we can easily compile binaries linked either dynamically (for people who are compiling from the port) or statically (for people who distribute packages). <makevar>REQUIRES_MOTIF</makevar> If your port requires Motif, define this variable in the Makefile. This will prevent people who do not own a copy of Motif from even attempting to build it. <makevar>MOTIFLIB</makevar> This variable will be set by bsd.port.mk to be the appropriate reference to the Motif library. Please patch the source to use this wherever the Motif library is referenced in the Makefile or Imakefile. There are two common cases: If the port refers to the Motif library as -lXm in its Makefile or Imakefile, simply substitute ${MOTIFLIB} for it. If the port uses XmClientLibs in its Imakefile, change it to ${MOTIFLIB} ${XTOOLLIB} ${XLIB}. Note that MOTIFLIB (usually) expands to -L/usr/X11R6/lib -lXm or /usr/X11R6/lib/libXm.a, so there is no need to add -L or -l in front. X11 fonts If your port installs fonts for the X Window system, put them in X11BASE/lib/X11/fonts/local. This directory is new to XFree86 release 3.3.3. If it does not exist, please create it, and print out a message urging the user to update their XFree86 to 3.3.3 or newer, or at least add this directory to the font path in /etc/XF86Config. Info files The new version of texinfo (included in 2.2.2-RELEASE and onwards) contains a utility called install-info to add and delete entries to the dir file. If your port installs any info documents, please follow these instructions so your port/package will correctly update the user's PREFIX/info/dir file. (Sorry for the length of this section, but is it imperative to weave all the info files together. If done correctly, it will produce a beautiful listing, so please bear with me! First, this is what you (as a porter) need to know &prompt.user; install-info --help install-info [OPTION]... [INFO-FILE [DIR-FILE]] Install INFO-FILE in the Info directory file DIR-FILE. Options: --delete Delete existing entries in INFO-FILE; don't insert any new entries. : --entry=TEXT Insert TEXT as an Info directory entry. : --section=SEC Put this file's entries in section SEC of the directory. : This program will not actually install info files; it merely inserts or deletes entries in the dir file. Here's a seven-step procedure to convert ports to use install-info. I will use editors/emacs as an example. Look at the texinfo sources and make a patch to insert @dircategory and @direntry statements to files that do not have them. This is part of my patch: --- ./man/vip.texi.org Fri Jun 16 15:31:11 1995 +++ ./man/vip.texi Tue May 20 01:28:33 1997 @@ -2,6 +2,10 @@ @setfilename ../info/vip @settitle VIP +@dircategory The Emacs editor and associated tools +@direntry +* VIP: (vip). A VI-emulation for Emacs. +@end direntry @iftex @finalout : The format should be self-explanatory. Many authors leave a dir file in the source tree that contains all the entries you need, so look around before you try to write your own. Also, make sure you look into related ports and make the section names and entry indentations consistent (we recommend that all entry text start at the 4th tab stop). Note that you can put only one info entry per file because of a bug in install-info --delete that deletes only the first entry if you specify multiple entries in the @direntry section. You can give the dir entries to install-info as arguments ( and ) instead of patching the texinfo sources. I do not think this is a good idea for ports because you need to duplicate the same information in three places (Makefile and @exec/@unexec of PLIST; see below). However, if you have a Japanese (or other multibyte encoding) info files, you will have to use the extra arguments to install-info because makeinfo cannot handle those texinfo sources. (See Makefile and PLIST of japanese/skk for examples on how to do this). Go back to the port directory and do a make clean; make and verify that the info files are regenerated from the texinfo sources. Since the texinfo sources are newer than the info files, they should be rebuilt when you type make; but many Makefiles do not include correct dependencies for info files. In emacs' case, I had to patch the main Makefile.in so it will descend into the man subdirectory to rebuild the info pages. --- ./Makefile.in.org Mon Aug 19 21:12:19 1996 +++ ./Makefile.in Tue Apr 15 00:15:28 1997 @@ -184,7 +184,7 @@ # Subdirectories to make recursively. `lisp' is not included # because the compiled lisp files are part of the distribution # and you cannot remake them without installing Emacs first. -SUBDIR = lib-src src +SUBDIR = lib-src src man # The makefiles of the directories in $SUBDIR. SUBDIR_MAKEFILES = lib-src/Makefile man/Makefile src/Makefile oldXMenu/Makefile lwlib/Makefile --- ./man/Makefile.in.org Thu Jun 27 15:27:19 1996 +++ ./man/Makefile.in Tue Apr 15 00:29:52 1997 @@ -66,6 +66,7 @@ ${srcdir}/gnu1.texi \ ${srcdir}/glossary.texi +all: info info: $(INFO_TARGETS) dvi: $(DVI_TARGETS) The second hunk was necessary because the default target in the man subdir is called info, while the main Makefile wants to call all. I also deleted the installation of the info info file because we already have one with the same name in /usr/share/info (that patch is not shown here). If there is a place in the Makefile that is installing the dir file, delete it. Your port may not be doing it. Also, remove any commands that are otherwise mucking around with the dir file. --- ./Makefile.in.org Mon Aug 19 21:12:19 1996 +++ ./Makefile.in Mon Apr 14 23:38:07 1997 @@ -368,14 +368,8 @@ if [ `(cd ${srcdir}/info && /bin/pwd)` != `(cd ${infodir} && /bin/pwd)` ]; \ then \ (cd ${infodir}; \ - if [ -f dir ]; then \ - if [ ! -f dir.old ]; then mv -f dir dir.old; \ - else mv -f dir dir.bak; fi; \ - fi; \ cd ${srcdir}/info ; \ - (cd $${thisdir}; ${INSTALL_DATA} ${srcdir}/info/dir ${infodir}/dir); \ - (cd $${thisdir}; chmod a+r ${infodir}/dir); \ for f in ccmode* cl* dired-x* ediff* emacs* forms* gnus* info* message* mh-e* sc* vip*; do \ (cd $${thisdir}; \ ${INSTALL_DATA} ${srcdir}/info/$$f ${infodir}/$$f; \ chmod a+r ${infodir}/$$f); \ (This step is only necessary if you are modifying an existing port.) Take a look at pkg/PLIST and delete anything that is trying to patch up info/dir. They may be in pkg/INSTALL or some other file, so search extensively. Index: pkg/PLIST =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/pkg/PLIST,v retrieving revision 1.15 diff -u -r1.15 PLIST --- PLIST 1997/03/04 08:04:00 1.15 +++ PLIST 1997/04/15 06:32:12 @@ -15,9 +15,6 @@ man/man1/emacs.1.gz man/man1/etags.1.gz man/man1/ctags.1.gz -@unexec cp %D/info/dir %D/info/dir.bak -info/dir -@unexec cp %D/info/dir.bak %D/info/dir info/cl info/cl-1 info/cl-2 Add a post-install target to the Makefile to call install-info with the installed info files. (It is no longer necessary to create the dir file yourself; install-info automatically creates this file if it does not exist.) Index: Makefile =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/Makefile,v retrieving revision 1.26 diff -u -r1.26 Makefile --- Makefile 1996/11/19 13:14:40 1.26 +++ Makefile 1997/05/20 10:25:09 1.28 @@ -20,5 +20,8 @@ post-install: .for file in emacs-19.34 emacsclient etags ctags b2m strip ${PREFIX}/bin/${file} .endfor +.for info in emacs vip viper forms gnus mh-e cl sc dired-x ediff ccmode + install-info ${PREFIX}/info/${info} ${PREFIX}/info/dir +.endfor .include <bsd.port.mk> Edit PLIST and add equivalent @exec statements and also @unexec for pkg_delete. Index: pkg/PLIST =================================================================== RCS file: /usr/cvs/ports/editors/emacs/pkg/PLIST,v retrieving revision 1.15 diff -u -r1.15 PLIST --- PLIST 1997/03/04 08:04:00 1.15 +++ PLIST 1997/05/20 10:25:12 1.17 @@ -16,7 +14,14 @@ man/man1/etags.1.gz man/man1/ctags.1.gz +@unexec install-info --delete %D/info/emacs %D/info/dir : +@unexec install-info --delete %D/info/ccmode %D/info/dir info/cl info/cl-1 @@ -87,6 +94,18 @@ info/viper-3 info/viper-4 +@exec install-info %D/info/emacs %D/info/dir : +@exec install-info %D/info/ccmode %D/info/dir libexec/emacs/19.34/i386--freebsd/cvtmail libexec/emacs/19.34/i386--freebsd/digest-doc The @unexec install-info --delete commands have to be listed before the info files themselves so they can read the files. Also, the @exec install-info commands have to be after the info files and the @exec command that creates the the dir file. Test and admire your work. :-). Check the dir file before and after each step. The <filename>pkg/</filename> subdirectory There are some tricks we have not mentioned yet about the pkg/ subdirectory that come in handy sometimes. <filename>MESSAGE</filename> If you need to display a message to the installer, you may place the message in pkg/MESSAGE. This capability is often useful to display additional installation steps to be taken after a pkg_add or to display licensing information. The pkg/MESSAGE file does not need to be added to pkg/PLIST. Also, it will not get automatically printed if the user is using the port, not the package, so you should probably display it from the post-install target yourself. <filename>INSTALL</filename> If your port needs to execute commands when the binary package is installed with pkg_add you can do this via the pkg/INSTALL script. This script will automatically be added to the package, and will be run twice by pkg_add. The first time will as INSTALL ${PKGNAME} PRE-INSTALL and the second time as INSTALL ${PKGNAME} POST-INSTALL. $2 can be tested to determine which mode the script is being run in. The PKG_PREFIX environmental variable will be set to the package installation directory. See &man.pkg.add.1; for additional information. This script is not run automatically if you install the port with make install. If you are depending on it being run, you will have to explicitly call it from your port's Makefile. <filename>REQ</filename> If your port needs to determine if it should install or not, you - can create a pkg/REQ “requirements” + can create a pkg/REQ requirements script. It will be invoked automatically at installation/deinstallation time to determine whether or not installation/deinstallation should proceed. Changing <filename>PLIST</filename> based on make variables Some ports, particularly the p5- ports, need to change their PLIST depending on what options they are configured with (or version of perl, in the case of p5- ports). To make this easy, any instances in the PLIST of %%OSREL%%, %%PERL_VER%%, and %%PERL_VERSION%% will be substituted for appropriately. The value of %%OSREL%% is the numeric revision of the operating system (e.g., 2.2.7). %%PERL_VERSION%% is the full version number of perl (e.g., 5.00502) and %%PERL_VER%% is the perl version number minus the patchlevel (e.g., 5.005). If you need to make other substitutions, you can set the PLIST_SUB variable with a list of VAR=VALUE pairs and instances of %%VAR%%' will be substituted with VALUE in the PLIST. For instance, if you have a port that installs many files in a version-specific subdirectory, you can put something like OCTAVE_VERSION= 2.0.13 PLIST_SUB= OCTAVE_VERSION=${OCTAVE_VERSION} in the Makefile and use %%OCTAVE_VERSION%% wherever the version shows up in PLIST. That way, when you upgrade the port, you will not have to change dozens (or in some cases, hundreds) of lines in the PLIST. This substitution (as well as addition of any man pages) will be done between the do-install and post-install targets, by reading from PLIST and writing to TMPPLIST (default: WRKDIR/.PLIST.mktmp). So if your port builds PLIST on the fly, do so in or before do-install. Also, if your port needs to edit the resulting file, do so in post-install to a file named TMPPLIST. Changing the names of files in the <filename>pkg</filename> subdirectory All the filenames in the pkg subdirectory are defined using variables so you can change them in your Makefile if need be. This is especially useful when you are sharing the same pkg subdirectory among several ports or have to write to one of the above files (see writing to places other than WRKDIR for why it is a bad idea to write directly in to the pkg subdirectory). Here is a list of variable names and their default values. Variable Default value COMMENT ${PKGDIR}/DESCR DESCR ${PKGDIR}/DESCR PLIST ${PKGDIR}/PLIST PKGINSTALL ${PKGDIR}/INSTALL PKGDEINSTALL ${PKGDIR}/DEINSTALL PKGREQ ${PKGDIR}/REQ PKGMESSAGE ${PKGDIR}/MESSAGE Please change these variables rather than overriding PKG_ARGS. If you change PKG_ARGS, those files will not correctly be installed in /var/db/pkg upon install from a port. Licensing Problems Some software packages have restrictive licenses or can be in violation to the law (PKP's patent on public key crypto, ITAR (export of crypto software) to name just two of them). What we can do with them varies a lot, depending on the exact wordings of the respective licenses. It is your responsibility as a porter to read the licensing terms of the software and make sure that the FreeBSD project will not be held accountable of violating them by redistributing the source or compiled binaries either via ftp or CD-ROM. If in doubt, please contact the &a.ports;. There are two variables you can set in the Makefile to handle the situations that arise frequently: - If the port has a “do not sell for profit” type of + If the port has a do not sell for profit type of license, set the variable NO_CDROM to a string describing the reason why. We will make sure such ports will not go into the CD-ROM come release time. The distfile and package will still be available via ftp. If the resulting package needs to be built uniquely for each site, or the resulting binary package cannot be distributed due to licensing; set the variable NO_PACKAGE to a string describing the reason why. We will make sure such packages will not go on the ftp site, nor into the CD-ROM come release time. The distfile will still be included on both however. If the port has legal restrictions on who can use it (e.g., - crypto stuff) or has a “no commercial use” license, + crypto stuff) or has a no commercial use license, set the variable RESTRICTED to be the string describing the reason why. For such ports, the distfiles/packages will not be available even from our ftp sites. The GNU General Public License (GPL), both version 1 and 2, should not be a problem for ports. If you are a committer, make sure you update the ports/LEGAL file too. Upgrading When you notice that a port is out of date compared to the latest version from the original authors, first make sure you have the latest port. You can find them in the ports/ports-current directory of the ftp mirror sites. You may also use CVSup to keep your whole ports collection up-to-date, as described in . The next step is to send a mail to the maintainer, if one is listed in the port's Makefile. That person may already be working on an upgrade, or have a reason to not upgrade the port right now (because of, for example, stability problems of the new version). If the maintainer asks you to do the upgrade or there is not any such person to begin with, please make the upgrade and send the recursive diff (either unified or context diff is fine, but port committers appear to prefer unified diff more) of the new and old ports directories to us (e.g., if your modified port directory is called superedit and the original as in our tree is superedit.bak, then send us the result of diff -ruN superedit.bak superedit). Please examine the output to make sure all the changes make sense. The best way to send us the diff is by including it to &man.send-pr.1; (category ports). Please mention any added or deleted files in the message, as they have to be explicitly specified to CVS when doing a commit. If the diff is more than about 20KB, please compress and uuencode it; otherwise, just include it in as is in the PR. Once again, please use &man.diff.1; and not &man.shar.1; to send updates to existing ports! <anchor id="porting-dads">Dos and Don'ts Here is a list of common dos and don'ts that you encounter during the porting process.You should check your own port against this list, but you can also check ports in the PR database that others have submitted. Submit any comments on ports you check as described in Bug Reports and General Commentary. Checking ports in the PR database will both make it faster for us to commit them, and prove that you know what you are doing. Strip Binaries Do strip binaries. If the original source already strips the binaries, fine; otherwise you should add a post-install rule to to it yourself. Here is an example; post-install: strip ${PREFIX}/bin/xdl Use the &man.file.1; command on the installed executable to check whether the binary is stripped or not. If it does not say not stripped, it is stripped. INSTALL_* macros Do use the macros provided in bsd.port.mk to ensure correct modes and ownership of files in your own *-install targets. They are: INSTALL_PROGRAM is a command to install binary executables. INSTALL_SCRIPT is a command to install executable scripts. INSTALL_DATA is a command to install sharable data. INSTALL_MAN is a command to install manpages and other documentation (it does not compress anything). These are basically the install command with all the appropriate flags. See below for an example on how to use them. <makevar>WRKDIR</makevar> Do not write anything to files outside WRKDIR. WRKDIR is the only place that is guaranteed to be writable during the port build (see compiling ports from CDROM for an example of building ports from a read-only tree). If you need to modify some file in PKGDIR, do so by redefining a variable, not by writing over it. <makevar>WRKDIRPREFIX</makevar> Make sure your port honors WRKDIRPREFIX. Most ports do not have to worry about this. In particular, if you are referring to a WRKDIR of another port, note that the correct location is WRKDIRPREFIXPORTSDIR/subdir/name/work not PORTSDIR/subdir/name/work or .CURDIR/../../subdir/name/work or some such. Also, if you are defining WRKDIR yourself, make sure you prepend ${WRKDIRPREFIX}${.CURDIR} in the front. Differentiating operating systems and OS versions You may come across code that needs modifications or conditional compilation based upon what version of UNIX it is running under. If you need to make such changes to the code for conditional compilation, make sure you make the changes as general as possible so that we can back-port code to FreeBSD 1.x systems and cross-port to other BSD systems such as 4.4BSD from CSRG, BSD/386, 386BSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. The preferred way to tell 4.3BSD/Reno (1990) and newer versions of the BSD code apart is by using the BSD macro defined in <sys/param.h>. Hopefully that file is already included; if not, add the code: #if (defined(__unix__) || defined(unix)) && !defined(USG) #include <sys/param.h> #endif to the proper place in the .c file. We believe that every system that defines these two symbols has sys/param.h. If you find a system that does not, we would like to know. Please send mail to the &a.ports;. Another way is to use the GNU Autoconf style of doing this: #ifdef HAVE_SYS_PARAM_H #include <sys/param.h> #endif Do not forget to add -DHAVE_SYS_PARAM_H to the CFLAGS in the Makefile for this method. Once you have sys/param.h included, you may use: #if (defined(BSD) && (BSD >= 199103)) to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.3 Net2 code base or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 1.x, 4.3/Reno, NetBSD 0.9, 386BSD, BSD/386 1.1 and below). Use: #if (defined(BSD) && (BSD >= 199306)) to detect if the code is being compiled on a 4.4 code base or newer (e.g. FreeBSD 2.x, 4.4, NetBSD 1.0, BSD/386 2.0 or above). The value of the BSD macro is 199506 for the 4.4BSD-Lite2 code base. This is stated for informational purposes only. It should not be used to distinguish between versions of FreeBSD based only on 4.4-Lite vs. versions that have merged in changes from 4.4-Lite2. The __FreeBSD__ macro should be used instead. Use sparingly: __FreeBSD__ is defined in all versions of FreeBSD. Use it if the change you are making only affects FreeBSD. Porting gotchas like the use of sys_errlist[] vs strerror() are Berkeleyisms, not FreeBSD changes. In FreeBSD 2.x, __FreeBSD__ is defined to be 2. In earlier versions, it is 1. Later versions will bump it to match their major version number. If you need to tell the difference between a FreeBSD 1.x system and a FreeBSD 2.x or 3.x system, usually the right answer is to use the BSD macros described above. If there actually is a FreeBSD specific change (such as special shared library options when using ld) then it is OK to use __FreeBSD__ and #if __FreeBSD__ > 1 to detect a FreeBSD 2.x and later system. If you need more granularity in detecting FreeBSD systems since 2.0-RELEASE you can use the following: #if __FreeBSD__ >= 2 #include <osreldate.h> # if __FreeBSD_version >= 199504 /* 2.0.5+ release specific code here */ # endif #endif Release __FreeBSD_version 2.0-RELEASE 119411 2.1-CURRENT 199501, 199503 2.0.5-RELEASE 199504 2.2-CURRENT before 2.1 199508 2.1.0-RELEASE 199511 2.2-CURRENT before 2.1.5 199512 2.1.5-RELEASE 199607 2.2-CURRENT before 2.1.6 199608 2.1.6-RELEASE 199612 2.1.7-RELEASE 199612 2.2-RELEASE 220000 2.2.1-RELEASE 220000 (no change) 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.1-RELEASE 220000 (no change) 2.2-STABLE after texinfo-3.9 221001 2.2-STABLE after top 221002 2.2.2-RELEASE 222000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.2-RELEASE 222001 2.2.5-RELEASE 225000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.5-RELEASE 225001 2.2-STABLE after ldconfig -R merge 225002 2.2.6-RELEASE 226000 2.2.7-RELEASE 227000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.7-RELEASE 227001 2.2-STABLE after semctl(2) change 227002 2.2.8-RELEASE 228000 2.2-STABLE after 2.2.8-RELEASE 228001 3.0-CURRENT before mount(2) change 300000 3.0-CURRENT after mount(2) change 300001 3.0-CURRENT after semctl(2) change 300002 3.0-CURRENT after ioctl arg changes 300003 3.0-CURRENT after ELF conversion 300004 3.0-RELEASE 300005 3.0-CURRENT after 3.0-RELEASE 300006 3.0-STABLE after 3/4 branch 300007 3.1-RELEASE 310000 3.1-STABLE after 3.1-RELEASE 310001 3.1-STABLE after C++ constructor/destructor order change 310002 3.2-RELEASE 320000 3.2-STABLE 320001 3.2-STABLE after binary-incompatible IPFW and socket changes 320002 3.3-RELEASE 330000 3.3-STABLE 330001 3.3-STABLE after adding mkstemps() to libc 330002 3.4-RELEASE 340000 3.4-STABLE 340001 4.0-CURRENT after 3.4 branch 400000 4.0-CURRENT after change in dynamic linker handling 400001 4.0-CURRENT after C++ constructor/destructor order change 400002 4.0-CURRENT after functioning dladdr(3) 400003 4.0-CURRENT after __deregister_frame_info dynamic linker bug fix (also 4.0-CURRENT after EGCS 1.1.2 integration) 400004 4.0-CURRENT after suser(9) API change (also 4.0-CURRENT after newbus) 400005 4.0-CURRENT after cdevsw registration change 400006 4.0-CURRENT after the addition of so_cred for socket level credentials 400007 4.0-CURRENT after the addition of a poll syscall wrapper to libc_r 400008 4.0-CURRENT after the change of the kernel's dev_t type to struct specinfo pointer 400009 4.0-CURRENT after fixing a hole in jail(2) 400010 4.0-CURRENT after the sigset_t datatype change 400011 4.0-CURRENT after the cutover to the GCC 2.95.2 compiler 400012 4.0-CURRENT after adding pluggable linux-mode ioctl handlers 400013 4.0-CURRENT after importing OpenSSL 400014 4.0-CURRENT after the C++ ABI change in GCC 2.95.2 from -fvtable-thunks to -fno-vtable-thunks by default 400015 4.0-CURRENT after importing OpenSSH 400016 4.0-RELEASE 400017 4.0-STABLE after 4.0-RELEASE 400018 4.0-STABLE after merging libxpg4 code into libc. 400020 5.0-CURRENT 500000 5.0-CURRENT after adding addition ELF header fields, and changing our ELF binary branding method. 500001 5.0-CURRENT after kld metadata changes. 500002 5.0-CURRENT after buf/bio changes. 500003 5.0-CURRENT after binutils upgrade. 500004 5.0-CURRENT after merging libxpg4 code into libc. 500005 Note that 2.2-STABLE sometimes identifies itself as - “2.2.5-STABLE” after the 2.2.5-RELEASE. The pattern + 2.2.5-STABLE after the 2.2.5-RELEASE. The pattern used to be year followed by the month, but we decided to change it to a more straightforward major/minor system starting from 2.2. This is because the parallel development on several branches made it infeasible to classify the releases simply by their real release dates. If you are making a port now, you do not have to worry about old -CURRENTs; they are listed here just for your reference. In the hundreds of ports that have been done, there have only been one or two cases where __FreeBSD__ should have been used. Just because an earlier port screwed up and used it in the wrong place does not mean you should do so too. Writing something after <filename>bsd.port.mk</filename> Do not write anything after the .include <bsd.port.mk> line. It usually can be avoided by including bsd.port.pre.mk somewhere in the middle of your Makefile and bsd.port.post.mk at the end. You need to include either the pre.mk/post.mk pair or bsd.port.mk only; do not mix these two. bsd.port.pre.mk only defines a few variables, which can be used in tests in the Makefile, bsd.port.post.mk defines the rest. Here are some important variables defined in bsd.port.pre.mk (this is not the complete list, please read bsd.port.mk for the complete list). Variable Description ARCH The architecture as returned by uname -m (e.g., i386) OPSYS The operating system type, as returned by uname -s (e.g., FreeBSD) OSREL The release version of the operating system (e.g., 2.1.5 or 2.2.7) OSVERSION The numeric version of the operating system, same as __FreeBSD_version. PORTOBJFORMAT The object format of the system (aout or elf) LOCALBASE - The base of the “local” tree (e.g., + The base of the local tree (e.g., /usr/local/) X11BASE - The base of the “X11” tree (e.g., + The base of the X11 tree (e.g., /usr/X11R6) PREFIX Where the port installs itself (see more on PREFIX). If you have to define the variables USE_IMAKE, USE_X_PREFIX, or MASTERDIR, do so before including bsd.port.pre.mk. Here are some examples of things you can write after bsd.port.pre.mk: # no need to compile lang/perl5 if perl5 is already in system .if ${OSVERSION} > 300003 BROKEN= perl is in system .endif # only one shlib version number for ELF .if ${PORTOBJFORMAT} == "elf" TCL_LIB_FILE= ${TCL_LIB}.${SHLIB_MAJOR} .else TCL_LIB_FILE= ${TCL_LIB}.${SHLIB_MAJOR}.${SHLIB_MINOR} .endif # software already makes link for ELF, but not for a.out post-install: .if ${PORTOBJFORMAT} == "aout" ${LN} -sf liblinpack.so.1.0 ${PREFIX}/lib/liblinpack.so .endif Install additional documentation If your software has some documentation other than the standard man and info pages that you think is useful for the user, install it under PREFIX/share/doc. This can be done, like the previous item, in the post-install target. Create a new directory for your port. The directory name should reflect what the port is. This usually means PORTNAME. However, if you think the user might want different versions of the port to be installed at the same time, you can use the whole PKGNAME. Make the installation dependent to the variable NOPORTDOCS so that users can disable it in /etc/make.conf, like this: post-install: .if !defined(NOPORTDOCS) ${MKDIR} ${PREFIX}/share/doc/xv ${INSTALL_MAN} ${WRKSRC}/docs/xvdocs.ps ${PREFIX}/share/doc/xv .endif Do not forget to add them to pkg/PLIST too! (Do not worry about NOPORTDOCS here; there is currently no way for the packages to read variables from /etc/make.conf.) Also you can use the pkg/MESSAGE file to display messages upon installation. See the using pkg/MESSAGE section for details. MESSAGE does not need to be added to pkg/PLIST). <makevar>DIST_SUBDIR</makevar> Do not let your port clutter /usr/ports/distfiles. If your port requires a lot of files to be fetched, or contains a file that has a name that might conflict with other ports (e.g., Makefile), set DIST_SUBDIR to the name of the port (${PORTNAME} or ${PKGNAMEPREFIX}${PORTNAME} should work fine). This will change DISTDIR from the default /usr/ports/distfiles to /usr/ports/distfiles/DIST_SUBDIR, and in effect puts everything that is required for your port into that subdirectory. It will also look at the subdirectory with the same name on the backup master site at ftp.FreeBSD.org. (Setting DISTDIR explicitly in your Makefile will not accomplish this, so please use DIST_SUBDIR.) This does not affect the MASTER_SITES you define in your Makefile. Package information Do include package information, i.e. COMMENT, DESCR, and PLIST, in pkg. Note that these files are not used only for packaging anymore, and are mandatory now, even if NO_PACKAGE is set. RCS strings Do not put RCS strings in patches. CVS will mangle them when we put the files into the ports tree, and when we check them out again, they will come out different and the patch will fail. RCS strings are surrounded by dollar ($) signs, and typically start with $Id or $RCS. Recursive diff Using the recurse () option to diff to generate patches is fine, but please take a look at the resulting patches to make sure you do not have any unnecessary junk in there. In particular, diffs between two backup files, Makefiles when the port uses Imake or GNU configure, etc., are unnecessary and should be deleted. If you had to edit configure.in and run autoconf to regenerate configure, do not take the diffs of configure (it often grows to a few thousand lines!); define USE_AUTOCONF=yes and take the diffs of configure.in. Also, if you had to delete a file, then you can do it in the post-extract target rather than as part of the patch. Once you are happy with the resulting diff, please split it up into one source file per patch file. <makevar>PREFIX</makevar> Do try to make your port install relative to PREFIX. (The value of this variable will be set to LOCALBASE (default /usr/local), unless USE_X_PREFIX or USE_IMAKE is set, in which case it will be X11BASE (default /usr/X11R6).) Not hard-coding /usr/local or /usr/X11R6 anywhere in the source will make the port much more flexible and able to cater to the needs of other sites. For X ports that use imake, this is automatic; otherwise, this can often be done by simply replacing the occurrences of /usr/local (or /usr/X11R6 for X ports that do not use imake) in the various scripts/Makefiles in the port to read PREFIX, as this variable is automatically passed down to every stage of the build and install processes. Do not set USE_X_PREFIX unless your port truly require it (i.e., it links against X libs or it needs to reference files in X11BASE). The variable PREFIX can be reassigned in your Makefile or in the user's environment. However, it is strongly discouraged for individual ports to set this variable explicitly in the Makefiles. Also, refer to programs/files from other ports with the variables mentioned above, not explicit pathnames. For instance, if your port requires a macro PAGER to be the full pathname of less, use the compiler flag: -DPAGER=\"${PREFIX}/bin/less\" or -DPAGER=\"${LOCALBASE}/bin/less\" if this is an X port, instead of -DPAGER=\"/usr/local/bin/less\". This way it will have a better chance of working if the system administrator has moved the whole `/usr/local' tree somewhere else. Subdirectories Try to let the port put things in the right subdirectories of PREFIX. Some ports lump everything and put it in the subdirectory with the port's name, which is incorrect. Also, many ports put everything except binaries, header files and manual pages in the a subdirectory of lib, which does not bode well with the BSD paradigm. Many of the files should be moved to one of the following: etc (setup/configuration files), libexec (executables started internally), sbin (executables for superusers/managers), info (documentation for info browser) or share (architecture independent files). See man &man.hier.7; for details, the rules governing /usr pretty much apply to /usr/local too. The exception are ports - dealing with USENET “news”. They may use + dealing with USENET news. They may use PREFIX/news as a destination for their files. Cleaning up empty directories Do make your ports clean up after themselves when they are deinstalled. This is usually accomplished by adding @dirrm lines for all directories that are specifically created by the port. You need to delete subdirectories before you can delete parent directories. : lib/X11/oneko/pixmaps/cat.xpm lib/X11/oneko/sounds/cat.au : @dirrm lib/X11/oneko/pixmaps @dirrm lib/X11/oneko/sounds @dirrm lib/X11/oneko However, sometimes @dirrm will give you errors because other ports also share the same subdirectory. You can call rmdir from @unexec to remove only empty directories without warning. @unexec rmdir %D/share/doc/gimp 2>/dev/null || true This will neither print any error messages nor cause pkg_delete to exit abnormally even if PREFIX/share/doc/gimp is not empty due to other ports installing some files in there. UIDs If your port requires a certain user to be on the installed system, let the pkg/INSTALL script call pw to create it automatically. Look at net/cvsup-mirror for an example. If your port must use the same user/group ID number when it is installed a binary package as when it was compiled, then you must choose a free UID from 50 to 99 and register it below. Look at japanese/Wnn for an example. Make sure you do not use a UID already used by the system or other ports. This is the current list of UIDs between 50 and 99. majordom:*:54:54:Majordomo Pseudo User:/usr/local/majordomo:/nonexistent cyrus:*:60:60:the cyrus mail server:/nonexistent:/nonexistent gnats:*:61:1:GNATS database owner:/usr/local/share/gnats/gnats-db:/bin/sh uucp:*:66:66:UUCP pseudo-user:/var/spool/uucppublic:/usr/libexec/uucp/uucico xten:*:67:67:X-10 daemon:/usr/local/xten:/nonexistent pop:*:68:6:Post Office Owner (popper):/nonexistent:/nonexistent wnn:*:69:7:Wnn:/nonexistent:/nonexistent ifmail:*:70:66:Ifmail user:/nonexistent:/nonexistent pgsql:*:70:70:PostgreSQL pseudo-user:/usr/local/pgsql:/bin/sh ircd:*:72:72:IRCd hybrid:/nonexistent:/nonexistent alias:*:81:81:QMail user:/var/qmail/alias:/nonexistent qmaill:*:83:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmaild:*:82:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailq:*:85:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmails:*:87:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailp:*:84:81:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent qmailr:*:86:82:QMail user:/var/qmail:/nonexistent msql:*:87:87:mSQL-2 pseudo-user:/var/db/msqldb:/bin/sh mysql:*:88:88:MySQL Daemon:/var/db/mysql:/sbin/nologin Please include a notice when you submit a port (or an upgrade) that reserves a new UID or GID in this range. This allows us to keep the list of reserved IDs up to date. Do things rationally The Makefile should do things simply and reasonably. If you can make it a couple of lines shorter or more readable, then do so. Examples include using a make .if construct instead of a shell if construct, not redefining do-extract if you can redefine EXTRACT* instead, and using GNU_CONFIGURE instead of CONFIGURE_ARGS += --prefix=${PREFIX}. Respect <makevar>CFLAGS</makevar> The port should respect the CFLAGS variable. If it does not, please add NO_PACKAGE=ignores cflags to the Makefile. Configuration files If your port requires some configuration files in PREFIX/etc, do not just install them and list them in pkg/PLIST. That will cause pkg_delete to delete files carefully edited by the user and a new installation to wipe them out. Instead, install sample files with a suffix (filename.sample will work well) and print out a message pointing out that the user has to copy and edit the file before the software can be made to work. Portlint Do check your work with portlint before you submit or commit it. Feedback Do send applicable changes/patches to the original author/maintainer for inclusion in next release of the code. This will only make your job that much easier for the next release. Miscellanea The files pkg/DESCR, pkg/COMMENT, and pkg/PLIST should each be double-checked. If you are reviewing a port and feel they can be worded better, do so. Do not copy more copies of the GNU General Public License into our system, please. Please be careful to note any legal issues! Do not let us illegally distribute software! If you are stuck… Do look at existing examples and the bsd.port.mk file before asking us questions! ;-) Do ask us questions if you have any trouble! Do not just beat your head against a wall! :-) A Sample <filename>Makefile</filename> Here is a sample Makefile that you can use to create a new port. Make sure you remove all the extra comments (ones between brackets)! It is recommended that you follow this format (ordering of variables, empty lines between sections, etc.). This format is designed so that the most important information is easy to locate. We recommend that you use portlint to check the Makefile. [the header...just to make it easier for us to identify the ports.] # New ports collection makefile for: xdvi [the "version required" line is only needed when the PORTVERSION variable is not specific enough to describe the port.] # Version required: pl18 + japanization patches 18.1 and 18.2 [this is the date when the first version of this Makefile was created. Never change this when doing an update of the port.] # Date created: 26 May 1995 [this is the person who did the original port to FreeBSD, in particular, the person who wrote the first version of this Makefile. Remember, this should not be changed when upgrading the port later.] # Whom: Satoshi Asami <asami@FreeBSD.org> # # $FreeBSD$ [ ^^^^^^^^^ This will be automatically replaced with RCS ID string by CVS when it is committed to our repository. If upgrading a port, do not alter this line back to "$FreeBSD$". CVS deals with it automatically.] # [section to describe the port itself and the master site - PORTNAME and PORTVERSION are always first, followed by CATEGORIES, and then MASTER_SITES, which can be followed by MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR. PKGNAMEPREFIX and PKGNAMESUFFIX, if needed, will be after that. Then comes DISTNAME, EXTRACT_SUFX and/or DISTFILES, and then EXTRACT_ONLY, as necessary.] PORTNAME= xdvi PORTVERSION= 18.2 CATEGORIES= print [do not forget the trailing slash ("/")! if you are not using MASTER_SITE_* macros] MASTER_SITES= ${MASTER_SITE_XCONTRIB} MASTER_SITE_SUBDIR= applications PKGNAMEPREFIX= ja- DISTNAME= xdvi-pl18 [set this if the source is not in the standard ".tar.gz" form] EXTRACT_SUFX= .tar.Z [section for distributed patches -- can be empty] PATCH_SITES= ftp://ftp.sra.co.jp/pub/X11/japanese/ PATCHFILES= xdvi-18.patch1.gz xdvi-18.patch2.gz [maintainer; *mandatory*! This is the person (preferably with commit privileges) whom a user can contact for questions and bug reports - this person should be the porter or someone who can forward questions to the original porter reasonably promptly. If you really do not want to have your address here, set it to "ports@FreeBSD.org".] MAINTAINER= asami@FreeBSD.org [dependencies -- can be empty] RUN_DEPENDS= gs:${PORTSDIR}/print/ghostscript LIB_DEPENDS= Xpm.5:${PORTSDIR}/graphics/xpm [this section is for other standard bsd.port.mk variables that do not belong to any of the above] [If it asks questions during configure, build, install...] IS_INTERACTIVE= yes [If it extracts to a directory other than ${DISTNAME}...] WRKSRC= ${WRKDIR}/xdvi-new [If the distributed patches were not made relative to ${WRKSRC}, you may need to tweak this] PATCH_DIST_STRIP= -p1 [If it requires a "configure" script generated by GNU autoconf to be run] GNU_CONFIGURE= yes [If it requires GNU make, not /usr/bin/make, to build...] USE_GMAKE= yes [If it is an X application and requires "xmkmf -a" to be run...] USE_IMAKE= yes [et cetera.] [non-standard variables to be used in the rules below] MY_FAVORITE_RESPONSE= "yeah, right" [then the special rules, in the order they are called] pre-fetch: i go fetch something, yeah post-patch: i need to do something after patch, great pre-install: and then some more stuff before installing, wow [and then the epilogue] .include <bsd.port.mk> Automated package list creation First, make sure your port is almost complete, with only PLIST missing. Create an empty PLIST. &prompt.root; touch PLIST Next, create a new set of directories which your port can be installed, and install any dependencies. &prompt.root; mtree -U -f /etc/mtree/BSD.local.dist -d -e -p /var/tmp/port-name &prompt.root; make depends PREFIX=/var/tmp/port-name Store the directory structure in a new file. &prompt.root; (cd /var/tmp/port-name && find * -type d) > OLD-DIRS If your port honors PREFIX (which it should) you can then install the port and create the package list. &prompt.root; make install PREFIX=/var/tmp/port-name &prompt.root; (cd /var/tmp/port-name && find * \! -type d) > pkg/PLIST You must also add any newly created directories to the packing list. &prompt.root; (cd /var/tmp/port-name && find * -type d) | comm -13 OLD-DIRS - | sed -e 's#^#@dirrm #' >> pkg/PLIST Finally, you need to tidy up the packing list by hand. I lied when I said this was all automated. Manual pages should be listed in the port's Makefile under MANn, and not in the package list. User configuration files should be removed, or installed as filename.sample. The info/dir file should not be listed and appropriate install-info lines should be added as noted in the info files section. Any libraries installed by the port should be listed as specified in the ldconfig section. Package Names The following are the conventions you should follow in naming your packages. This is to have our package directory easy to scan, as there are already lots and lots of packages and users are going to turn away if they hurt their eyes! The package name should look like language_region-name-compiled.specifics-version.numbers. The package name is defined as ${PKGNAMEPREFIX}${PORTNAME}${PKGNAMESUFFIX}-${PORTVERSION}. Make sure to set the variables to conform to that format. FreeBSD strives to support the native language of its users. The language- part should be a two letter abbreviation of the natural language defined by ISO-639 if the port is specific to a certain language. Examples are ja for Japanese, ru for Russian, vi for Vietnamese, zh for Chinese, ko for Korean and de for German. If the port is specific to a certain region within the language area, add the two letter country code as well. Examples are en_US for US English and fr_CH for Swiss French. The language- part should be set in the PKGNAMEPREFIX variable. The name part should be all lowercase, except for a really large package (with lots of programs in it). Things like XFree86 (yes there really is a port of it, check it out) and ImageMagick fall into this category. Otherwise, convert the name (or at least the first letter) to lowercase. If the capital letters are important to the name (for example, with one-letter names like R or V) you may use capital letters at your discretion. There is a tradition of naming Perl 5 modules by prepending p5- and converting the double-colon separator to a hyphen; for example, the Data::Dumper module becomes p5-Data-Dumper. If the software in question has numbers, hyphens, or underscores in its name, you may include them as well (like kinput2). If the port can be built with different hardcoded defaults (usually part of the directory name in a family of ports), the -compiled.specifics part should state the compiled-in defaults (the hyphen is optional). Examples are papersize and font units. The compiled.specifics part should be set in the PKGNAMESUFFIX variable. The version string should follow a dash (-) and be a period-separated list of integers and single lowercase alphabetics. In particular, it is not pormissible to have another dash inside the version string. The only exception is the string pl (meaning `patchlevel'), which can be used only when there are no major and minor version numbers in the software. If the software version has strings like "alpha", "beta", or "pre", take the first letter and put it immediately after a period. If the version string continues after those names, the numbers should follow the single alphabet without an extra period between them. The idea is to make it easier to sort ports by looking at the version string. In particular, make sure version number components are always delimited by a period, and if the date is part of the string, use the yyyy.mm.dd format, not dd.mm.yyyy or the non-Y2K compliant yy.mm.dd format. Here are some (real) examples on how to convert the name as called by the software authors to a suitable package name: Distribution Name PKGNAMEPREFIX PORTNAME PKGNAMESUFFIX PORTVERSION Reason mule-2.2.2 mule 2.2.2 No changes required XFree86-3.3.6 XFree86 3.3.6 No changes required EmiClock-1.0.2 (empty) emiclock (empty) 1.0.2 No uppercase names for single programs rdist-1.3alpha (empty) rdist (empty) 1.3.a No strings like alpha allowed es-0.9-beta1 (empty) es-0.9 (empty) b1 No strings like beta allowed v3.3beta021.src (empty) tiff (empty) 3.3 What the heck was that anyway? tvtwm (empty) tvtwm (empty) pl11 Version string always required piewm (empty) piewm (empty) 1.0 Version string always required xvgr-2.10pl1 (empty) xvgr (empty) 2.10.1 pl allowed only when no major/minor version numbers gawk-2.15.6 ja- gawk (empty) 2.15.6 Japanese language version psutils-1.13 (empty) psutils -letter 1.13 Papersize hardcoded at package build time pkfonts (empty) pkfonts 300 1.0 Package for 300dpi fonts If there is absolutely no trace of version information in the original source and it is unlikely that the original author will ever release another version, just set the version string to 1.0 (like the piewm example above). Otherwise, ask the original author or use the date string (yyyy.mm.dd) as the version. Categories As you already know, ports are classified in several categories. But for this to work, it is important that porters and users understand what each category and how we decide what to put in each category. Current list of categories First, this is the current list of port categories. Those marked with an asterisk (*) are virtual categories—those that do not have a corresponding subdirectory in the ports tree. For non-virtual categories, you will find a one-line description in the pkg/COMMENT file in that subdirectory (e.g., archivers/pkg/COMMENT). Category Description afterstep* Ports to support the AfterStep window manager. archivers Archiving tools. astro Astronomical ports. audio Sound support. benchmarks Benchmarking utilities. biology Biology-related software. cad Computer aided design tools. chinese Chinese language support. comms Communication software. Mostly software to talk to your serial port. converters Character code converters. databases Databases. deskutils Things that used to be on the desktop before computers were invented. devel Development utilities. Do not put libraries here just because they are libraries—unless they truly do not belong anywhere else, they should not be in this category. editors General editors. Specialized editors go in the section for those tools (e.g., a mathematical-formula editor will go in math). elisp* Emacs-lisp ports. emulators Emulators for other operating systems. Terminal emulators do not belong here—X-based ones should go to x11 and text-based ones to either comms or misc, depending on the exact functionality. ftp FTP client and server utilities. If your port speaks both FTP and HTTP, put it in ftp with a secondary category of www. games Games. german German language support. gnome* Ports from the GNU Object Model Environment (GNOME) Project. graphics Graphics utilities. irc Internet Relay Chat utilities. ipv6* IPv6 related software. japanese Japanese language support. java Java language support. kde* Ports from the K Desktop Environment (KDE) Project. korean Korean language support. lang Programming languages. linux* Linux applications and support utilities. mail Mail software. math Numerical computation software and other utilities for mathematics. mbone MBone applications. misc Miscellaneous utilities—basically things that do not belong anywhere else. This is the only category that should not appear with any other non-virtual category. If you have misc with something else in your CATEGORIES line, that means you can safely delete misc and just put the port in that other subdirectory! net Miscellaneous networking software. news USENET news software. offix* Ports from the OffiX suite. palm Software support for the 3Com Palm(tm) series. perl5* Ports that require perl version 5 to run. plan9* Various programs from Plan9. print Printing software. Desktop publishing tools (previewers, etc.) belong here too. python* Software written in python. russian Russian language support. security Security utilities. shells Command line shells. sysutils System utilities. tcl76* Ports that use Tcl version 7.6 to run. tcl80* Ports that use Tcl version 8.0 to run. tcl81* Ports that use Tcl version 8.1 to run. tcl82* Ports that use Tcl version 8.2 to run. textproc Text processing utilities. It does not include desktop publishing tools, which go to print/. tk42* Ports that use Tk version 4.2 to run. tk80* Ports that use Tk version 8.0 to run. tk81* Ports that use Tk version 8.1 to run. tk82* Ports that use Tk version 8.2 to run. tkstep80* Ports that use TkSTEP version 8.0 to run. vietnamese Vietnamese language support. windowmaker* Ports to support the WindowMaker window manager www Software related to the World Wide Web. HTML language support belong here too. x11 The X window system and friends. This category is only for software that directly support the window system. Do not put regular X applications here. If your port is an X application, define USE_XLIB (implied by USE_IMAKE) and put it in appropriate categories. Also, many of them go into other x11-* categories (see below). x11-clocks X11 clocks. x11-fm X11 file managers. x11-fonts X11 fonts and font utilities. x11-servers X11 servers. x11-toolkits X11 toolkits. x11-wm X11 window managers. Choosing the right category As many of the categories overlap, you often have to choose which of the categories should be the primary category of your port. There are several rules that govern this issue. Here is the list of priorities, in decreasing order of precedence. Language specific categories always come first. For example, if your port installs Japanese X11 fonts, then your CATEGORIES line would read japanese x11-fonts. Specific categories win over less-specific ones. For instance, an HTML editor should be listed as www editors, not the other way around. Also, you do not need to list net when the port belongs to any of irc, mail, mbone, news, security, or www. x11 is used as a secondary category only when the primary category is a natural language. In particular, you should not put x11 in the category line for X applications. Emacs modes should be placed in the same ports category as the application supported by the mode, not in editors. For example, an Emacs mode to edit source files of some programming language should go into lang. If your port truly does not belong anywhere else, put it in misc. If you are not sure about the category, please put a comment to that effect in your send-pr submission so we can discuss it before we import it. If you are a committer, send a note &a.ports; so we can discuss it first—too often new ports are imported to a wrong category only to be moved right away. Changes to this document and the ports system If you maintain a lot of ports, you should consider following the &a.ports;. Important changes to the way ports work will be announced there. You can always find more detailed information on the latest changes by looking at the bsd.port.mk CVS log. That is It, Folks! Boy, this sure was a long tutorial, wasn't it? Thanks for following us to here, really. Now that you know how to do a port, have at it and convert everything in the world into ports! That is the easiest way to start contributing to the FreeBSD Project! :-) ]]> diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml index 85f0bda83e..487122c66c 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/ppp-and-slip/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2616 +1,2616 @@ PPP and SLIP Restructured, reorganized, and updated by &a.jim;, 1 March 2000. Synopsis If you are connecting to the Internet via modem, or wish to provide dialup connections to the Internet for others using FreeBSD, you have the option of using PPP or SLIP. This chapter covers three varieties of PPP; user, kernel, and PPPoE (PPP over Ethernet). It also covers setting up a SLIP client and server. The first variety of PPP that will be covered is User PPP. User PPP was introduced into FreeBSD in 2.0.5-RELEASE as an addition to the already existing kernel implementation of PPP. You may be wondering what the main difference is between User PPP and kernel PPP. The answer is simple; user PPP does not run as a daemon, and can run as and when desired. No PPP interface needs to be compiled into ther kernel; it runs as a user process, and uses the tunnel device driver (tun) to get data into and out of the kernel. From here on out in this chapter, user ppp will simply be referred to as ppp unless a distinction needs to be made between it and and any other PPP software such as pppd. Unless otherwise stated, all of the commands explained in this section should be executed as root. Using User PPP Originally contributed by &a.brian;, with input from &a.nik;, &a.dirkvangulik;, and &a.pjc;. User PPP Assumptions This document assumes you have the following: An account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which you connect to using PPP. Further, you have a modem or other device connected to your system and configured correctly, which allows you to connect to your ISP. The dialup number(s) of your ISP. Your login name and password. This can be either a regular unix style login and password pair, or a PAP or CHAP login and password pair. The IP address(es) of one or more name servers. Normally, you will be given two IP addresses by your ISP to use for this. If they have not given you at least one, then you can use the enable dns command in your ppp.conf file to tell ppp to set the name servers for you. The following information may be supplied by your ISP, but is not completely necessary: The IP address of your ISP's gateway. The gateway is the machine to which you will connect and will be set up as your default route. If you do not have this information, we can make one up and your ISP's PPP server will tell us the correct value when we connect. This IP number is referred to as HISADDR by ppp. The netmask you should use. If your ISP has not provided you with one, you can safely use 255.255.255.0. If your ISP provides you with a static IP address and hostname, you can enter it. Otherwise, we simply let the peer assign whatever IP address it sees fit. If you do not have any of the required information, contact your ISP and make sure they provide it to you. Preparing the Kernel As previously mentioned, ppp users the tun device. It is necessary to make sure that your kernel has support for this device compiled into it. To check, go to your kernel compile directory (/sys/i386/conf or /sys/pc98/conf) and examine your configuration file. It should have the following line somewhere in it: pseudo-device tun 1 If this line is not present, you will need to add it to the configuration file and recompile your kernel. The stock GENERIC kernel has this included, so if you have not installed a custom kernel or do not have a /sys directory, you do not have to change anything. If you do need to recompile your kernel, please refer to the kernel configuration section for more information. You can check how many tunnel devices your current kernel has by typing the following: &prompt.root; ifconfig -a tun0: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 200.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.24 netmask 0xffffffff tun1: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 576 tun2: flags=8051<UP,POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 inet 203.10.100.1 --> 203.10.100.20 netmask 0xffffffff tun3: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 This case shows four tunnel devices, two of which are currently configured and being used. It should be noted that the RUNNING flag above indicates that the interface has been used at some point—it is not an error if your interface does not show up as RUNNING. If for some reason you have a kernel that does not have the tun device in it and cannot recompile the kernel, all is not lost. You should be able to dynamically load the code. Please refer to the appropriate &man.modload.8; and &man.lkm.4; man pages for further details. Check the <devicename>tun</devicename> device Under normal circumstances, most users will only require one tun device (/dev/tun0). If you have specified more than one on the pseudo-device line for tun in your kernel configuration file, then alter all references to tun0 below to reflect whichever device number you are using (e.g., tun2). The easiest way to make sure that the tun0 device is configured correctly, is to remake the device. This process is quite easy. To remake the device, do the following: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun0 If you need 16 tunnel devices in your kernel, you will need to create them. This can be done by executing the following commands: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV tun15 To confirm that the kernel is configured correctly, issue the follow command and compare the results: &prompt.root; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8050<POINTOPOINT,RUNNING,MULTICAST> mut 1500 The RUNNING flag may not yet be set, in which case you will see: &prompt.root; ifconfig tun0 tun0: flags=8010<POINTOPOINT,MULTICAST> mtu 1500 Name Resolution Configuration The resolver is the part of the system that turns IP addresses into hostnames and vice versa. It can be configured to look for maps that describe IP to hostname mappings in one of two places. The first is a file called /etc/hosts. Read &man.hosts.5; for more information. The second is the Internet Domain Name Service (DNS), a distributed data base, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of this document. The resolver is a set of system calls that do the name mappings, but you have to tell them where to find their information. You do this by first editing the file /etc/host.conf. Do not call this file /etc/hosts.conf (note the extra s) as the results can be confusing. Edit <filename>/etc/host.conf</filename> This file should contain the following two lines (in this order): hosts bind These instruct the resolver to first look in the file /etc/hosts, and then to consult the DNS if the name was not found. Edit <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> This file should contain the IP addresses and names of machines on your network. At a bare minimum it should contain entries for the machine which will be running ppp. Assuming that your machine is called foo.bar.com with the IP address 10.0.0.1, /etc/hosts should contain: 127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com localhost 127.0.0.1 localhost.bar.com. 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com foo 10.0.0.1 foo.bar.com. The first two lines define the alias localhost as a synonym for the current machine. Regardless of your own IP address, the IP address for this line should always be 127.0.0.1. The second two lines map the name foo.bar.com (and the shorthand foo) to the IP address 10.0.0.1. If your provider allocates you a static IP address and name, use them in place of the 10.0.0.1 entry. Edit <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> The /etc/resolv.conf file tells the resolver how to behave. If you are running your own DNS, you may leave this file empty. Normally, you will need to enter the following line(s): domain bar.com nameserver x.x.x.x nameserver y.y.y.y The x.x.x.x and y.y.y.y addresses are those given to you by your ISP. Add as many nameserver lines as your ISP provides. The domain line defaults to your hostname's domain, and is probably unnecessary. Refer to the &man.resolv.conf.5; manual page for details of other possible entries in this file. If you are running PPP version 2 or greater, the enable dns command will tell PPP to request that your ISP confirms the nameserver values. If your ISP supplies different addresses (or if there are no nameserver lines in /etc/resolv.conf), PPP will rewrite the file with the ISP-supplied values. <application>PPP</application> Configuration Both ppp and pppd (the kernel level implementation of PPP) use the configuration files located in the /etc/ppp directory. The sample configuration files provided are a good reference, so do not delete them. Configuring ppp requires that you edit a number of files, depending on your requirements. What you put in them depends to some extent on whether your ISP allocates IP addresses statically (i.e., you get given one IP address, and always use that one) or dynamically (i.e., your IP address changes each time you connect to your ISP). PPP and Static IP Addresses You will need to create a configuration file called /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. It should look similar to the example below. Lines that end in a : start in the first column, all other lines should be indented as shown using spaces or tabs. 1 default: 2 set device /dev/cuaa0 3 set speed 115200 4 set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 5 \"\" ATE1Q0 OK-AT-OK \\dATDT\\TTIMEOUT 40 CONNECT" 5 provider: 6 set phone "(123) 456 7890" 7 set login "TIMEOUT 10 \"\" \"\" gin:--gin: foo word: bar col: ppp" 8 set timeout 300 9 set ifaddr x.x.x.x y.y.y.y 255.255.255.0 0.0.0.0 10 add default HISADDR 11 enable dns Do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Line 1: Identifies the default entry. Commands in this entry are executed automatically when ppp is run. Line 2: Identifies the device to which the modem is connected. COM1 is /dev/cuaa0 and COM2 is /dev/cuaa1. Line 3: Sets the speed you want to connect at. If 115200 does not work (it should with any reasonably new modem), try 38400 instead. Line 4: The dial string. User PPP uses an expect-send syntax similar to the &man.chat.8; program. Refer to the manual page for information on the features of this language. Line 5: Identifies an entry for a provider called - “provider”. + provider. Line 6: Sets the phone number for this provider. Multiple phone numbers may be specified using the colon (:) or pipe character (|)as a separator. The difference between the two separators is described in &man.ppp.8;. To summarize, if you want to rotate through the numbers, use a colon. If you want to always attempt to dial the first number first and only use the other numbers if the first number fails, use the pipe character. Always quote the entire set of phone numbers as shown. Line 7: The login string is of the same chat-like syntax as the dial string. In this example, the string works for a service whose login session looks like this: J. Random Provider login: foo password: bar protocol: ppp You will need to alter this script to suit your own needs. When you write this script for the first time, - you should enable “chat” logging to ensure + you should enable chat logging to ensure that the conversation is going as expected. If you are using PAP or CHAP, there will be no login at this point, so your login string can be left blank. See PAP and CHAP authentication for further details. Line 8: Sets the default timeout (in seconds) for the connection. Here, the connection will be closed automatically after 300 seconds of inactivity. If you never want to timeout, set this value to zero. Line 9: Sets the interface addresses. The string x.x.x.x should be replaced by the IP address that your provider has allocated to you. The string y.y.y.y should be replaced by the IP address that your ISP indicated for their gateway (the machine to which you connect). If your ISP hasn't given you a gateway address, use 10.0.0.2/0. If you need to use - a “guessed” address, make sure that you + a guessed address, make sure that you create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup as per the instructions for PPP and Dynamic IP addresses. If this line is omitted, ppp cannot run in or mode. Line 10: Adds a default route to your ISPs gateway. The special word HISADDR is replaced with the gateway address specified on line 9. It is important that this line appears after line 9, otherwise HISADDR will not yet be initialized. Line 11: This line tells PPP to ask your ISP to confirm that your nameserver addresses are correct. If your ISP supports this facility, PPP can then update /etc/resolv.conf with the correct nameserver entries. It is not necessary to add an entry to ppp.linkup when you have a static IP address as your routing table entries are already correct before you connect. You may however wish to create an entry to invoke programs after connection. This is explained later with the sendmail example. Example configuration files can be found in the /etc/ppp directory. PPP and Dynamic IP Addresses If your service provider does not assign static IP addresses, ppp can be configured to negotiate the local and remote addresses. This is done by - “guessing” an IP address and allowing + guessing an IP address and allowing ppp to set it up correctly using the IP Configuration Protocol (IPCP) after connecting. The ppp.conf configuration is the same as PPP and Static IP Addresses, with the following change: 9 set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 255.255.255.0 Again, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 9: The number after the / character is the number of bits of the address that ppp will insist on. You may wish to use IP numbers more appropriate to your circumstances, but the above example will always work. The last argument (0.0.0.0) tells PPP to negotiate using address 0.0.0.0 rather than 10.0.0.1. Do not use 0.0.0.0 as the first argument to set ifaddr as it prevents PPP from setting up an initial route in mode. If you are running version 1.x of PPP, you will also need to create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. ppp.linkup is used after a connection has been established. At this point, ppp will know what IP addresses should really be used. The following entry will delete the existing bogus routes, and create correct ones: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR Line 1: On establishing a connection, ppp will look for an entry in ppp.linkup according to the following rules: First, try to match the same label as we used in ppp.conf. If that fails, look for an entry for the IP address of our gateway. This entry is a four-octet IP style label. If we still have not found an entry, look for the MYADDR entry. Line 2: This line tells ppp to delete all of the existing routes for the acquired tun interface (except the direct route entry). Line 3: This line tells ppp to add a default route that points to HISADDR. HISADDR will be replaced with the IP number of the gateway as negotiated in the IPCP. See the pmdemand entry in the files /etc/ppp/ppp.conf.sample and /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup.sample for a detailed example. - Version 2 of PPP introduces “sticky routes”. + Version 2 of PPP introduces sticky routes. Any add or delete lines that contain MYADDR or HISADDR will be remembered, and any time the actual values of MYADDR or HISADDR change, the routes will be reapplied. This removes the necessity of repeating these lines in ppp.linkup. Receiving Incoming Calls When you configure ppp to receive incoming calls on a machine connected to a LAN, you must decide if you wish to forward packets to the LAN. If you do, you should allocate the peer an IP number from your LAN's subnet, and use the command enable proxy in your /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file. You should also confirm that the /etc/rc.conf file contains the following: gateway="YES" Which getty? Configuring FreeBSD for Dialup Services provides a good description on enabling dialup services using getty. An alternative to getty is mgetty, a smarter version of getty designed with dialup lines in mind. The advantages of using mgetty is that it actively talks to modems, meaning if port is turned off in /etc/ttys then your modem will not answer the phone. Later versions of mgetty (from 0.99beta onwards) also support the automatic detection of PPP streams, allowing your clients script-less access to your server. Refer to Mgetty and AutoPPP for more information on mgetty. <application>PPP</application> Permissions The ppp command must normally be run as user id 0. If however, you wish to allow ppp to run in server mode as a normal user by executing ppp as described below, that user must be given permission to run ppp by adding them to the network group in /etc/group. You will also need to give them access to one or more sections of the configuration file using the allow command: allow users fred mary If this command is used in the default section, it gives the specified users access to everything. PPP Shells for Dynamic-IP Users Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-shell containing the following: #!/bin/sh IDENT=`echo $0 | sed -e 's/^.*-\(.*\)$/\1/'` CALLEDAS="$IDENT" TTY=`tty` if [ x$IDENT = xdialup ]; then IDENT=`basename $TTY` fi echo "PPP for $CALLEDAS on $TTY" echo "Starting PPP for $IDENT" exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct $IDENT This script should be executable. Now make a symbolic link called ppp-dialup to this script using the following commands: &prompt.root; ln -s ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-dialup You should use this script as the shell for all of your dialup users. This is an example from /etc/password for a dialup PPP user with username pchilds (remember don't directly edit the password file, use vipw). pchilds:*:1011:300:Peter Childs PPP:/home/ppp:/etc/ppp/ppp-dialup Create a /home/ppp directory that is world readable containing the following 0 byte files: -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:23 .hushlogin -r--r--r-- 1 root wheel 0 May 27 02:22 .rhosts which prevents /etc/motd from being displayed. PPP shells for Static-IP Users Create the ppp-shell file as above and for each account with statically assigned IPs create a symbolic link to ppp-shell. For example, if you have three dialup customers fred, sam, and mary, that you route class C networks for, you would type the following: &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-fred &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-sam &prompt.root; ln -s /etc/ppp/ppp-shell /etc/ppp/ppp-mary Each of these users dialup accounts should have their shell set to the symbolic link created above (i.e., mary's shell should be /etc/ppp/ppp-mary). Setting up ppp.conf for dynamic-IP users The /etc/ppp/ppp.conf file should contain something along the lines of: default: set debug phase lcp chat set timeout 0 ttyd0: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20 255.255.255.255 enable proxy ttyd1: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.21 255.255.255.255 enable proxy The indenting is important. The default: section is loaded for each session. For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys create an entry similar to the one for ttyd0: above. Each line should get a unique IP address from your pool of IP addresses for dynamic users. Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> for static-IP users Along with the contents of the sample /etc/ppp/ppp.conf above you should add a section for each of the statically assigned dialup users. We will continue with our fred, sam, and mary example. fred: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.101.1 255.255.255.255 sam: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.102.1 255.255.255.255 mary: set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.103.1 255.255.255.255 The file /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup should also contain routing information for each static IP user if required. The line below would add a route for the 203.14.101.0 class C via the client's ppp link. fred: add 203.14.101.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR sam: add 203.14.102.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR mary: add 203.14.103.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 HISADDR More on <command>mgetty</command>, AutoPPP, and MS extensions <command>mgetty</command> and AutoPPP Configuring and compiling mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option enabled allows mgetty to detect the LCP phase of PPP connections and automatically spawn off a ppp shell. However, since the default login/password sequence does not occur it is necessary to authenticate users using either PAP or CHAP. This section assumes the user has successfully configured, compiled, and installed a version of mgetty with the AUTO_PPP option (v0.99beta or later). Make sure your /usr/local/etc/mgetty+sendfax/login.config file has the following in it: /AutoPPP/ - - /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup This will tell mgetty to run the ppp-pap-dialup script for detected PPP connections. Create a file called /etc/ppp/ppp-pap-dialup containing the following (the file should be executable): #!/bin/sh exec /usr/sbin/ppp -direct pap$IDENT For each dialup line enabled in /etc/ttys, create a corresponding entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. This will happily co-exist with the definitions we created above. pap: enable pap set ifaddr 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.20-203.14.100.40 enable proxy Each user logging in with this method will need to have a username/password in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret file, or alternatively add the following option to authenticate users via PAP from /etc/password file. enable passwdauth If you wish to assign some users a static IP number, you can specify the number as the third argument in /etc/ppp/ppp.secret. See /etc/ppp/ppp.secret.sample for examples. MS extensions It is possible to configure PPP to supply DNS and NetBIOS nameserver addresses on demand. To enable these extensions with PPP version 1.x, the following lines might be added to the relevant section of /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. enable msext set ns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 And for PPP version 2 and above: accept dns set dns 203.14.100.1 203.14.100.2 set nbns 203.14.100.5 This will tell the clients the primary and secondary name server addresses, and a netbios nameserver host. In version 2 and above, if the set dns line is omitted, PPP will use the values found in /etc/resolv.conf. PAP and CHAP authentication Some ISPs set their system up so that the authentication part of your connection is done using either of the PAP or CHAP authentication mechanisms. If this is the case, your ISP will not give a login: prompt when you connect, but will start talking PPP immediately. PAP is less secure than CHAP, but security is not normally an issue here as passwords, although being sent as plain text with PAP, are being transmitted down a serial line only. There's not much room for crackers to - “eavesdrop”. + eavesdrop. Referring back to the PPP and Static IP addresses or PPP and Dynamic IP addresses sections, the following alterations must be made: 7 set login … 12 set authname MyUserName 13 set authkey MyPassword As always, do not include the line numbers, they are just for reference in this discussion. Indentation of at least one space is required. Line 7: Your ISP will not normally require that you log into the server if you're using PAP or CHAP. You must - therefore disable your “set login” + therefore disable your set login string. Line 12: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP user name. You will need to insert the correct value for MyUserName. Line 13: This line specifies your PAP/CHAP password. You will need to insert the correct value for MyPassword. You may want to add an additional line, such as: 15 accept PAP or 15 accept CHAP to make it obvious that this is the intention, but PAP and CHAP are both accepted by default. Changing your <command>ppp</command> configuration on the fly It is possible to talk to the ppp program while it is running in the background, but only if a suitable diagnostic port has been set up. To do this, add the following line to your configuration: set server /var/run/ppp-tun%d DiagnosticPassword 0177 This will tell PPP to listen to the specified unix-domain socket, asking clients for the specified password before allowing access. The %d in the name is replaced with the tun device number that is in use. Once a socket has been set up, the &man.pppctl.8; program may be used in scripts that wish to manipulate the running program. Final system configuration You now have ppp configured, but there are a few more things to do before it is ready to work. They all involve editing the /etc/rc.conf file. Working from the top down in this file, make sure the hostname= line is set, e.g.: hostname="foo.bar.com" If your ISP has supplied you with a static IP address and name, it's probably best that you use this name as your host name. Look for the network_interfaces variable. If you want to configure your system to dial your ISP on demand, make sure the tun0 device is added to the list, otherwise remove it. network_interfaces="lo0 tun0" ifconfig_tun0= The ifconfig_tun0 variable should be empty, and a file called /etc/start_if.tun0 should be created. This file should contain the line: ppp -auto mysystem This script is executed at network configuration time, starting your ppp daemon in automatic mode. If you have a LAN for which this machine is a gateway, you may also wish to use the switch. Refer to the manual page for further details. Set the router program to NO with following line in your /etc/rc.conf: router_enable="NO" It is important that the routed daemon is not started (it is started by default), as it routed tends to delete the default routing table entries created by ppp. It is probably worth your while ensuring that the sendmail_flags line does not include the option, otherwise sendmail will attempt to do a network lookup every now and then, possibly causing your machine to dial out. You may try: sendmail_flags="-bd" The downside of this is that you must force sendmail to re-examine the mail queue whenever the ppp link is up by typing: &prompt.root; /usr/sbin/sendmail -q You may wish to use the !bg command in ppp.linkup to do this automatically: 1 provider: 2 delete ALL 3 add 0 0 HISADDR 4 !bg sendmail -bd -q30m If you don't like this, it is possible to set up a - “dfilter” to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the + dfilter to block SMTP traffic. Refer to the sample files for further details. Now the only thing left to do is reboot the machine. All that is left is to reboot the machine. After rebooting, you can now either type: &prompt.root; ppp and then dial provider to start the PPP session, or, if you want ppp to establish sessions automatically when there is outbound traffic (and you have not created the start_if.tun0 script), type: &prompt.root; ppp -auto provider Summary To recap, the following steps are necessary when setting up ppp for the first time: Client side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The pmdemand example should suffice for most ISPs. If you have a dynamic IP address, create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Create a start_if.tun0 script if you require demand dialing. Server side: Ensure that the tun device is built into your kernel. Ensure that the tunX device file is available in the /dev directory. Create an entry in /etc/passwd (using the &man.vipw.8; program). Create a profile in this users home directory that runs ppp -direct direct-server or similar. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.conf. The direct-server example should suffice. Create an entry in /etc/ppp/ppp.linkup. Update your /etc/rc.conf file. Using Kernel PPP Parts originally contributed by &a.gena; and &a.rhuff;. Setting up Kernel PPP Before you start setting up PPP on your machine make sure that pppd is located in /usr/sbin and the directory /etc/ppp exists. pppd can work in two modes: - As a “client”, i.e., you want to connect your + As a client, i.e., you want to connect your machine to the outside world via a PPP serial connection or modem line. - as a “server”, i.e. your machine is located on + as a server, i.e. your machine is located on the network and used to connect other computers using PPP. In both cases you will need to set up an options file (/etc/ppp/options or ~/.ppprc if you have more than one user on your machine that uses PPP). You also will need some modem/serial software (preferably kermit) so you can dial and establish a connection with the remote host. Using <command>pppd</command> as a client I used the following /etc/ppp/options to connect to CISCO terminal server PPP line. crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line noipdefault # remote PPP server must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during IPCP # negotiation , remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain ppp.foo.com # put your domain name here :<remote_ip> # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be your # default router To connect: Dial to the remote host using kermit (or some other modem program), and enter your user name and password (or whatever is needed to enable PPP on the remote host). Exit kermit (without hanging up the line). Enter the following: &prompt.root; /usr/src/usr.sbin/pppd.new/pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Be sure to use the appropriate speed and device name. Now your computer is connected with PPP. If the connection fails, you can add the option to the /etc/ppp/options file and check messages on the console to track the problem. Following /etc/ppp/pppup script will make all 3 stages automatically: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.dial pppd /dev/tty01 19200 /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is a kermit script that dials and makes all necessary authorization on the remote host (an example of such a script is attached to the end of this document). Use the following /etc/ppp/pppdown script to disconnect the PPP line: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill -TERM ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 down /sbin/ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.hup /etc/ppp/ppptest Check to see if PPP is still running by executing /usr/etc/ppp/ppptest, which should look like this: #!/bin/sh pid=`ps ax| grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ X${pid} != "X" ] ; then echo 'pppd running: PID=' ${pid-NONE} else echo 'No pppd running.' fi set -x netstat -n -I ppp0 ifconfig ppp0 To hang up the modem, execute /etc/ppp/kermit.hup, which should contain: set line /dev/tty01 ; put your modem device here set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 echo \13 exit Here is an alternate method using chat instead of kermit. The following two files are sufficient to accomplish a pppd connection. /etc/ppp/options: /dev/cuaa1 115200 crtscts # enable hardware flow control modem # modem control line connect "/usr/bin/chat -f /etc/ppp/login.chat.script" noipdefault # remote PPP serve must supply your IP address. # if the remote host doesn't send your IP during # IPCP negotiation, remove this option passive # wait for LCP packets domain <your.domain> # put your domain name here : # put the IP of remote PPP host here # it will be used to route packets via PPP link # if you didn't specified the noipdefault option # change this line to <local_ip>:<remote_ip> defaultroute # put this if you want that PPP server will be # your default router /etc/ppp/login.chat.script: The following should go on a single line. ABORT BUSY ABORT 'NO CARRIER' "" AT OK ATDT<phone.number> CONNECT "" TIMEOUT 10 ogin:-\\r-ogin: <login-id> TIMEOUT 5 sword: <password> Once these are installed and modified correctly, all you need to do is run pppd, like so: &prompt.root; pppd This sample is based primarily on information provided by: Trev Roydhouse <Trev.Roydhouse@f401.n711.z3.fidonet.org> and used with permission. Using <command>pppd</command> as a server /etc/ppp/options should contain something similar to the following: crtscts # Hardware flow control netmask 255.255.255.0 # netmask ( not required ) 192.114.208.20:192.114.208.165 # ip's of local and remote hosts # local ip must be different from one # you assigned to the ethernet ( or other ) # interface on your machine. # remote IP is ip address that will be # assigned to the remote machine domain ppp.foo.com # your domain passive # wait for LCP modem # modem line The following /etc/ppp/pppserv script will enable tell pppd to behave as a server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi # reset ppp interface ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete # enable autoanswer mode kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.ans # run ppp pppd /dev/tty01 19200 Use this /etc/ppp/pppservdown script to stop the server: #!/bin/sh ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep pppd |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing pppd, PID=' ${pid} kill ${pid} fi ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep pid=`ps ax |grep kermit |grep -v grep|awk '{print $1;}'` if [ "X${pid}" != "X" ] ; then echo 'killing kermit, PID=' ${pid} kill -9 ${pid} fi ifconfig ppp0 down ifconfig ppp0 delete kermit -y /etc/ppp/kermit.noans The following kermit script (/etc/ppp/kermit.ans) will enable/disable autoanswer mode on your modem. It should look like this: set line /dev/tty01 set speed 19200 set file type binary set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none pau 1 out +++ inp 5 OK out ATH0\13 inp 5 OK echo \13 out ATS0=1\13 ; change this to out ATS0=0\13 if you want to disable ; autoanswer mod inp 5 OK echo \13 exit A script named /etc/ppp/kermit.dial is used for dialing and authenticating on the remote host. You will need to customize it for your needs. Put your login and password in this script; you will also need to change the input statement depending on responses from your modem and remote host. ; ; put the com line attached to the modem here: ; set line /dev/tty01 ; ; put the modem speed here: ; set speed 19200 set file type binary ; full 8 bit file xfer set file names literal set win 8 set rec pack 1024 set send pack 1024 set block 3 set term bytesize 8 set command bytesize 8 set flow none set modem hayes set dial hangup off set carrier auto ; Then SET CARRIER if necessary, set dial display on ; Then SET DIAL if necessary, set input echo on set input timeout proceed set input case ignore def \%x 0 ; login prompt counter goto slhup :slcmd ; put the modem in command mode echo Put the modem in command mode. clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 output +++ ; hayes escape sequence input 1 OK\13\10 ; wait for OK if success goto slhup output \13 pause 1 output at\13 input 1 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if modem doesn't answer OK, try again :slhup ; hang up the phone clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer pause 1 echo Hanging up the phone. output ath0\13 ; hayes command for on hook input 2 OK\13\10 if fail goto slcmd ; if no OK answer, put modem in command mode :sldial ; dial the number pause 1 echo Dialing. output atdt9,550311\13\10 ; put phone number here assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter :look clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer increment \%x ; Count the seconds input 1 {CONNECT } if success goto sllogin reinput 1 {NO CARRIER\13\10} if success goto sldial reinput 1 {NO DIALTONE\13\10} if success goto slnodial reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 60 goto look else goto slhup :sllogin ; login assign \%x 0 ; zero the time counter pause 1 echo Looking for login prompt. :slloop increment \%x ; Count the seconds clear ; Clear unread characters from input buffer output \13 ; ; put your expected login prompt here: ; input 1 {Username: } if success goto sluid reinput 1 {\255} if success goto slhup reinput 1 {\127} if success goto slhup if < \%x 10 goto slloop ; try 10 times to get a login prompt else goto slhup ; hang up and start again if 10 failures :sluid ; ; put your userid here: ; output ppp-login\13 input 1 {Password: } ; ; put your password here: ; output ppp-password\13 input 1 {Entering SLIP mode.} echo quit :slnodial echo \7No dialtone. Check the telephone line!\7 exit 1 ; local variables: ; mode: csh ; comment-start: "; " ; comment-start-skip: "; " ; end: Using PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE) Contributed by &a.jim; (from node.to) 10 Jan 2000. The following describes how to set up PPP over Ethernet, a.k.a, PPPoE. Prerequisites There are a few requirements that your system will need to meet in order for PPPoE to function properly. They are: Kernel source for FreeBSD 3.4 or later ppp from FreeBSD 3.4 or later Kernel Configuration You will need to set the following options in your kernel configuration file and then compile a new kernel. options NETGRAPH Optionally, you can add options NETGRAPH_PPPOE options NETGRAPH_SOCKET although if this functionality is not available at runtime, ppp will load the relevant modules on demand Setting up <filename>ppp.conf</filename> Here is an example of a working ppp.conf: default: # or name_of_service_provider set device PPPoE:xl1 # replace xl1 with your ethernet device set mru 1492 set mtu 1492 set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD set log Phase tun command # you can add more detailed logging if you wish set dial set login set ifaddr 10.0.0.1/0 10.0.0.2/0 add default HISADDR nat enable yes # if you want to enable nat for your local net papchap: set authname YOURLOGINNAME set authkey YOURPASSWORD Care should be taken when running PPPoE with the option. Running <application>PPP</application> As root, you can run: &prompt.root; ppp -ddial name_of_service_provider Starting <application>PPP</application> at Boot Add the following to your /etc/rc.conf file: ppp_enable="YES" ppp_mode="ddial" ppp_nat="YES" ppp_profile="default" # or your provider Using SLIP Originally contributed by &a.asami; and &a.ghelmer;, with input from &a.wilko; and &a.piero;. Setting up a SLIP Client The following is one way to set up a FreeBSD machine for SLIP on a static host network. For dynamic hostname assignments (i.e., your address changes each time you dial up), you probably need to do something much fancier. First, determine which serial port your modem is connected to. I have a symbolic link to /dev/modem from /dev/cuaa1, and only use the modem name in my configuration files. It can become quite cumbersome when you need to fix a bunch of files in /etc and .kermrc's all over the system! /dev/cuaa0 is COM1, cuaa1 is COM2, etc. Make sure you have the following in your kernel configuration file: pseudo-device sl 1 It is included in the GENERIC kernel, so this should not be a problem unless you have deleted it. Things you have to do only once Add your home machine, the gateway and nameservers to your /etc/hosts file. Mine looks like this: 127.0.0.1 localhost loghost 136.152.64.181 silvia.HIP.Berkeley.EDU silvia.HIP silvia 136.152.64.1 inr-3.Berkeley.EDU inr-3 slip-gateway 128.32.136.9 ns1.Berkeley.edu ns1 128.32.136.12 ns2.Berkeley.edu ns2 Make sure you have before in your /etc/host.conf. Otherwise, funny things may happen. Edit the /etc/rc.conf file. Set your hostname by editing the line that says: -hostname=“myname.my.domain” +hostname=myname.my.domain You should give it your full Internet hostname. Add sl0 to the list of network interfaces by changing the line that says: network_interfaces="lo0" to: -network_interfaces=“lo0 sl0” +network_interfaces=lo0 sl0 Set the startup flags of sl0 by adding a line: ifconfig_sl0="inet ${hostname} slip-gateway netmask 0xffffff00 up" Designate the default router by changing the line: -defaultrouter=“NO” +defaultrouter=NO to: -defaultrouter=“slip-gateway” +defaultrouter=slip-gateway Make a file /etc/resolv.conf which contains: domain HIP.Berkeley.EDU nameserver 128.32.136.9 nameserver 128.32.136.12 As you can see, these set up the nameserver hosts. Of course, the actual domain names and addresses depend on your environment. Set the password for root and toor (and any other accounts that do not have a password). Use passwd or &man.vipw.8;, do not edit the /etc/passwd or /etc/master.passwd files! Reboot your machine and make sure it comes up with the correct hostname. Making a SLIP connection Dial up, type slip at the prompt, enter your machine name and password. The things you need to enter depends on your environment. I use kermit, with a script like this: # kermit setup set modem hayes set line /dev/modem set speed 115200 set parity none set flow rts/cts set terminal bytesize 8 set file type binary # The next macro will dial up and login define slip dial 643-9600, input 10 =>, if failure stop, - output slip\x0d, input 10 Username:, if failure stop, - output silvia\x0d, input 10 Password:, if failure stop, - output ***\x0d, echo \x0aCONNECTED\x0a Of course, you have to change the hostname and password to fit yours. After doing so, you can just type slip from the kermit prompt to get connected. Leaving your password in plain text anywhere in the filesystem is generally a BAD idea. Do it at your own risk. Leave the kermit there (you can suspend it by z) and as root, type: &prompt.root; slattach -h -c -s 115200 /dev/modem If you are able to ping hosts on the other side of the router, you are connected! If it does not work, you might want to try instead of as an argument to slattach. How to shutdown the connection Do the following: &prompt.root; kill -INT `cat /var/run/slattach.modem.pid` to kill slattach. Keep in mind you must be root to do the above. Then go back to kermit (fg if you suspended it) and exit from it (q). The slattach man page says you have to use ifconfig sl0 down to mark the interface down, but this does not seem to make any difference for me. (ifconfig sl0 reports the same thing.) Some times, your modem might refuse to drop the carrier (mine often does). In that case, simply start kermit and quit it again. It usually goes out on the second try. Troubleshooting If it does not work, feel free to ask me. The things that people tripped over so far: Not using or in slattach (I have no idea why this can be fatal, but adding this flag solved the problem for at least one person). Using instead of (might be hard to see the difference on some fonts). Try ifconfig sl0 to see your interface status. I get: &prompt.root; ifconfig sl0 sl0: flags=10<POINTOPOINT> inet 136.152.64.181 --> 136.152.64.1 netmask ffffff00 Also, netstat -r will give the - routing table, in case you get the “no route to - host” messages from ping. Mine looks like: + routing table, in case you get the no route to + host messages from ping. Mine looks like: &prompt.root; netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Refs Use IfaceMTU Rtt Netmasks: (root node) (root node) Route Tree for Protocol Family inet: (root node) => default inr-3.Berkeley.EDU UG 8 224515 sl0 - - localhost.Berkel localhost.Berkeley UH 5 42127 lo0 - 0.438 inr-3.Berkeley.E silvia.HIP.Berkele UH 1 0 sl0 - - silvia.HIP.Berke localhost.Berkeley UGH 34 47641234 lo0 - 0.438 (root node) This is after transferring a bunch of files, your numbers should be smaller). Setting up a SLIP Server This document provides suggestions for setting up SLIP Server services on a FreeBSD system, which typically means configuring your system to automatically startup connections upon login for remote SLIP clients. The author has written this document based on his experience; however, as your system and needs may be different, this document may not answer all of your questions, and the author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. Prerequisites This document is very technical in nature, so background knowledge is required. It is assumed that you are familiar with the TCP/IP network protocol, and in particular, network and node addressing, network address masks, subnetting, routing, and routing protocols, such as RIP. Configuring SLIP services on a dial-up server requires a knowledge of these concepts, and if you are not familiar with them, please read a copy of either Craig Hunt's TCP/IP Network Administration published by O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. (ISBN Number 0-937175-82-X), or Douglas Comer's books on the TCP/IP protocol. It is further assumed that you have already setup your modem(s) and configured the appropriate system files to allow logins through your modems. If you have not prepared your system for this yet, please see the tutorial for configuring dialup services; if you have a World-Wide Web browser available, browse the list of tutorials at http://www.FreeBSD.org/. You may also want to check the manual pages for &man.sio.4; for information on the serial port device driver and &man.ttys.5;, &man.gettytab.5;, &man.getty.8;, & &man.init.8; for information relevant to configuring the system to accept logins on modems, and perhaps &man.stty.1; for information on setting serial port parameters (such as clocal for directly-connected serial interfaces). Quick Overview In its typical configuration, using FreeBSD as a SLIP server works as follows: a SLIP user dials up your FreeBSD SLIP Server system and logs in with a special SLIP login ID that uses /usr/sbin/sliplogin as the special user's shell. The sliplogin program browses the file /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts to find a matching line for the special user, and if it finds a match, connects the serial line to an available SLIP interface and then runs the shell script /etc/sliphome/slip.login to configure the SLIP interface. An Example of a SLIP Server Login For example, if a SLIP user ID were Shelmerg, Shelmerg's entry in /etc/master.passwd would look something like this (except it would be all on one line): Shelmerg:password:1964:89::0:0:Guy Helmer - SLIP:/usr/users/Shelmerg:/usr/sbin/sliplogin When Shelmerg logs in, sliplogin will search /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts for a line that had a matching user ID; for example, there may be a line in /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts that reads: Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp sliplogin will find that matching line, hook the serial line into the next available SLIP interface, and then execute /etc/sliphome/slip.login like this: /etc/sliphome/slip.login 0 19200 Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmer 0xfffffc00 autocomp If all goes well, /etc/sliphome/slip.login will issue an ifconfig for the SLIP interface to which sliplogin attached itself (slip interface 0,in the above example, which was the first parameter in the list given to slip.login) to set the local IP address (dc-slip), remote IP address (sl-helmer), network mask for the SLIP interface (0xfffffc00), and any additional flags (autocomp). If something goes wrong, sliplogin usually logs good informational messages via the daemon syslog facility, which usually goes into /var/log/messages (see the manual pages for &man.syslogd.8; and &man.syslog.conf.5; and perhaps check /etc/syslog.conf to see to which files syslogd is logging). OK, enough of the examples — let us dive into setting up the system. Kernel Configuration FreeBSD's default kernels usually come with two SLIP interfaces defined (sl0 and sl1); you can use netstat -i to see whether these interfaces are defined in your kernel. Sample output from netstat -i: Name Mtu Network Address Ipkts Ierrs Opkts Oerrs Coll ed0 1500 <Link>0.0.c0.2c.5f.4a 291311 0 174209 0 133 ed0 1500 138.247.224 ivory 291311 0 174209 0 133 lo0 65535 <Link> 79 0 79 0 0 lo0 65535 loop localhost 79 0 79 0 0 sl0* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 sl1* 296 <Link> 0 0 0 0 0 The sl0 and sl1 interfaces shown in netstat -i's output indicate that there are two SLIP interfaces built into the kernel. (The asterisks after the sl0 and sl1 indicate - that the interfaces are “down”.) + that the interfaces are down.) However, FreeBSD's default kernels do not come configured to forward packets (ie, your FreeBSD machine will not act as a router) due to Internet RFC requirements for Internet hosts (see RFCs 1009 [Requirements for Internet Gateways], 1122 [Requirements for Internet Hosts — Communication Layers], and perhaps 1127 [A Perspective on the Host Requirements RFCs]), so if you want your FreeBSD SLIP Server to act as a router, you will have to edit the /etc/rc.conf file and change the setting of the gateway variable to . You will then need to reboot for the new settings to take effect. You will notice that near the end of the default kernel configuration file (/sys/i386/conf/GENERIC) is a line that reads: pseudo-device sl 2 This is the line that defines the number of SLIP devices available in the kernel; the number at the end of the line is the maximum number of SLIP connections that may be operating simultaneously. Please refer to Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for help in reconfiguring your kernel. Sliplogin Configuration As mentioned earlier, there are three files in the /etc/sliphome directory that are part of the configuration for /usr/sbin/sliplogin (see &man.sliplogin.8; for the actual manual page for sliplogin): slip.hosts, which defines the SLIP users & their associated IP addresses; slip.login, which usually just configures the SLIP interface; and (optionally) slip.logout, which undoes slip.login's effects when the serial connection is terminated. <filename>slip.hosts</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts contains lines which have at least four items, separated by whitespace: SLIP user's login ID Local address (local to the SLIP server) of the SLIP link Remote address of the SLIP link Network mask The local and remote addresses may be host names (resolved to IP addresses by /etc/hosts or by the domain name service, depending on your specifications in /etc/host.conf), and I believe the network mask may be a name that can be resolved by a lookup into /etc/networks. On a sample system, /etc/sliphome/slip.hosts looks like this: # # login local-addr remote-addr mask opt1 opt2 # (normal,compress,noicmp) # Shelmerg dc-slip sl-helmerg 0xfffffc00 autocomp At the end of the line is one or more of the options. — no header compression — compress headers — compress headers if the remote end allows it — disable ICMP packets - (so any “ping” packets will be dropped instead + (so any ping packets will be dropped instead of using up your bandwidth) Note that sliplogin under early releases of FreeBSD 2 ignored the options that FreeBSD 1.x recognized, so the options , , , and had no effect until support was added in FreeBSD 2.2 (unless your slip.login script included code to make use of the flags). Your choice of local and remote addresses for your SLIP links depends on whether you are going to dedicate a TCP/IP - subnet or if you are going to use “proxy ARP” on - your SLIP server (it is not “true” proxy ARP, but + subnet or if you are going to use proxy ARP on + your SLIP server (it is not true proxy ARP, but that is the terminology used in this document to describe it). If you are not sure which method to select or how to assign IP addresses, please refer to the TCP/IP books referenced in the slips-prereqs section and/or consult your IP network manager. If you are going to use a separate subnet for your SLIP clients, you will need to allocate the subnet number out of your assigned IP network number and assign each of your SLIP client's IP numbers out of that subnet. Then, you will probably either need to configure a static route to the SLIP subnet via your SLIP server on your nearest IP router, or install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to talk the appropriate routing protocols to your other routers to inform them about your SLIP server's route to the SLIP subnet. - Otherwise, if you will use the “proxy ARP” + Otherwise, if you will use the proxy ARP method, you will need to assign your SLIP client's IP addresses out of your SLIP server's Ethernet subnet, and you will also need to adjust your /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout scripts to use &man.arp.8; to manage the proxy-ARP entries in the SLIP server's ARP table. <filename>slip.login</filename> Configuration The typical /etc/sliphome/slip.login file looks like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 This slip.login file merely ifconfig's the appropriate SLIP interface with the local and remote addresses and network mask of the SLIP interface. - If you have decided to use the “proxy ARP” + If you have decided to use the proxy ARP method (instead of using a separate subnet for your SLIP clients), your /etc/sliphome/slip.login file will need to look something like this: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.login 5.1 (Berkeley) 7/1/90 # # generic login file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 inet $4 $5 netmask $6 # Answer ARP requests for the SLIP client with our Ethernet addr /usr/sbin/arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub The additional line in this slip.login, arp -s $5 00:11:22:33:44:55 pub, creates an ARP entry in the SLIP server's ARP table. This ARP entry causes the SLIP server to respond with the SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address whenever a another IP node on the Ethernet asks to speak to the SLIP client's IP address. When using the example above, be sure to replace the Ethernet MAC address (00:11:22:33:44:55) with the MAC address of - your system's Ethernet card, or your “proxy ARP” + your system's Ethernet card, or your proxy ARP will definitely not work! You can discover your SLIP server's Ethernet MAC address by looking at the results of running netstat -i; the second line of the output should look something like: ed0 1500 <Link>0.2.c1.28.5f.4a 191923 0 129457 0 116 This indicates that this particular system's Ethernet MAC address is 00:02:c1:28:5f:4a — the periods in the Ethernet MAC address given by netstat -i must be changed to colons and leading zeros should be added to each single-digit hexadecimal number to convert the address into the form that &man.arp.8; desires; see the manual page on &man.arp.8; for complete information on usage. When you create /etc/sliphome/slip.login and /etc/sliphome/slip.logout, the - “execute” bit (ie, chmod 755 + execute bit (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.login /etc/sliphome/slip.logout) must be set, or sliplogin will be unable to execute it. <filename>slip.logout</filename> Configuration /etc/sliphome/slip.logout is not - strictly needed (unless you are implementing “proxy - ARP”), but if you decide to create it, this is an + strictly needed (unless you are implementing proxy + ARP), but if you decide to create it, this is an example of a basic slip.logout script: #!/bin/sh - # # slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down - If you are using “proxy ARP”, you will want to + If you are using proxy ARP, you will want to have /etc/sliphome/slip.logout remove the ARP entry for the SLIP client: #!/bin/sh - # # @(#)slip.logout # # logout file for a slip line. sliplogin invokes this with # the parameters: # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7-n # slipunit ttyspeed loginname local-addr remote-addr mask opt-args # /sbin/ifconfig sl$1 down # Quit answering ARP requests for the SLIP client /usr/sbin/arp -d $5 The arp -d $5 removes the ARP entry - that the “proxy ARP” + that the proxy ARP slip.login added when the SLIP client logged in. It bears repeating: make sure /etc/sliphome/slip.logout has the execute bit set for after you create it (ie, chmod 755 /etc/sliphome/slip.logout). Routing Considerations - If you are not using the “proxy ARP” method for + If you are not using the proxy ARP method for routing packets between your SLIP clients and the rest of your network (and perhaps the Internet), you will probably either have to add static routes to your closest default router(s) to route your SLIP client subnet via your SLIP server, or you will probably need to install and configure gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server so that it will tell your routers via appropriate routing protocols about your SLIP subnet. Static Routes Adding static routes to your nearest default routers can be troublesome (or impossible, if you do not have authority to do so...). If you have a multiple-router network in your organization, some routers, such as Cisco and Proteon, may not only need to be configured with the static route to the SLIP subnet, but also need to be told which static routes to tell other routers about, so some expertise and troubleshooting/tweaking may be necessary to get static-route-based routing to work. Running <command>gated</command> An alternative to the headaches of static routes is to install gated on your FreeBSD SLIP server and configure it to use the appropriate routing protocols (RIP/OSPF/BGP/EGP) to tell other routers about your SLIP subnet. You can use gated from the ports collection or retrieve and build it yourself from the GateD anonymous ftp site; I believe the current version as of this writing is gated-R3_5Alpha_8.tar.Z, which includes - support for FreeBSD “out-of-the-box”. Complete + support for FreeBSD out-of-the-box. Complete information and documentation on gated is available on the Web starting at the Merit GateD Consortium. Compile and install it, and then write a /etc/gated.conf file to configure your gated; here is a sample, similar to what the author used on a FreeBSD SLIP server: # # gated configuration file for dc.dsu.edu; for gated version 3.5alpha5 # Only broadcast RIP information for xxx.xxx.yy out the ed Ethernet interface # # # tracing options # traceoptions "/var/tmp/gated.output" replace size 100k files 2 general ; rip yes { interface sl noripout noripin ; interface ed ripin ripout version 1 ; traceoptions route ; } ; # # Turn on a bunch of tracing info for the interface to the kernel: kernel { traceoptions remnants request routes info interface ; } ; # # Propagate the route to xxx.xxx.yy out the Ethernet interface via RIP # export proto rip interface ed { proto direct { xxx.xxx.yy mask 255.255.252.0 metric 1; # SLIP connections } ; } ; # # Accept routes from RIP via ed Ethernet interfaces import proto rip interface ed { all ; } ; The above sample gated.conf file broadcasts routing information regarding the SLIP subnet xxx.xxx.yy via RIP onto the Ethernet; if you are using a different Ethernet driver than the ed driver, you will need to change the references to the ed interface appropriately. This sample file also sets up tracing to /var/tmp/gated.output for debugging gated's activity; you can certainly turn off the tracing options if gated works OK for you. You will need to change the xxx.xxx.yy's into the network address of your own SLIP subnet (be sure to change the net mask in the proto direct clause as well). When you get gated built and installed and create a configuration file for it, you will need to run gated in place of routed on your FreeBSD system; change the routed/gated startup parameters in /etc/netstart as appropriate for your system. Please see the manual page for gated for information on gated's command-line parameters. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml index 37d45e05a4..8400b1bf22 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/printing/chapter.sgml @@ -1,4660 +1,4660 @@ Printing Contributed by &a.kelly;, 30 September 1995. Restructured and updated by &a.jim;, March 2000. Synopsis In order to use printers with FreeBSD, you will need to set them up to work with the Berkeley line printer spooling system, also known as the LPD spooling system. It is the standard printer control system in FreeBSD. This chapter introduces the LPD spooling system, often simply called LPD, and will guide you through it's configuration. If you are already familiar with LPD or another printer spooling system, you may wish to skip to section Setting up the spooling system. Introduction LPD controls everything about a host's printers. It is responsible for a number of things: It controls access to attached printers and printers attached to other hosts on the network. It enables users to submit files to be printed; these submissions are known as jobs. It prevents multiple users from accessing a printer at the same time by maintaining a queue for each printer. It can print header pages (also known as banner or burst pages) so users can easily find jobs they have printed in a stack of printouts. It takes care of communications parameters for printers connected on serial ports. It can send jobs over the network to another LPD spooler on another host. It can run special filters to format jobs to be printed for various printer languages or printer capabilities. It can account for printer usage. Through a configuration file (/etc/printcap), and by providing the special filter programs, you can enable the LPD system to do all or some subset of the above for a great variety of printer hardware. Why You Should Use the Spooler If you are the sole user of your system, you may be wondering why you should bother with the spooler when you do not need access control, header pages, or printer accounting. While it is possible to enable direct access to a printer, you should use the spooler anyway since: LPD prints jobs in the background; you do not have to wait for data to be copied to the printer. LPD can conveniently run a job to be printed through filters to add date/time headers or convert a special file format (such as a TeX DVI file) into a format the printer will understand. You will not have to do these steps manually. Many free and commercial programs that provide a print feature usually expect to talk to the spooler on your system. By setting up the spooling system, you will more easily support other software you may later add or already have. Basic Setup To use printers with the LPD spooling system, you will need to set up both your printer hardware and the LPD software. This document describes two levels of setup: See section Simple Printer Setup to learn how to connect a printer, tell LPD how to communicate with it, and print plain text files to the printer. See section Advanced Printer Setup to find out how to print a variety of special file formats, to print header pages, to print across a network, to control access to printers, and to do printer accounting. Simple Printer Setup This section tells how to configure printer hardware and the LPD software to use the printer. It teaches the basics: Section Hardware Setup gives some hints on connecting the printer to a port on your computer. Section Software Setup shows how to setup the LPD spooler configuration file (/etc/printcap). If you are setting up a printer that uses a network protocol to accept data to print instead of a serial or parallel interface, see Printers With Networked Data Stream Interaces. - Although this section is called “Simple Printer - Setup”, it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer + Although this section is called Simple Printer + Setup, it is actually fairly complex. Getting the printer to work with your computer and the LPD spooler is the hardest part. The advanced options like header pages and accounting are fairly easy once you get the printer working. Hardware Setup This section tells about the various ways you can connect a printer to your PC. It talks about the kinds of ports and cables, and also the kernel configuration you may need to enable FreeBSD to speak to the printer. If you have already connected your printer and have successfully printed with it under another operating system, you can probably skip to section Software Setup. Ports and Cables Nearly all printers you can get for a PC today support one or both of the following interfaces: Serial interfaces use a serial port on your computer to send data to the printer. Serial interfaces are common in the computer industry and cables are readily available and also easy to construct. Serial interfaces sometimes need special cables and might require you to configure somewhat complex communications options. Parallel interfaces use a parallel port on your computer to send data to the printer. Parallel interfaces are common in the PC market. Cables are readily available but more difficult to construct by hand. There are usually no communications options with parallel interfaces, making their configuration exceedingly simple. Parallel interfaces are sometimes known as - “Centronics” interfaces, named after the + Centronics interfaces, named after the connector type on the printer. In general, serial interfaces are slower than parallel interfaces. Parallel interfaces usually offer just one-way communication (computer to printer) while serial gives you two-way. Many newer parallel ports can also receive data from the printer, but only few printers need to send data back to the computer. And FreeBSD does not support two-way parallel communication yet. Usually, the only time you need two-way communication with the printer is if the printer speaks PostScript. PostScript printers can be very verbose. In fact, PostScript jobs are actually programs sent to the printer; they need not produce paper at all and may return results directly to the computer. PostScript also uses two-way communication to tell the computer about problems, such as errors in the PostScript program or paper jams. Your users may be appreciative of such information. Furthermore, the best way to do effective accounting with a PostScript printer requires two-way communication: you ask the printer for its page count (how many pages it has printed in its lifetime), then send the user's job, then ask again for its page count. Subtract the two values and you know how much paper to charge the user. Parallel Ports To hook up a printer using a parallel interface, connect the Centronics cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. Remember which parallel port you used on the computer. The first parallel port is /dev/lpt0 to FreeBSD; the second is /dev/lpt1, and so on. Serial Ports To hook up a printer using a serial interface, connect the proper serial cable between the printer and the computer. The instructions that came with the printer, the computer, or both should give you complete guidance. - If you are unsure what the “proper serial - cable” is, you may wish to try one of the following + If you are unsure what the proper serial + cable is, you may wish to try one of the following alternatives: A modem cable connects each pin of the connector on one end of the cable straight through to its corresponding pin of the connector on the other end. This type of cable is also known as a - “DTE-to-DCE” cable. + DTE-to-DCE cable. A null-modem cable connects some pins straight through, swaps others (send data to receive data, for example), and shorts some internally in each connector hood. This type of cable is also known as a - “DTE-to-DTE” cable. + DTE-to-DTE cable. A serial printer cable, required for some unusual printers, is like the null modem cable, but sends some signals to their counterparts instead of being internally shorted. You should also set up the communications parameters for the printer, usually through front-panel controls or DIP switches on the printer. Choose the highest bps (bits per second, sometimes baud rate) rate that both your computer and the printer can support. Choose 7 or 8 data bits; none, even, or odd parity; and 1 or 2 stop bits. Also choose a flow control protocol: either none, or XON/XOFF (also known as - “in-band” or “software”) flow control. + in-band or software) flow control. Remember these settings for the software configuration that follows. Software Setup This section describes the software setup necessary to print with the LPD spooling system in FreeBSD. Here is an outline of the steps involved: Configure your kernel, if necessary, for the port you are using for the printer; section Kernel Configuration tells you what you need to do. Set the communications mode for the parallel port, if you are using a parallel port; section Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port gives details. Test if the operating system can send data to the printer. Section Checking Printer Communications gives some suggestions on how to do this. Set up LPD for the printer by modifying the file /etc/printcap. You will find out how to do this later in this chapter. Kernel Configuration The operating system kernel is compiled to work with a specific set of devices. The serial or parallel interface for your printer is a part of that set. Therefore, it might be necessary to add support for an additional serial or parallel port if your kernel is not already configured for one. To find out if the kernel you are currently using supports a serial interface, type: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep sioN Where N is the number of the serial port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following: sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A then the kernel supports the port. To find out if the kernel supports a parallel interface, type: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep lptN Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If you see output similar to the following lpt0 at 0x378-0x37f on isa then the kernel supports the port. You might have to reconfigure your kernel in order for the operating system to recognize and use the parallel or serial port you are using for the printer. To add support for a serial port, see the section on kernel configuration. To add support for a parallel port, see that section and the section that follows. Adding <filename>/dev</filename> Entries for the Ports Even though the kernel may support communication along a serial or parallel port, you will still need a software interface through which programs running on the system can send and receive data. That is what entries in the /dev directory are for. To add a /dev entry for a port: Become root with the &man.su.1; command. Enter the root password when prompted. Change to the /dev directory: &prompt.root; cd /dev Type: &prompt.root; ./MAKEDEV port Where port is the device entry for the port you want to make. Use lpt0 for the first parallel port, lpt1 for the second, and so on; use ttyd0 for the first serial port, ttyd1 for the second, and so on. Type: &prompt.root; ls -l port to make sure the device entry got created. Setting the Communication Mode for the Parallel Port When you are using the parallel interface, you can choose whether FreeBSD should use interrupt-driven or polled communication with the printer. The interrupt-driven method is the default with the GENERIC kernel. With this method, the operating system uses an IRQ line to determine when the printer is ready for data. The polled method directs the operating system to repeatedly ask the printer if it is ready for more data. When it responds ready, the kernel sends more data. The interrupt-driven method is somewhat faster but uses up a precious IRQ line. You should use whichever one works. You can set the communications mode in two ways: by configuring the kernel or by using the &man.lptcontrol.8; program. To set the communications mode by configuring the kernel: Edit your kernel configuration file. Look for or add an lpt0 entry. If you are setting up the second parallel port, use lpt1 instead. Use lpt2 for the third port, and so on. If you want interrupt-driven mode, add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty irq N vector lptintr Where N is the IRQ number for your computer's parallel port. If you want polled mode, do not add the irq specifier: device lpt0 at isa? port? tty vector lptintr Save the file. Then configure, build, and install the kernel, then reboot. See kernel configuration for more details. To set the communications mode with &man.lptcontrol.8;: Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -i -u N to set interrupt-driven mode for lptN. Type: &prompt.root; lptcontrol -p -u N to set polled-mode for lptN. You could put these commands in your /etc/rc.local file to set the mode each time your system boots. See &man.lptcontrol.8; for more information. Checking Printer Communications Before proceeding to configure the spooling system, you should make sure the operating system can successfully send data to your printer. It is a lot easier to debug printer communication and the spooling system separately. To test the printer, we will send some text to it. For printers that can immediately print characters sent to them, the program &man.lptest.1; is perfect: it generates all 96 printable ASCII characters in 96 lines. For a PostScript (or other language-based) printer, we will need a more sophisticated test. A small PostScript program, such as the following, will suffice: %!PS 100 100 moveto 300 300 lineto stroke 310 310 moveto /Helvetica findfont 12 scalefont setfont (Is this thing working?) show showpage When this document refers to a printer language, it is assuming a language like PostScript, and not Hewlett Packard's PCL. Although PCL has great functionality, you can intermingle plain text with its escape sequences. PostScript cannot directly print plain text, and that is the kind of printer language for which we must make special accommodations. Checking a Parallel Printer This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer connected to a parallel port. To test a printer on a parallel port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: &prompt.root; lptest > /dev/lptN Where N is the number of the parallel port, starting from zero. If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type: &prompt.root; cat > /dev/lptN Then, line by line, type the program carefully as you cannot edit a line once you have pressed RETURN or ENTER. When you have finished entering the program, press CONTROL+D, or whatever your end of file key is. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: &prompt.root; cat file > /dev/lptN Where file is the name of the file containing the program you want to send to the printer. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix such things later. Checking a Serial Printer This section tells you how to check if FreeBSD can communicate with a printer on a serial port. To test a printer on a serial port: Become root with &man.su.1;. Edit the file /etc/remote. Add the following entry: printer:dv=/dev/port:br#bps-rate:pa=parity Where port is the device entry for the serial port (ttyd0, ttyd1, etc.), bps-rate is the bits-per-second rate at which the printer communicates, and parity is the parity required by the printer (either even, odd, none, or zero). Here is a sample entry for a printer connected via a serial line to the third serial port at 19200 bps with no parity: printer:dv=/dev/ttyd2:br#19200:pa=none Connect to the printer with &man.tip.1;. Type: &prompt.root; tip printer If this step does not work, edit the file /etc/remote again and try using /dev/cuaaN instead of /dev/ttydN. Send data to the printer. If the printer can print plain text, then use &man.lptest.1;. Type: ~$lptest If the printer understands PostScript or other printer language, then send a small program to the printer. Type the program, line by line, very carefully as backspacing or other editing keys may be significant to the printer. You may also need to type a special end-of-file key for the printer so it knows it received the whole program. For PostScript printers, press CONTROL+D. Alternatively, you can put the program in a file and type: ~>file Where file is the name of the file containing the program. After &man.tip.1; sends the file, press any required end-of-file key. You should see something print. Do not worry if the text does not look right; we will fix that later. Enabling the Spooler: The <filename>/etc/printcap</filename> File At this point, your printer should be hooked up, your kernel configured to communicate with it (if necessary), and you have been able to send some simple data to the printer. Now, we are ready to configure LPD to control access to your printer. You configure LPD by editing the file /etc/printcap. The LPD spooling system reads this file each time the spooler is used, so updates to the file take immediate effect. The format of the &man.printcap.5; file is straightforward. Use your favorite text editor to make changes to /etc/printcap. The format is identical to other capability files like /usr/share/misc/termcap and /etc/remote. For complete information about the format, see the &man.cgetent.3;. The simple spooler configuration consists of the following steps: Pick a name (and a few convenient aliases) for the printer, and put them in the /etc/printcap file; see the Naming the Printer section for more information on naming. Turn off header pages (which are on by default) by inserting the sh capability; see the Suppressing Header Pages section for more information. Make a spooling directory, and specify its location with the sd capability; see the Making the Spooling Directory section for more information. Set the /dev entry to use for the printer, and note it in /etc/printcap with the lp capability; see the Identifying the Printer Device for more information. Also, if the printer is on a serial port, set up the communication parameters with the fs, fc, xs, and xc capabilities; which is discussed in the Configuring Spooler Communications Parameters section. Install a plain text input filter; see the Installing the Text Filter section for details. Test the setup by printing something with the &man.lpr.1; command. More details are available in the Trying It Out and Troubleshooting sections. Language-based printers, such as PostScript printers, cannot directly print plain text. The simple setup outlined above and described in the following sections assumes that if you are installing such a printer you will print only files that the printer can understand. Users often expect that they can print plain text to any of the printers installed on your system. Programs that interface to LPD to do their printing usually make the same assumption. If you are installing such a printer and want to be able to print jobs in the printer language and print plain text jobs, you are strongly urged to add an additional step to the simple setup outlined above: install an automatic plain-text-to-PostScript (or other printer language) conversion program. The section entitled Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells how to do this. Naming the Printer The first (easy) step is to pick a name for your printer It really does not matter whether you choose functional or whimsical names since you can also provide a number aliases for the printer. At least one of the printers specified in the /etc/printcap should have the alias lp. This is the default printer's name. If users do not have the PRINTER environment variable nor specify a printer name on the command line of any of the LPD commands, then lp will be the default printer they get to use. Also, it is common practice to make the last alias for a printer be a full description of the printer, including make and model. Once you have picked a name and some common aliases, put them in the /etc/printcap file. The name of the printer should start in the leftmost column. Separate each alias with a vertical bar and put a colon after the last alias. In the following example, we start with a skeletal /etc/printcap that defines two printers (a Diablo 630 line printer and a Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript laser printer): # # /etc/printcap for host rose # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4: In this example, the first printer is named rattan and has as aliases line, diablo, lp, and Diablo 630 Line Printer. Since it has the alias lp, it is also the default printer. The second is named bamboo, and has as aliases ps, PS, S, panasonic, and Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4. Suppressing Header Pages The LPD spooling system will by default print a header page for each job. The header page contains the user name who requested the job, the host from which the job came, and the name of the job, in nice large letters. Unfortunately, all this extra text gets in the way of debugging the simple printer setup, so we will suppress header pages. To suppress header pages, add the sh capability to the entry for the printer in /etc/printcap. Here is an example /etc/printcap with sh added: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - no header pages anywhere # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh: Note how we used the correct format: the first line starts in the leftmost column, and subsequent lines are indented with a single TAB. Every line in an entry except the last ends in a backslash character. Making the Spooling Directory The next step in the simple spooler setup is to make a spooling directory, a directory where print jobs reside until they are printed, and where a number of other spooler support files live. Because of the variable nature of spooling directories, it is customary to put these directories under /var/spool. It is not necessary to backup the contents of spooling directories, either. Recreating them is as simple as running &man.mkdir.1;. It is also customary to make the directory with a name that is identical to the name of the printer, as shown below: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/printer-name However, if you have a lot of printers on your network, you might want to put the spooling directories under a single directory that you reserve just for printing with LPD. We will do this for our two example printers rattan and bamboo: &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; mkdir /var/spool/lpd/bamboo If you are concerned about the privacy of jobs that users print, you might want to protect the spooling directory so it is not publicly accessible. Spooling directories should be owned and be readable, writable, and searchable by user daemon and group daemon, and no one else. We will do this for our example printers: &prompt.root; chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Finally, you need to tell LPD about these directories using the /etc/printcap file. You specify the pathname of the spooling directory with the sd capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added spooling directories # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Note that the name of the printer starts in the first column but all other entries describing the printer should be indented with a tab and each line escaped with a backslash. If you do not specify a spooling directory with sd, the spooling system will use /var/spool/lpd as a default. Identifying the Printer Device In the Adding /dev Entries for the Ports section, we identified which entry in the /dev directory FreeBSD will use to communicate with the printer. Now, we tell LPD that information. When the spooling system has a job to print, it will open the specified device on behalf of the filter program (which is responsible for passing data to the printer). List the /dev entry pathname in the /etc/printcap file using the lp capability. In our running example, let us assume that rattan is on the first parallel port, and bamboo is on a sixth serial port; here are the additions to /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - identified what devices to use # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5: If you do not specify the lp capability for a printer in your /etc/printcap file, LPD uses /dev/lp as a default. /dev/lp currently does not exist in FreeBSD. If the printer you are installing is connected to a parallel port, skip to the section entitled, Installing the Text Filter. Otherwise, be sure to follow the instructions in the next section. Configuring Spooler Communication Parameters For printers on serial ports, LPD can set up the bps rate, parity, and other serial communication parameters on behalf of the filter program that sends data to the printer. This is advantageous since: It lets you try different communication parameters by simply editing the /etc/printcap file; you do not have to recompile the filter program. It enables the spooling system to use the same filter program for multiple printers which may have different serial communication settings. The following /etc/printcap capabilities control serial communication parameters of the device listed in the lp capability: br#bps-rate Sets the communications speed of the device to bps-rate, where bps-rate can be 50, 75, 110, 134, 150, 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, or 38400 bits-per-second. fc#clear-bits Clears the flag bits clear-bits in the sgttyb structure after opening the device. fs#set-bits Sets the flag bits set-bits in the sgttyb structure. xc#clear-bits Clears local mode bits clear-bits after opening the device. xs#set-bits Sets local mode bits set-bits. For more information on the bits for the fc, fs, xc, and xs capabilities, see the file /usr/include/sys/ioctl_compat.h. When LPD opens the device specified by the lp capability, it reads the flag bits in the sgttyb structure; it clears any bits in the fc capability, then sets bits in the fs capability, then applies the resultant setting. It does the same for the local mode bits as well. Let us add to our example printer on the sixth serial port. We will set the bps rate to 38400. For the flag bits, we will set the TANDEM, ANYP, LITOUT, FLUSHO, and PASS8 flags. For the local mode bits, we will set the LITOUT and PASS8 flags: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000c1:xs#0x820: Installing the Text Filter We are now ready to tell LPD what text filter to use to send jobs to the printer. A text filter, also known as an input filter, is a program that LPD runs when it has a job to print. When LPD runs the text filter for a printer, it sets the filter's standard input to the job to print, and its standard output to the printer device specified with the lp capability. The filter is expected to read the job from standard input, perform any necessary translation for the printer, and write the results to standard output, which will get printed. For more information on the text filter, see the Filters section. For our simple printer setup, the text filter can be a small shell script that just executes /bin/cat to send the job to the printer. FreeBSD comes with another filter called lpf that handles backspacing and underlining for printers that might not deal with such character streams well. And, of course, you can use any other filter program you want. The filter lpf is described in detail in section entitled lpf: a Text Filter. First, let us make the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple be a simple text filter. Put the following text into that file with your favorite text editor: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. /bin/cat && exit 0 exit 2 Make the file executable: &prompt.root; chmod 555 /usr/local/libexec/if-simple And then tell LPD to use it by specifying it with the if capability in /etc/printcap. We will add it to the two printers we have so far in the example /etc/printcap: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added text filter # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: Turn on LPD &man.lpd.8; is run from /etc/rc, controlled by the lpd_enable variable. This variable defaults to NO. If you have not done so already, add the line: lpd_enable="YES" to /etc/rc.conf, and then either restart your machine, or just run &man.lpd.8;. &prompt.root; lpd Trying It Out You have reached the end of the simple LPD setup. Unfortunately, congratulations are not quite yet in order, since we still have to test the setup and correct any problems. To test the setup, try printing something. To print with the LPD system, you use the command &man.lpr.1;, which submits a job for printing. You can combine &man.lpr.1; with the &man.lptest.1; program, introduced in section Checking Printer Communications to generate some test text. To test the simple LPD setup: Type: &prompt.root; lptest 20 5 | lpr -Pprinter-name Where printer-name is a the name of a printer (or an alias) specified in /etc/printcap. To test the default printer, type &man.lpr.1; without any argument. Again, if you are testing a printer that expects PostScript, send a PostScript program in that language instead of using &man.lptest.1;. You can do so by putting the program in a file and typing lpr file. For a PostScript printer, you should get the results of the program. If you are using &man.lptest.1;, then your results should look like the following: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 $%&'()*+,-./01234567 %&'()*+,-./012345678 To further test the printer, try downloading larger programs (for language-based printers) or running &man.lptest.1; with different arguments. For example, lptest 80 60 will produce 60 lines of 80 characters each. If the printer did not work, see the Troubleshooting section. Advanced Printer Setup This section describes filters for printing specially formatted files, header pages, printing across networks, and restricting and accounting for printer usage. Filters Although LPD handles network protocols, queuing, access control, and other aspects of printing, most of the real work happens in the filters. Filters are programs that communicate with the printer and handle its device dependencies and special requirements. In the simple printer setup, we installed a plain text filter—an extremely simple one that should work with most printers (section Installing the Text Filter). However, in order to take advantage of format conversion, printer accounting, specific printer quirks, and so on, you should understand how filters work. It will ultimately be the filter's responsibility to handle these aspects. And the bad news is that most of the time you have to provide filters yourself. The good news is that many are generally available; when they are not, they are usually easy to write. Also, FreeBSD comes with one, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, that works with many printers that can print plain text. (It handles backspacing and tabs in the file, and does accounting, but that is about all it does.) There are also several filters and filter components in the FreeBSD ports collection. Here is what you will find in this section: Section How Filters Work, tries to give an overview of a filter's role in the printing process. You should read this section to get an - understanding of what is happening “under the hood” + understanding of what is happening under the hood when LPD uses filters. This knowledge could help you anticipate and debug problems you might encounter as you install more and more filters on each of your printers. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default. This presents a problem for PostScript (or other language-based printers) which cannot directly print plain text. Section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers tells you what you should do to overcome this problem. I recommend reading this section if you have a PostScript printer. PostScript is a popular output format for many programs. Even some people (myself included) write PostScript code directly. But PostScript printers are expensive. Section Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers tells how you can further modify a printer's text filter to accept and print PostScript data on a non-PostScript printer. I recommend reading this section if you do not have a PostScript printer. Section Conversion Filters tells about a way you can automate the conversion of specific file formats, such as graphic or typesetting data, into formats your printer can understand. After reading this section, you should be able to set up your printers such that users can type lpr -t to print troff data, or lpr -d to print TeX DVI data, or lpr -v to print raster image data, and so forth. I recommend reading this section. Section Output Filters tells all about a not often used feature of LPD: output filters. Unless you are printing header pages (see Header Pages), you can probably skip that section altogether. Section lpf: a Text Filter describes lpf, a fairly complete if simple text filter for line printers (and laser printers that act like line printers) that comes with FreeBSD. If you need a quick way to get printer accounting working for plain text, or if you have a printer which emits smoke when it sees backspace characters, you should definitely consider lpf. How Filters Work As mentioned before, a filter is an executable program started by LPD to handle the device-dependent part of communicating with the printer. When LPD wants to print a file in a job, it starts a filter program. It sets the filter's standard input to the file to print, its standard output to the printer, and its standard error to the error logging file (specified in the lf capability in /etc/printcap, or /dev/console by default). Which filter LPD starts and the filter's arguments depend on what is listed in the /etc/printcap file and what arguments the user specified for the job on the &man.lpr.1; command line. For example, if the user typed lpr -t, LPD would start the troff filter, listed in the tf capability for the destination printer. If the user wanted to print plain text, it would start the if filter (this is mostly true: see Output Filters for details). There are three kinds of filters you can specify in /etc/printcap: The text filter, confusingly called the input filter in LPD documentation, handles regular text printing. Think of it as the default filter. LPD expects every printer to be able to print plain text by default, and it is the text filter's job to make sure backspaces, tabs, or other special characters do not confuse the printer. If you are in an environment where you have to account for printer usage, the text filter must also account for pages printed, usually by counting the number of lines printed and comparing that to the number of lines per page the printer supports. The text filter is started with the following argument list: filter-name -c -wwidth -llength -iindent -n login -h host acct-file where appears if the job's submitted with lpr -l width is the value from the pw (page width) capability specified in /etc/printcap, default 132 length is the value from the pl (page length) capability, default 66 indent is the amount of the indentation from lpr -i, default 0 login is the account name of the user printing the file host is the host name from which the job was submitted acct-file is the name of the accounting file from the af capability. A conversion filter converts a specific file format into one the printer can render onto paper. For example, ditroff typesetting data cannot be directly printed, but you can install a conversion filter for ditroff files to convert the ditroff data into a form the printer can digest and print. Section Conversion Filters tells all about them. Conversion filters also need to do accounting, if you need printer accounting. Conversion filters are started with the following arguments: filter-name -xpixel-width -ypixel-height -n login -h host acct-file where pixel-width is the value from the px capability (default 0) and pixel-height is the value from the py capability (default 0). The output filter is used only if there is no text filter, or if header pages are enabled. In my experience, output filters are rarely used. Section Output Filters describe them. There are only two arguments to an output filter: filter-name -wwidth -llength which are identical to the text filters and arguments. Filters should also exit with the following exit status: exit 0 If the filter printed the file successfully. exit 1 If the filter failed to print the file but wants LPD to try to print the file again. LPD will restart a filter if it exits with this status. exit 2 If the filter failed to print the file and does not want LPD to try again. LPD will throw out the file. The text filter that comes with the FreeBSD release, /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf, takes advantage of the page width and length arguments to determine when to send a form feed and how to account for printer usage. It uses the login, host, and accounting file arguments to make the accounting entries. If you are shopping for filters, see if they are LPD-compatible. If they are, they must support the argument lists described above. If you plan on writing filters for general use, then have them support the same argument lists and exit codes. Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers If you are the only user of your computer and PostScript (or other language-based) printer, and you promise to never send plain text to your printer and to never use features of various programs that will want to send plain text to your printer, then you do not need to worry about this section at all. But, if you would like to send both PostScript and plain text jobs to the printer, then you are urged to augment your printer setup. To do so, we have the text filter detect if the arriving job is plain text or PostScript. All PostScript jobs must start with %! (for other printer languages, see your printer documentation). If those are the first two characters in the job, we have PostScript, and can pass the rest of the job directly. If those are not the first two characters in the file, then the filter will convert the text into PostScript and print the result. How do we do this? If you have got a serial printer, a great way to do it is to install lprps. lprps is a PostScript printer filter which performs two-way communication with the printer. It updates the printer's status file with verbose information from the printer, so users and administrators can see exactly what the state of the printer is (such as toner low or paper jam). But more importantly, it includes a program called psif which detects whether the incoming job is plain text and calls textps (another program that comes with lprps) to convert it to PostScript. It then uses lprps to send the job to the printer. lprps is part of the FreeBSD ports collection (see The Ports Collection). You can fetch, build and install it yourself, of course. After installing lprps, just specify the pathname to the psif program that is part of lprps. If you installed lprps from the ports collection, use the following in the serial PostScript printer's entry in /etc/printcap: :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif: You should also specify the rw capability; that tells LPD to open the printer in read-write mode. If you have a parallel PostScript printer (and therefore cannot use two-way communication with the printer, which lprps needs), you can use the following shell script as the text filter: #!/bin/sh # # psif - Print PostScript or plain text on a PostScript printer # Script version; NOT the version that comes with lprps # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psif # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # PostScript job, print it. # echo "$first_line" && cat && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 else # # Plain text, convert it, then print it. # ( echo "$first_line"; cat ) | /usr/local/bin/textps && printf "\004" && exit 0 exit 2 fi In the above script, textps is a program we installed separately to convert plain text to PostScript. You can use any text-to-PostScript program you wish. The FreeBSD ports collection (see The Ports Collection) includes a full featured text-to-PostScript program called a2ps that you might want to investigate. Simulating PostScript on Non-PostScript Printers PostScript is the de facto standard for high quality typesetting and printing. PostScript is, however, an expensive standard. Thankfully, Alladin Enterprises has a free PostScript work-alike called Ghostscript that runs with FreeBSD. Ghostscript can read most PostScript files and can render their pages onto a variety of devices, including many brands of non-PostScript printers. By installing Ghostscript and using a special text filter for your printer, you can make your non-PostScript printer act like a real PostScript printer. Ghostscript should be in the FreeBSD ports collection, if you would like to install it from there. You can fetch, build, and install it quite easily yourself, as well. To simulate PostScript, we have the text filter detect if it is printing a PostScript file. If it is not, then the filter will pass the file directly to the printer; otherwise, it will use Ghostscript to first convert the file into a format the printer will understand. Here is an example: the following script is a text filter for Hewlett Packard DeskJet 500 printers. For other printers, substitute the argument to the gs (Ghostscript) command. (Type gs -h to get a list of devices the current installation of Ghostscript supports.) #!/bin/sh # # ifhp - Print Ghostscript-simulated PostScript on a DeskJet 500 # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Treat LF as CR+LF: # printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 # # Read first two characters of the file # read first_line first_two_chars=`expr "$first_line" : '\(..\)'` if [ "$first_two_chars" = "%!" ]; then # # It is PostScript; use Ghostscript to scan-convert and print it. # # Note that PostScript files are actually interpreted programs, # and those programs are allowed to write to stdout, which will # mess up the printed output. So, we redirect stdout to stderr # and then make descriptor 3 go to stdout, and have Ghostscript # write its output there. Exercise for the clever reader: # capture the stderr output from Ghostscript and mail it back to # the user originating the print job. # exec 3>&1 1>&2 /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 \ -sOutputFile=/dev/fd/3 - && exit 0 # /usr/local/bin/gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -q -sDEVICE=djet500 -sOutputFile=- - \ && exit 0 else # # Plain text or HP/PCL, so just print it directly; print a form # at the end to eject the last page. # echo $first_line && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 fi exit 2 Finally, you need to notify LPD of the filter via the if capability: :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: That is it. You can type lpr plain.text and lpr whatever.ps and both should print successfully. Conversion Filters After completing the simple setup described in Simple Printer Setup, the first thing you will probably want to do is install conversion filters for your favorite file formats (besides plain ASCII text). Why Install Conversion Filters? Conversion filters make printing various kinds of files easy. As an example, suppose we do a lot of work with the TeX typesetting system, and we have a PostScript printer. Every time we generate a DVI file from TeX, we cannot print it directly until we convert the DVI file into PostScript. The command sequence goes like this: &prompt.user; dvips seaweed-analysis.dvi &prompt.user; lpr seaweed-analysis.ps By installing a conversion filter for DVI files, we can skip the hand conversion step each time by having LPD do it for us. Now, each time we get a DVI file, we are just one step away from printing it: &prompt.user; lpr -d seaweed-analysis.dvi We got LPD to do the DVI file conversion for us by specifying the option. Section Formatting and Conversion Options lists the conversion options. For each of the conversion options you want a printer to support, install a conversion filter and specify its pathname in /etc/printcap. A conversion filter is like the text filter for the simple printer setup (see section Installing the Text Filter) except that instead of printing plain text, the filter converts the file into a format the printer can understand. Which Conversions Filters Should I Install? You should install the conversion filters you expect to use. If you print a lot of DVI data, then a DVI conversion filter is in order. If you have got plenty of troff to print out, then you probably want a troff filter. The following table summarizes the filters that LPD works with, their capability entries for the /etc/printcap file, and how to invoke them with the lpr command: File type /etc/printcap capability lpr option cifplot cf DVI df plot gf ditroff nf FORTRAN text rf troff rf raster vf plain text if none, , or In our example, using lpr -d means the printer needs a df capability in its entry in /etc/printcap. Despite what others might contend, formats like FORTRAN text and plot are probably obsolete. At your site, you can give new meanings to these or any of the formatting options just by installing custom filters. For example, suppose you would like to directly print Printerleaf files (files from the Interleaf desktop publishing program), but will never print plot files. You could install a Printerleaf conversion filter under the gf capability and then educate your users that - lpr -g mean “print Printerleaf - files.” + lpr -g mean print Printerleaf + files. Installing Conversion Filters Since conversion filters are programs you install outside of the base FreeBSD installation, they should probably go under /usr/local. The directory /usr/local/libexec is a popular location, since they are specialized programs that only LPD will run; regular users should not ever need to run them. To enable a conversion filter, specify its pathname under the appropriate capability for the destination printer in /etc/printcap. In our example, we will add the DVI conversion filter to the entry for the printer named bamboo. Here is the example /etc/printcap file again, with the new df capability for the printer bamboo. # # /etc/printcap for host rose - added df filter for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The DVI filter is a shell script named /usr/local/libexec/psdf. Here is that script: #!bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # exec /usr/local/bin/dvips -f | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" This script runs dvips in filter mode (the argument) on standard input, which is the job to print. It then starts the PostScript printer filter lprps (see section Accommodating Plain Text Jobs on PostScript Printers) with the arguments LPD passed to this script. lprps will use those arguments to account for the pages printed. More Conversion Filter Examples Since there is no fixed set of steps to install conversion filters, let me instead provide more examples. Use these as guidance to making your own filters. Use them directly, if appropriate. This example script is a raster (well, GIF file, actually) conversion filter for a Hewlett Packard LaserJet III-Si printer: #!/bin/sh # # hpvf - Convert GIF files into HP/PCL, then print # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpvf PATH=/usr/X11R6/bin:$PATH; export PATH giftopnm | ppmtopgm | pgmtopbm | pbmtolj -resolution 300 \ && exit 0 \ || exit 2 It works by converting the GIF file into a portable anymap, converting that into a portable graymap, converting that into a portable bitmap, and converting that into LaserJet/PCL-compatible data. Here is the /etc/printcap file with an entry for a printer using the above filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf: The following script is a conversion filter for troff data from the groff typesetting system for the PostScript printer named bamboo: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops | /usr/local/libexec/lprps "$@" The above script makes use of lprps again to handle the communication with the printer. If the printer were on a parallel port, we would use this script instead: #!/bin/sh # # pstf - Convert groff's troff data into PS, then print. # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/pstf # exec grops That is it. Here is the entry we need to add to /etc/printcap to enable the filter: :tf=/usr/local/libexec/pstf: Here is an example that might make old hands at FORTRAN blush. It is a FORTRAN-text filter for any printer that can directly print plain text. We will install it for the printer teak: #!/bin/sh # # hprf - FORTRAN text filter for LaserJet 3si: # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hprf # printf "\033&k2G" && fpr && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 And we will add this line to the /etc/printcap for the printer teak to enable this filter: :rf=/usr/local/libexec/hprf: Here is one final, somewhat complex example. We will add a DVI filter to the LaserJet printer teak introduced earlier. First, the easy part: updating /etc/printcap with the location of the DVI filter: :df=/usr/local/libexec/hpdf: Now, for the hard part: making the filter. For that, we need a DVI-to-LaserJet/PCL conversion program. The FreeBSD ports collection (see The Ports Collection) has one: dvi2xx is the name of the package. Installing this package gives us the program we need, dvilj2p, which converts DVI into LaserJet IIp, LaserJet III, and LaserJet 2000 compatible codes. dvilj2p makes the filter hpdf quite complex since dvilj2p cannot read from standard input. It wants to work with a filename. What is worse, the filename has to end in .dvi so using /dev/fd/0 for standard input is problematic. We can get around that problem by linking (symbolically) a temporary file name (one that ends in .dvi) to /dev/fd/0, thereby forcing dvilj2p to read from standard input. The only other fly in the ointment is the fact that we cannot use /tmp for the temporary link. Symbolic links are owned by user and group bin. The filter runs as user daemon. And the /tmp directory has the sticky bit set. The filter can create the link, but it will not be able clean up when done and remove it since the link will belong to a different user. Instead, the filter will make the symbolic link in the current working directory, which is the spooling directory (specified by the sd capability in /etc/printcap). This is a perfect place for filters to do their work, especially since there is (sometimes) more free disk space in the spooling directory than under /tmp. Here, finally, is the filter: #!/bin/sh # # hpdf - Print DVI data on HP/PCL printer # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpdf PATH=/usr/local/bin:$PATH; export PATH # # Define a function to clean up our temporary files. These exist # in the current directory, which will be the spooling directory # for the printer. # cleanup() { rm -f hpdf$$.dvi } # # Define a function to handle fatal errors: print the given message # and exit 2. Exiting with 2 tells LPD to do not try to reprint the # job. # fatal() { echo "$@" 1>&2 cleanup exit 2 } # # If user removes the job, LPD will send SIGINT, so trap SIGINT # (and a few other signals) to clean up after ourselves. # trap cleanup 1 2 15 # # Make sure we are not colliding with any existing files. # cleanup # # Link the DVI input file to standard input (the file to print). # ln -s /dev/fd/0 hpdf$$.dvi || fatal "Cannot symlink /dev/fd/0" # # Make LF = CR+LF # printf "\033&k2G" || fatal "Cannot initialize printer" # # Convert and print. Return value from dvilj2p does not seem to be # reliable, so we ignore it. # dvilj2p -M1 -q -e- dfhp$$.dvi # # Clean up and exit # cleanup exit 0 Automated Conversion: An Alternative To Conversion Filters All these conversion filters accomplish a lot for your printing environment, but at the cost forcing the user to specify (on the &man.lpr.1; command line) which one to use. If your users are not particularly computer literate, having to specify a filter option will become annoying. What is worse, though, is that an incorrectly specified filter option may run a filter on the wrong type of file and cause your printer to spew out hundreds of sheets of paper. Rather than install conversion filters at all, you might want to try having the text filter (since it is the default filter) detect the type of file it has been asked to print and then automatically run the right conversion filter. Tools such as file can be of help here. Of course, it will be hard to determine the differences between some file types—and, of course, you can still provide conversion filters just for them. The FreeBSD ports collection has a text filter that performs automatic conversion called apsfilter. It can detect plain text, PostScript, and DVI files, run the proper conversions, and print. Output Filters The LPD spooling system supports one other type of filter that we have not yet explored: an output filter. An output filter is intended for printing plain text only, like the text filter, but with many simplifications. If you are using an output filter but no text filter, then: LPD starts an output filter once for the entire job instead of once for each file in the job. LPD does not make any provision to identify the start or the end of files within the job for the output filter. LPD does not pass the user's login or host to the filter, so it is not intended to do accounting. In fact, it gets only two arguments: filter-name -wwidth -llength Where width is from the pw capability and length is from the pl capability for the printer in question. Do not be seduced by an output filter's simplicity. If you would like each file in a job to start on a different page an output filter will not work. Use a text filter (also known as an input filter); see section Installing the Text Filter. Furthermore, an output filter is actually more complex in that it has to examine the byte stream being sent to it for special flag characters and must send signals to itself on behalf of LPD. However, an output filter is necessary if you want header pages and need to send escape sequences or other initialization strings to be able to print the header page. (But it is also futile if you want to charge header pages to the requesting user's account, since LPD does not give any user or host information to the output filter.) On a single printer, LPD allows both an output filter and text or other filters. In such cases, LPD will start the output filter to print the header page (see section Header Pages) only. LPD then expects the output filter to stop itself by sending two bytes to the filter: ASCII 031 followed by ASCII 001. When an output filter sees these two bytes (031, 001), it should stop by sending SIGSTOP to itself. When LPD's done running other filters, it will restart the output filter by sending SIGCONT to it. If there is an output filter but no text filter and LPD is working on a plain text job, LPD uses the output filter to do the job. As stated before, the output filter will print each file of the job in sequence with no intervening form feeds or other paper advancement, and this is probably not what you want. In almost all cases, you need a text filter. The program lpf, which we introduced earlier as a text filter, can also run as an output filter. If you need a quick-and-dirty output filter but do not want to write the byte detection and signal sending code, try lpf. You can also wrap lpf in a shell script to handle any initialization codes the printer might require. <command>lpf</command>: a Text Filter The program /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf that comes with FreeBSD binary distribution is a text filter (input filter) that can indent output (job submitted with lpr -i), allow literal characters to pass (job submitted with lpr -l), adjust the printing position for backspaces and tabs in the job, and account for pages printed. It can also act like an output filter. lpf is suitable for many printing environments. And although it has no capability to send initialization sequences to a printer, it is easy to write a shell script to do the needed initialization and then execute lpf. In order for lpf to do page accounting correctly, it needs correct values filled in for the pw and pl capabilities in the /etc/printcap file. It uses these values to determine how much text can fit on a page and how many pages were in a user's job. For more information on printer accounting, see Accounting for Printer Usage. Header Pages If you have lots of users, all of them using various printers, then you probably want to consider header pages as a necessary evil. Header pages, also known as banner or burst pages identify to whom jobs belong after they are printed. They are usually printed in large, bold letters, perhaps with decorative borders, so that in a stack of printouts they stand out from the real documents that comprise users' jobs. They enable users to locate their jobs quickly. The obvious drawback to a header page is that it is yet one more sheet that has to be printed for every job, their ephemeral usefulness lasting not more than a few minutes, ultimately finding themselves in a recycling bin or rubbish heap. (Note that header pages go with each job, not each file in a job, so the paper waste might not be that bad.) The LPD system can provide header pages automatically for your printouts if your printer can directly print plain text. If you have a PostScript printer, you will need an external program to generate the header page; see Header Pages on PostScript Printers. Enabling Header Pages In the Simple Printer Setup, we turned off header pages by specifying - sh (meaning “suppress header”) in the + sh (meaning suppress header) in the /etc/printcap file. To enable header pages for a printer, just remove the sh capability. Sounds too easy, right? You are right. You might have to provide an output filter to send initialization strings to the printer. Here is an example output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers: #!/bin/sh # # hpof - Output filter for Hewlett Packard PCL-compatible printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpof printf "\033&k2G" || exit 2 exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf Specify the path to the output filter in the of capability. See Output Filters for more information. Here is an example /etc/printcap file for the printer teak that we introduced earlier; we enabled header pages and added the above output filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/hpvf:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/hpof: Now, when users print jobs to teak, they get a header page with each job. If users want to spend time searching for their printouts, they can suppress header pages by submitting the job with lpr -h; see Header Page Options for more &man.lpr.1; options. LPD prints a form feed character after the header page. If your printer uses a different character or sequence of characters to eject a page, specify them with the ff capability in /etc/printcap. Controlling Header Pages By enabling header pages, LPD will produce a long header, a full page of large letters identifying the user, host, and job. Here is an example (kelly printed the job named outline from host rose): k ll ll k l l k l l k k eeee l l y y k k e e l l y y k k eeeeee l l y y kk k e l l y y k k e e l l y yy k k eeee lll lll yyy y y y y yyyy ll t l i t l oooo u u ttttt l ii n nnn eeee o o u u t l i nn n e e o o u u t l i n n eeeeee o o u u t l i n n e o o u uu t t l i n n e e oooo uuu u tt lll iii n n eeee r rrr oooo ssss eeee rr r o o s s e e r o o ss eeeeee r o o ss e r o o s s e e r oooo ssss eeee Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:04:58 1995 LPD appends a form feed after this text so the job starts on a new page (unless you have sf (suppress form feeds) in the destination printer's entry in /etc/printcap). If you prefer, LPD can make a short header; specify sb (short banner) in the /etc/printcap file. The header page will look like this: rose:kelly Job: outline Date: Sun Sep 17 11:07:51 1995 Also by default, LPD prints the header page first, then the job. To reverse that, specify hl (header last) in /etc/printcap. Accounting for Header Pages Using LPD's built-in header pages enforces a particular paradigm when it comes to printer accounting: header pages must be free of charge. Why? Because the output filter is the only external program that will have control when the header page is printed that could do accounting, and it is not provided with any user or host information or an accounting file, so it has no idea whom to charge for printer use. It is also not enough to just - “add one page” to the text filter or any of the + add one page to the text filter or any of the conversion filters (which do have user and host information) since users can suppress header pages with lpr -h. They could still be charged for header pages they did not print. Basically, lpr -h will be the preferred option of environmentally-minded users, but you cannot offer any incentive to use it. It is still not enough to have each of the filters generate their own header pages (thereby being able to charge for them). If users wanted the option of suppressing the header pages with lpr -h, they will still get them and be charged for them since LPD does not pass any knowledge of the option to any of the filters. So, what are your options? You can: Accept LPD's paradigm and make header pages free. Install an alternative to LPD, such as LPRng or PLP. Section Alternatives to the Standard Spooler tells more about other spooling software you can substitute for LPD. Write a smart output filter. Normally, an output filter is not meant to do anything more than initialize a printer or do some simple character conversion. It is suited for header pages and plain text jobs (when there is no text (input) filter). But, if there is a text filter for the plain text jobs, then LPD will start the output filter only for the header pages. And the output filter can parse the header page text that LPD generates to determine what user and host to charge for the header page. The only other problem with this method is that the output filter still does not know what accounting file to use (it is not passed the name of the file from the af capability), but if you have a well-known accounting file, you can hard-code that into the output filter. To facilitate the parsing step, use the sh (short header) capability in /etc/printcap. Then again, all that might be too much trouble, and users will certainly appreciate the more generous system administrator who makes header pages free. Header Pages on PostScript Printers As described above, LPD can generate a plain text header page suitable for many printers. Of course, PostScript cannot directly print plain text, so the header page feature of LPD is useless—or mostly so. One obvious way to get header pages is to have every conversion filter and the text filter generate the header page. The filters should should use the user and host arguments to generate a suitable header page. The drawback of this method is that users will always get a header page, even if they submit jobs with lpr -h. Let us explore this method. The following script takes three arguments (user login name, host name, and job name) and makes a simple PostScript header page: #!/bin/sh # # make-ps-header - make a PostScript header page on stdout # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header # # # These are PostScript units (72 to the inch). Modify for A4 or # whatever size paper you are using: # page_width=612 page_height=792 border=72 # # Check arguments # if [ $# -ne 3 ]; then echo "Usage: `basename $0` <user> <host> <job>" 1>&2 exit 1 fi # # Save these, mostly for readability in the PostScript, below. # user=$1 host=$2 job=$3 date=`date` # # Send the PostScript code to stdout. # exec cat <<EOF %!PS % % Make sure we do not interfere with user's job that will follow % save % % Make a thick, unpleasant border around the edge of the paper. % $border $border moveto $page_width $border 2 mul sub 0 rlineto 0 $page_height $border 2 mul sub rlineto currentscreen 3 -1 roll pop 100 3 1 roll setscreen $border 2 mul $page_width sub 0 rlineto closepath 0.8 setgray 10 setlinewidth stroke 0 setgray % % Display user's login name, nice and large and prominent % /Helvetica-Bold findfont 64 scalefont setfont $page_width ($user) stringwidth pop sub 2 div $page_height 200 sub moveto ($user) show % % Now show the boring particulars % /Helvetica findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ (Job:) (Host:) (Date:) ] { 200 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall /Helvetica-Bold findfont 14 scalefont setfont /y 200 def [ ($job) ($host) ($date) ] { 270 y moveto show /y y 18 sub def } forall % % That is it % restore showpage EOF Now, each of the conversion filters and the text filter can call this script to first generate the header page, and then print the user's job. Here is the DVI conversion filter from earlier in this document, modified to make a header page: #!/bin/sh # # psdf - DVI to PostScript printer filter # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/psdf # # Invoked by lpd when user runs lpr -d # orig_args="$@" fail() { echo "$@" 1>&2 exit 2 } while getopts "x:y:n:h:" option; do case $option in x|y) ;; # Ignore n) login=$OPTARG ;; h) host=$OPTARG ;; *) echo "LPD started `basename $0` wrong." 1>&2 exit 2 ;; esac done [ "$login" ] || fail "No login name" [ "$host" ] || fail "No host name" ( /usr/local/libexec/make-ps-header $login $host "DVI File" /usr/local/bin/dvips -f ) | eval /usr/local/libexec/lprps $orig_args Notice how the filter has to parse the argument list in order to determine the user and host name. The parsing for the other conversion filters is identical. The text filter takes a slightly different set of arguments, though (see section How Filters Work). As we have mentioned before, the above scheme, though fairly - simple, disables the “suppress header page” option (the + simple, disables the suppress header page option (the option) to lpr. If users wanted to save a tree (or a few pennies, if you charge for header pages), they would not be able to do so, since every filter's going to print a header page with every job. To allow users to shut off header pages on a per-job basis, you will need to use the trick introduced in section Accounting for Header Pages: write an output filter that parses the LPD-generated header page and produces a PostScript version. If the user submits the job with lpr -h, then LPD will not generate a header page, and neither will your output filter. Otherwise, your output filter will read the text from LPD and send the appropriate header page PostScript code to the printer. If you have a PostScript printer on a serial line, you can make use of lprps, which comes with an output filter, psof, which does the above. Note that psof does not charge for header pages. Networked Printing FreeBSD supports networked printing: sending jobs to remote printers. Networked printing generally refers to two different things: Accessing a printer attached to a remote host. You install a printer that has a conventional serial or parallel interface on one host. Then, you set up LPD to enable access to the printer from other hosts on the network. Section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts tells how to do this. Accessing a printer attached directly to a network. The printer has a network interface in addition (or in place of) a more conventional serial or parallel interface. Such a printer might work as follows: It might understand the LPD protocol and can even queue jobs from remote hosts. In this case, it acts just like a regular host running LPD. Follow the same procedure in section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts to set up such a printer. It might support a data stream network connection. In this - case, you “attach” the printer to one host on the + case, you attach the printer to one host on the network by making that host responsible for spooling jobs and sending them to the printer. Section Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces gives some suggestions on installing such printers. Printers Installed on Remote Hosts The LPD spooling system has built-in support for sending jobs to other hosts also running LPD (or are compatible with LPD). This feature enables you to install a printer on one host and make it accessible from other hosts. It also works with printers that have network interfaces that understand the LPD protocol. To enable this kind of remote printing, first install a printer on one host, the printer host, using the simple printer setup described in Simple Printer Setup. Do any advanced setup in Advanced Printer Setup that you need. Make sure to test the printer and see if it works with the features of LPD you have enabled. Also ensure that the local host has authorization to use the LPD service in the remote host (see Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers). If you are using a printer with a network interface that is compatible with LPD, then the printer host in the discussion below is the printer itself, and the printer name is the name you configured for the printer. See the documentation that accompanied your printer and/or printer-network interface. If you are using a Hewlett Packard Laserjet then the printer name text will automatically perform the LF to CRLF conversion for you, so you will not require the hpif script. Then, on the other hosts you want to have access to the printer, make an entry in their /etc/printcap files with the following: Name the entry anything you want. For simplicity, though, you probably want to use the same name and aliases as on the printer host. Leave the lp capability blank, explicitly (:lp=:). Make a spooling directory and specify its location in the sd capability. LPD will store jobs here before they get sent to the printer host. Place the name of the printer host in the rm capability. Place the printer name on the printer host in the rp capability. That is it. You do not need to list conversion filters, page dimensions, or anything else in the /etc/printcap file. Here is an example. The host rose has two printers, bamboo and rattan. We will enable users on the host orchid to print to those printers. Here is the /etc/printcap file for orchid (back from section Enabling Header Pages). It already had the entry for the printer teak; we have added entries for the two printers on the host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - added (remote) printers on rose # # # teak is local; it is connected directly to orchid: # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: # # rattan is connected to rose; send jobs for rattan to rose: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: # # bamboo is connected to rose as well: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo: Then, we just need to make spooling directories on orchid: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chmod 770 /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo &prompt.root; chown daemon.daemon /var/spool/lpd/rattan /var/spool/lpd/bamboo Now, users on orchid can print to rattan and bamboo. If, for example, a user on orchid typed &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d sushi-review.dvi the LPD system on orchid would copy the job to the spooling directory /var/spool/lpd/bamboo and note that it was a DVI job. As soon as the host rose has room in its bamboo spooling directory, the two LPDs would transfer the file to rose. The file would wait in rose's queue until it was finally printed. It would be converted from DVI to PostScript (since bamboo is a PostScript printer) on rose. Printers with Networked Data Stream Interfaces Often, when you buy a network interface card for a printer, you can get two versions: one which emulates a spooler (the more expensive version), or one which just lets you send data to it as if you were using a serial or parallel port (the cheaper version). This section tells how to use the cheaper version. For the more expensive one, see the previous section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts. The format of the /etc/printcap file lets you specify what serial or parallel interface to use, and (if you are using a serial interface), what baud rate, whether to use flow control, delays for tabs, conversion of newlines, and more. But there is no way to specify a connection to a printer that is listening on a TCP/IP or other network port. To send data to a networked printer, you need to develop a communications program that can be called by the text and conversion filters. Here is one such example: the script netprint takes all data on standard input and sends it to a network-attached printer. We specify the hostname of the printer as the first argument and the port number to which to connect as the second argument to netprint. Note that this supports one-way communication only (FreeBSD to printer); many network printers support two-way communication, and you might want to take advantage of that (to get printer status, perform accounting, etc.). #!/usr/bin/perl # # netprint - Text filter for printer attached to network # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/netprint # $#ARGV eq 1 || die "Usage: $0 <printer-hostname> <port-number>"; $printer_host = $ARGV[0]; $printer_port = $ARGV[1]; require 'sys/socket.ph'; ($ignore, $ignore, $protocol) = getprotobyname('tcp'); ($ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $ignore, $address) = gethostbyname($printer_host); $sockaddr = pack('S n a4 x8', &AF_INET, $printer_port, $address); socket(PRINTER, &PF_INET, &SOCK_STREAM, $protocol) || die "Can't create TCP/IP stream socket: $!"; connect(PRINTER, $sockaddr) || die "Can't contact $printer_host: $!"; while (<STDIN>) { print PRINTER; } exit 0; We can then use this script in various filters. Suppose we had a Diablo 750-N line printer connected to the network. The printer accepts data to print on port number 5100. The host name of the printer is scrivener. Here is the text filter for the printer: #!/bin/sh # # diablo-if-net - Text filter for Diablo printer `scrivener' listening # on port 5100. Installed in /usr/local/libexec/diablo-if-net # exec /usr/libexec/lpr/lpf "$@" | /usr/local/libexec/netprint scrivener 5100 Restricting Printer Usage This section gives information on restricting printer usage. The LPD system lets you control who can access a printer, both locally or remotely, whether they can print multiple copies, how large their jobs can be, and how large the printer queues can get. Restricting Multiple Copies The LPD system makes it easy for users to print multiple copies of a file. Users can print jobs with lpr -#5 (for example) and get five copies of each file in the job. Whether this is a good thing is up to you. If you feel multiple copies cause unnecessary wear and tear on your printers, you can disable the option to &man.lpr.1; by adding the sc capability to the /etc/printcap file. When users submit jobs with the option, they will see: lpr: multiple copies are not allowed Note that if you have set up access to a printer remotely (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts), you need the sc capability on the remote /etc/printcap files as well, or else users will still be able to submit multiple-copy jobs by using another host. Here is an example. This is the /etc/printcap file for the host rose. The printer rattan is quite hearty, so we will allow multiple copies, but the laser printer bamboo's a bit more delicate, so we will disable multiple copies by adding the sc capability: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restrict multiple copies on bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Now, we also need to add the sc capability on the host orchid's /etc/printcap (and while we are at it, let us disable multiple copies for the printer teak): # # /etc/printcap for host orchid - no multiple copies for local # printer teak or remote printer bamboo teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:sc:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/ifhp:\ :vf=/usr/local/libexec/vfhp:\ :of=/usr/local/libexec/ofhp: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=rattan:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :lp=:rm=rose:rp=bamboo:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc: By using the sc capability, we prevent the use of lpr -#, but that still does not prevent users from running &man.lpr.1; multiple times, or from submitting the same file multiple times in one job like this: &prompt.user; lpr forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign forsale.sign There are many ways to prevent this abuse (including ignoring it) which you are free to explore. Restricting Access To Printers You can control who can print to what printers by using the UNIX group mechanism and the rg capability in /etc/printcap. Just place the users you want to have access to a printer in a certain group, and then name that group in the rg capability. Users outside the group (including root) will be greeted with lpr: Not a member of the restricted group if they try to print to the controlled printer. As with the sc (suppress multiple copies) capability, you need to specify rg on remote hosts that also have access to your printers, if you feel it is appropriate (see section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts). For example, we will let anyone access the printer rattan, but only those in group artists can use bamboo. Here is the familiar /etc/printcap for host rose: # # /etc/printcap for host rose - restricted group for bamboo # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Let us leave the other example /etc/printcap file (for the host orchid) alone. Of course, anyone on orchid can print to bamboo. It might be the case that we only allow certain logins on orchid anyway, and want them to have access to the printer. Or not. There can be only one restricted group per printer. Controlling Sizes of Jobs Submitted If you have many users accessing the printers, you probably need to put an upper limit on the sizes of the files users can submit to print. After all, there is only so much free space on the filesystem that houses the spooling directories, and you also need to make sure there is room for the jobs of other users. LPD enables you to limit the maximum byte size a file in a job can be with the mx capability. The units are in BUFSIZ blocks, which are 1024 bytes. If you put a zero for this capability, there will be no limit on file size; however, if no mx capability is specified, then a default limit of 1000 blocks will be used. The limit applies to files in a job, and not the total job size. LPD will not refuse a file that is larger than the limit you place on a printer. Instead, it will queue as much of the file up to the limit, which will then get printed. The rest will be discarded. Whether this is correct behavior is up for debate. Let us add limits to our example printers rattan and bamboo. Since those artists' PostScript files tend to be large, we will limit them to five megabytes. We will put no limit on the plain text line printer: # # /etc/printcap for host rose # # # No limit on job size: # rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:mx#0:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple: # # Limit of five megabytes: # bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: Again, the limits apply to the local users only. If you have set up access to your printers remotely, remote users will not get those limits. You will need to specify the mx capability in the remote /etc/printcap files as well. See section Printers Installed on Remote Hosts for more information on remote printing. There is another specialized way to limit job sizes from remote printers; see section Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers. Restricting Jobs from Remote Printers The LPD spooling system provides several ways to restrict print jobs submitted from remote hosts: Host restrictions You can control from which remote hosts a local LPD accepts requests with the files /etc/hosts.equiv and /etc/hosts.lpd. LPD checks to see if an incoming request is from a host listed in either one of these files. If not, LPD refuses the request. The format of these files is simple: one host name per line. Note that the file /etc/hosts.equiv is also used by the &man.ruserok.3; protocol, and affects programs like &man.rsh.1; and &man.rcp.1;, so be careful. For example, here is the /etc/hosts.lpd file on the host rose: orchid violet madrigal.fishbaum.de This means rose will accept requests from the hosts orchid, violet, and madrigal.fishbaum.de. If any other host tries to access rose's LPD, LPD will refuse them. Size restrictions You can control how much free space there needs to remain on the filesystem where a spooling directory resides. Make a file called minfree in the spooling directory for the local printer. Insert in that file a number representing how many disk blocks (512 bytes) of free space there has to be for a remote job to be accepted. This lets you insure that remote users will not fill your filesystem. You can also use it to give a certain priority to local users: they will be able to queue jobs long after the free disk space has fallen below the amount specified in the minfree file. For example, let us add a minfree file for the printer bamboo. We examine /etc/printcap to find the spooling directory for this printer; here is bamboo's entry: bamboo|ps|PS|S|panasonic|Panasonic KX-P4455 PostScript v51.4:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/bamboo:sc:rg=artists:mx#5000:\ :lp=/dev/ttyd5:fs#0x82000e1:xs#0x820:rw:mx#5000:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/psif:\ :df=/usr/local/libexec/psdf: The spooling directory is the given in the sd capability. We will make three megabytes (which is 6144 disk blocks) the amount of free disk space that must exist on the filesystem for LPD to accept remote jobs: &prompt.root; echo 6144 > /var/spool/lpd/bam boo/minfree User restrictions You can control which remote users can print to local printers by specifying the rs capability in /etc/printcap. When rs appears in the entry for a locally-attached printer, LPD will accept jobs from remote hosts if the user submitting the job also has an account of the same login name on the local host. Otherwise, LPD refuses the job. This capability is particularly useful in an environment where there are (for example) different departments sharing a network, and some users transcend departmental boundaries. By giving them accounts on your systems, they can use your printers from their own departmental systems. If you would rather allow them to use only your printers and not your compute resources, you can give them - “token” accounts, with no home directory and a + token accounts, with no home directory and a useless shell like /usr/bin/false. Accounting for Printer Usage So, you need to charge for printouts. And why not? Paper and ink cost money. And then there are maintenance costs—printers are loaded with moving parts and tend to break down. You have examined your printers, usage patterns, and maintenance fees and have come up with a per-page (or per-foot, per-meter, or per-whatever) cost. Now, how do you actually start accounting for printouts? Well, the bad news is the LPD spooling system does not provide much help in this department. Accounting is highly dependent on the kind of printer in use, the formats being printed, and your requirements in charging for printer usage. To implement accounting, you have to modify a printer's text filter (to charge for plain text jobs) and the conversion filters (to charge for other file formats), to count pages or query the printer for pages printed. You cannot get away with using the simple output filter, since it cannot do accounting. See section Filters. Generally, there are two ways to do accounting: Periodic accounting is the more common way, possibly because it is easier. Whenever someone prints a job, the filter logs the user, host, and number of pages to an accounting file. Every month, semester, year, or whatever time period you prefer, you collect the accounting files for the various printers, tally up the pages printed by users, and charge for usage. Then you truncate all the logging files, starting with a clean slate for the next period. Timely accounting is less common, probably because it is more difficult. This method has the filters charge users for printouts as soon as they use the printers. Like disk quotas, the accounting is immediate. You can prevent users from printing when their account goes in the red, and might provide a way for users to check and adjust their - “print quotas.” But this method requires some database + print quotas. But this method requires some database code to track users and their quotas. The LPD spooling system supports both methods easily: since you have to provide the filters (well, most of the time), you also have to provide the accounting code. But there is a bright side: you have enormous flexibility in your accounting methods. For example, you choose whether to use periodic or timely accounting. You choose what information to log: user names, host names, job types, pages printed, square footage of paper used, how long the job took to print, and so forth. And you do so by modifying the filters to save this information. Quick and Dirty Printer Accounting FreeBSD comes with two programs that can get you set up with simple periodic accounting right away. They are the text filter lpf, described in section lpf: a Text Filter, and &man.pac.8;, a program to gather and total entries from printer accounting files. As mentioned in the section on filters (Filters), LPD starts the text and the conversion filters with the name of the accounting file to use on the filter command line. The filters can use this argument to know where to write an accounting file entry. The name of this file comes from the af capability in /etc/printcap, and if not specified as an absolute path, is relative to the spooling directory. LPD starts lpf with page width and length arguments (from the pw and pl capabilities). lpf uses these arguments to determine how much paper will be used. After sending the file to the printer, it then writes an accounting entry in the accounting file. The entries look like this: 2.00 rose:andy 3.00 rose:kelly 3.00 orchid:mary 5.00 orchid:mary 2.00 orchid:zhang You should use a separate accounting file for each printer, as lpf has no file locking logic built into it, and two lpfs might corrupt each other's entries if they were to write to the same file at the same time. A easy way to insure a separate accounting file for each printer is to use af=acct in /etc/printcap. Then, each accounting file will be in the spooling directory for a printer, in a file named acct. When you are ready to charge users for printouts, run the &man.pac.8; program. Just change to the spooling directory for the printer you want to collect on and type pac. You will get a dollar-centric summary like the following: Login pages/feet runs price orchid:kelly 5.00 1 $ 0.10 orchid:mary 31.00 3 $ 0.62 orchid:zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 rose:andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 rose:kelly 177.00 104 $ 3.54 rose:mary 87.00 32 $ 1.74 rose:root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 These are the arguments &man.pac.8; expects: Which printer to summarize. This option works only if there is an absolute path in the af capability in /etc/printcap. Sort the output by cost instead of alphabetically by user name. Ignore host name in the accounting files. With this option, user smith on host alpha is the same user smith on host gamma. Without, they are different users. Compute charges with price dollars per page or per foot instead of the price from the pc capability in /etc/printcap, or two cents (the default). You can specify price as a floating point number. Reverse the sort order. Make an accounting summary file and truncate the accounting file. name … Print accounting information for the given user names only. In the default summary that &man.pac.8; produces, you see the number of pages printed by each user from various hosts. If, at your site, host does not matter (because users can use any host), run pac -m, to produce the following summary: Login pages/feet runs price andy 2.00 1 $ 0.04 kelly 182.00 105 $ 3.64 mary 118.00 35 $ 2.36 root 26.00 12 $ 0.52 zhang 9.00 1 $ 0.18 total 337.00 154 $ 6.74 To compute the dollar amount due, &man.pac.8; uses the pc capability in the /etc/printcap file (default of 200, or 2 cents per page). Specify, in hundredths of cents, the price per page or per foot you want to charge for printouts in this capability. You can override this value when you run &man.pac.8; with the option. The units for the option are in dollars, though, not hundredths of cents. For example, &prompt.root; pac -p1.50 makes each page cost one dollar and fifty cents. You can really rake in the profits by using this option. Finally, running pac -s will save the summary information in a summary accounting file, which is named the same as the printer's accounting file, but with _sum appended to the name. It then truncates the accounting file. When you run &man.pac.8; again, it rereads the summary file to get starting totals, then adds information from the regular accounting file. How Can You Count Pages Printed? In order to perform even remotely accurate accounting, you need to be able to determine how much paper a job uses. This is the essential problem of printer accounting. For plain text jobs, the problem's not that hard to solve: you count how many lines are in a job and compare it to how many lines per page your printer supports. Do not forget to take into account backspaces in the file which overprint lines, or long logical lines that wrap onto one or more additional physical lines. The text filter lpf (introduced in lpf: a Text Filter) takes into account these things when it does accounting. If you are writing a text filter which needs to do accounting, you might want to examine lpf's source code. How do you handle other file formats, though? Well, for DVI-to-LaserJet or DVI-to-PostScript conversion, you can have your filter parse the diagnostic output of dvilj or dvips and look to see how many pages were converted. You might be able to do similar things with other file formats and conversion programs. But these methods suffer from the fact that the printer may not actually print all those pages. For example, it could jam, run out of toner, or explode—and the user would still get charged. So, what can you do? There is only one sure way to do accurate accounting. Get a printer that can tell you how much paper it uses, and attach it via a serial line or a network connection. Nearly all PostScript printers support this notion. Other makes and models do as well (networked Imagen laser printers, for example). Modify the filters for these printers to get the page usage after they print each job and have them log accounting information based on that value only. There is no line counting nor error-prone file examination required. Of course, you can always be generous and make all printouts free. Using Printers This section tells you how to use printers you have setup with FreeBSD. Here is an overview of the user-level commands: &man.lpr.1; Print jobs &man.lpq.1; Check printer queues &man.lprm.1; Remove jobs from a printer's queue There is also an administrative command, &man.lpc.8;, described in the section Administrating the LPD Spooler, used to control printers and their queues. All three of the commands &man.lpr.1;, &man.lprm.1;, and &man.lpq.1; accept an option to specify on which printer/queue to operate, as listed in the /etc/printcap file. This enables you to submit, remove, and check on jobs for various printers. If you do not use the option, then these commands use the printer specified in the PRINTER environment variable. Finally, if you do not have a PRINTER environment variable, these commands default to the printer named lp. Hereafter, the terminology default printer means the printer named in the PRINTER environment variable, or the printer named lp when there is no PRINTER environment variable. Printing Jobs To print files, type: &prompt.user; lpr filename ... This prints each of the listed files to the default printer. If you list no files, &man.lpr.1; reads data to print from standard input. For example, this command prints some important system files: &prompt.user; lpr /etc/host.conf /etc/hosts.equiv To select a specific printer, type: &prompt.user; lpr -P printer-name filename ... This example prints a long listing of the current directory to the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; ls -l | lpr -P rattan Because no files were listed for the &man.lpr.1; command, lpr read the data to print from standard input, which was the output of the ls -l command. The &man.lpr.1; command can also accept a wide variety of options to control formatting, apply file conversions, generate multiple copies, and so forth. For more information, see the section Printing Options. Checking Jobs When you print with &man.lpr.1;, the data you wish to print is put - together in a package called a “print job”, which is sent + together in a package called a print job, which is sent to the LPD spooling system. Each printer has a queue of jobs, and your job waits in that queue along with other jobs from yourself and from other users. The printer prints those jobs in a first-come, first-served order. To display the queue for the default printer, type &man.lpq.1;. For a specific printer, use the option. For example, the command &prompt.user; lpq -P bamboo shows the queue for the printer named bamboo. Here is an example of the output of the lpq command: bamboo is ready and printing Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active kelly 9 /etc/host.conf, /etc/hosts.equiv 88 bytes 2nd kelly 10 (standard input) 1635 bytes 3rd mary 11 ... 78519 bytes This shows three jobs in the queue for bamboo. - The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned “job - number” 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. + The first job, submitted by user kelly, got assigned job + number 9. Every job for a printer gets a unique job number. Most of the time you can ignore the job number, but you will need it if you want to cancel the job; see section Removing Jobs for details. Job number nine consists of two files; multiple files given on the &man.lpr.1; command line are treated as part of a single job. It is the currently active job (note the word active - under the “Rank” column), which means the printer should + under the Rank column), which means the printer should be currently printing that job. The second job consists of data passed as the standard input to the &man.lpr.1; command. The third job came from user mary; it is a much larger job. The pathname of the files she's trying to print is too long to fit, so the &man.lpq.1; command just shows three dots. The very first line of the output from &man.lpq.1; is also useful: it tells what the printer is currently doing (or at least what LPD thinks the printer is doing). The &man.lpq.1; command also support a option to generate a detailed long listing. Here is an example of lpq -l: waiting for bamboo to become ready (offline ?) kelly: 1st [job 009rose] /etc/host.conf 73 bytes /etc/hosts.equiv 15 bytes kelly: 2nd [job 010rose] (standard input) 1635 bytes mary: 3rd [job 011rose] /home/orchid/mary/research/venus/alpha-regio/mapping 78519 bytes Removing Jobs If you change your mind about printing a job, you can remove the job from the queue with the &man.lprm.1; command. Often, you can even use &man.lprm.1; to remove an active job, but some or all of the job might still get printed. To remove a job from the default printer, first use &man.lpq.1; to find the job number. Then type: &prompt.user; lprm job-number To remove the job from a specific printer, add the option. The following command removes job number 10 from the queue for the printer bamboo: &prompt.user; lprm -P bamboo 10 The &man.lprm.1; command has a few shortcuts: lprm - Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to you. lprm user Removes all jobs (for the default printer) belonging to user. The superuser can remove other users' jobs; you can remove only your own jobs. lprm With no job number, user name, or appearing on the command line, &man.lprm.1; removes the currently active job on the default printer, if it belongs to you. The superuser can remove any active job. Just use the option with the above shortcuts to operate on a specific printer instead of the default. For example, the following command removes all jobs for the current user in the queue for the printer named rattan: &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan - If you are working in a networked environment, &man.lprm.1; will let you remove jobs only from the host from which the jobs were submitted, even if the same printer is available from other hosts. The following command sequence demonstrates this: &prompt.user; lpr -P rattan myfile &prompt.user; rlogin orchid &prompt.user; lpq -P rattan Rank Owner Job Files Total Size active seeyan 12 ... 49123 bytes 2nd kelly 13 myfile 12 bytes &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 rose: Permission denied &prompt.user; logout &prompt.user; lprm -P rattan 13 dfA013rose dequeued cfA013rose dequeued Beyond Plain Text: Printing Options The &man.lpr.1; command supports a number of options that control formatting text, converting graphic and other file formats, producing multiple copies, handling of the job, and more. This section describes the options. Formatting and Conversion Options The following &man.lpr.1; options control formatting of the files in the job. Use these options if the job does not contain plain text or if you want plain text formatted through the &man.pr.1; utility. For example, the following command prints a DVI file (from the TeX typesetting system) named fish-report.dvi to the printer named bamboo: &prompt.user; lpr -P bamboo -d fish-report.dvi These options apply to every file in the job, so you cannot mix (say) DVI and ditroff files together in a job. Instead, submit the files as separate jobs, using a different conversion option for each job. All of these options except and require conversion filters installed for the destination printer. For example, the option requires the DVI conversion filter. Section Conversion Filters gives details. Print cifplot files. Print DVI files. Print FORTRAN text files. Print plot data. Indent the output by number columns; if you omit number, indent by 8 columns. This option works only with certain conversion filters. Do not put any space between the and the number. Print literal text data, including control characters. Print ditroff (device independent troff) data. -p Format plain text with &man.pr.1; before printing. See &man.pr.1; for more information. Use title on the &man.pr.1; header instead of the file name. This option has effect only when used with the option. Print troff data. Print raster data. Here is an example: this command prints a nicely formatted version of the &man.ls.1; manual page on the default printer: &prompt.user; zcat /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz | troff -t -man | lpr -t The &man.zcat.1; command uncompresses the source of the &man.ls.1; manual page and passes it to the &man.troff.1; command, which formats that source and makes GNU troff output and passes it to &man.lpr.1;, which submits the job to the LPD spooler. Because we used the option to &man.lpr.1;, the spooler will convert the GNU troff output into a format the default printer can understand when it prints the job. Job Handling Options The following options to &man.lpr.1; tell LPD to handle the job specially: -# copies Produce a number of copies of each file in the job instead of just one copy. An administrator may disable this option to reduce printer wear-and-tear and encourage photocopier usage. See section Restricting Multiple Copies. This example prints three copies of parser.c followed by three copies of parser.h to the default printer: &prompt.user; lpr -#3 parser.c parser.h -m Send mail after completing the print job. With this option, the LPD system will send mail to your account when it finishes handling your job. In its message, it will tell you if the job completed successfully or if there was an error, and (often) what the error was. -s Do not copy the files to the spooling directory, but make symbolic links to them instead. If you are printing a large job, you probably want to use this option. It saves space in the spooling directory (your job might overflow the free space on the filesystem where the spooling directory resides). It saves time as well since LPD will not have to copy each and every byte of your job to the spooling directory. There is a drawback, though: since LPD will refer to the original files directly, you cannot modify or remove them until they have been printed. If you are printing to a remote printer, LPD will eventually have to copy files from the local host to the remote host, so the option will save space only on the local spooling directory, not the remote. It is still useful, though. -r Remove the files in the job after copying them to the spooling directory, or after printing them with the option. Be careful with this option! Header Page Options These options to &man.lpr.1; adjust the text that normally appears on a job's header page. If header pages are suppressed for the destination printer, these options have no effect. See section Header Pages for information about setting up header pages. -C text Replace the hostname on the header page with text. The hostname is normally the name of the host from which the job was submitted. -J text Replace the job name on the header page with text. The job name is normally the name of the first file of the job, or stdin if you are printing standard input. -h Do not print any header page. At some sites, this option may have no effect due to the way header pages are generated. See Header Pages for details. Administrating Printers As an administrator for your printers, you have had to install, set up, and test them. Using the &man.lpc.8; command, you can interact with your printers in yet more ways. With &man.lpc.8;, you can Start and stop the printers Enable and disable their queues Rearrange the order of the jobs in each queue. First, a note about terminology: if a printer is stopped, it will not print anything in its queue. Users can still submit jobs, which will wait in the queue until the printer is started or the queue is cleared. If a queue is disabled, no user (except root) can submit jobs for the printer. An enabled queue allows jobs to be submitted. A printer can be started for a disabled queue, in which case it will continue to print jobs in the queue until the queue is empty. In general, you have to have root privileges to use the &man.lpc.8; command. Ordinary users can use the &man.lpc.8; command to get printer status and to restart a hung printer only. Here is a summary of the &man.lpc.8; commands. Most of the commands takes a printer-name argument to tell on which printer to operate. You can use all for the printer-name to mean all printers listed in /etc/printcap. abort printer-name Cancel the current job and stop the printer. Users can still submit jobs if the queue's enabled. clean printer-name Remove old files from the printer's spooling directory. Occasionally, the files that make up a job are not properly removed by LPD, particularly if there have been errors during printing or a lot of administrative activity. This command finds files that do not belong in the spooling directory and removes them. disable printer-name Disable queuing of new jobs. If the printer's started, it will continue to print any jobs remaining in the queue. The superuser (root) can always submit jobs, even to a disabled queue. This command is useful while you are testing a new printer or filter installation: disable the queue and submit jobs as root. Other users will not be able to submit jobs until you complete your testing and re-enable the queue with the enable command. down printer-name message Take a printer down. Equivalent to disable followed by stop. The message appears as the printer's status whenever a user checks the printer's queue with &man.lpq.1; or status with lpc status. enable printer-name Enable the queue for a printer. Users can submit jobs but the printer will not print anything until it is started. help command-name Print help on the command command-name. With no command-name, print a summary of the commands available. restart printer-name Start the printer. Ordinary users can use this command if some extraordinary circumstance hangs LPD, but they cannot start a printer stopped with either the stop or down commands. The restart command is equivalent to abort followed by start. start printer-name Start the printer. The printer will print jobs in its queue. stop printer-name Stop the printer. The printer will finish the current job and will not print anything else in its queue. Even though the printer is stopped, users can still submit jobs to an enabled queue. topq printer-name job-or-username Rearrange the queue for printer-name by placing the jobs with the listed job numbers or the jobs belonging to username at the top of the queue. For this command, you cannot use all as the printer-name. up printer-name Bring a printer up; the opposite of the down command. Equivalent to start followed by enable. &man.lpc.8; accepts the above commands on the command line. If you do not enter any commands, &man.lpc.8; enters an interactive mode, where you can enter commands until you type exit, quit, or end-of-file. Alternatives to the Standard Spooler If you have been reading straight through this manual, by now you have learned just about everything there is to know about the LPD spooling system that comes with FreeBSD. You can probably appreciate many of its shortcomings, which naturally leads to the question: - “What other spooling systems are out there (and work with - FreeBSD)?” + What other spooling systems are out there (and work with + FreeBSD)? Unfortunately, I have located only two alternatives—and they are almost identical to each other! They are: PLP, the Portable Line Printer Spooler System PLP was based on software developed by Patrick Powell and then maintained by an Internet-wide group of developers. The main site for the software is at ftp://ftp.iona.ie/pub/plp/. There is also a web page. It is quite similar to the BSD LPD spooler, but boasts a host of features, including: Better network support, including built-in support for networked printers, NIS-maintained printcaps, and NFS-mounted spooling directories Sophisticated queue management, allowing multiple printers on a queue, transfer of jobs between queues, and queue redirection Remote printer control functions Prioritization of jobs Expansive security and access options LPRng - LPRng, which purportedly means “LPR: the Next - Generation” is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell + LPRng, which purportedly means LPR: the Next + Generation is a complete rewrite of PLP. Patrick Powell and Justin Mason (the principal maintainer of PLP) collaborated to make LPRng. The main site for LPRng is ftp://dickory.sdsu.edu/pub/LPRng/. Troubleshooting After performing the simple test with &man.lptest.1;, you might have gotten one of the following results instead of the correct printout: It worked, after awhile; or, it did not eject a full sheet. The printer printed the above, but it sat for awhile and did nothing. In fact, you might have needed to press a PRINT REMAINING or FORM FEED button on the printer to get any results to appear. If this is the case, the printer was probably waiting to see if there was any more data for your job before it printed anything. To fix this problem, you can have the text filter send a FORM FEED character (or whatever is necessary) to the printer. This is usually sufficient to have the printer immediately print any text remaining in its internal buffer. It is also useful to make sure each print job ends on a full sheet, so the next job does not start somewhere on the middle of the last page of the previous job. The following replacement for the shell script /usr/local/libexec/if-simple prints a form feed after it sends the job to the printer: #!/bin/sh # # if-simple - Simple text input filter for lpd # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/if-simple # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Writes a form feed character (\f) after printing job. /bin/cat && printf "\f" && exit 0 exit 2 - It produced the “staircase effect.” + It produced the staircase effect. You got the following on paper: !"#$%&'()*+,-./01234 "#$%&'()*+,-./012345 #$%&'()*+,-./0123456 You have become another victim of the staircase effect, caused by conflicting interpretations of what characters should indicate a new line. UNIX-style operating systems use a single character: ASCII code 10, the line feed (LF). MS-DOS, OS/2, and others uses a pair of characters, ASCII code 10 and ASCII code 13 (the carriage return or CR). Many printers use the MS-DOS convention for representing new-lines. When you print with FreeBSD, your text used just the line feed character. The printer, upon seeing a line feed character, advanced the paper one line, but maintained the same horizontal position on the page for the next character to print. That is what the carriage return is for: to move the location of the next character to print to the left edge of the paper. Here is what FreeBSD wants your printer to do: Printer received CR Printer prints CR Printer received LF Printer prints CR + LF Here are some ways to achieve this: Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to alter its interpretation of these characters. Check your printer's manual to find out how to do this. If you boot your system into other operating systems besides FreeBSD, you may have to reconfigure the printer to use a an interpretation for CR and LF characters that those other operating systems use. You might prefer one of the other solutions, below. Have FreeBSD's serial line driver automatically convert LF to CR+LF. Of course, this works with printers on serial ports only. To enable this feature, set the CRMOD bit in fs capability in the /etc/printcap file for the printer. Send an escape code to the printer to have it temporarily treat LF characters differently. Consult your printer's manual for escape codes that your printer might support. When you find the proper escape code, modify the text filter to send the code first, then send the print job. Here is an example text filter for printers that understand the Hewlett-Packard PCL escape codes. This filter makes the printer treat LF characters as a LF and CR; then it sends the job; then it sends a form feed to eject the last page of the job. It should work with nearly all Hewlett Packard printers. #!/bin/sh # # hpif - Simple text input filter for lpd for HP-PCL based printers # Installed in /usr/local/libexec/hpif # # Simply copies stdin to stdout. Ignores all filter arguments. # Tells printer to treat LF as CR+LF. Ejects the page when done. printf "\033&k2G" && cat && printf "\033&l0H" && exit 0 exit 2 Here is an example /etc/printcap from a host called orchid. It has a single printer attached to its first parallel port, a Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si named teak. It is using the above script as its text filter: # # /etc/printcap for host orchid # teak|hp|laserjet|Hewlett Packard LaserJet 3Si:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/teak:mx#0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/hpif: It overprinted each line. The printer never advanced a line. All of the lines of text were printed on top of each other on one line. - This problem is the “opposite” of the + This problem is the opposite of the staircase effect, described above, and is much rarer. Somewhere, the LF characters that FreeBSD uses to end a line are being treated as CR characters to return the print location to the left edge of the paper, but not also down a line. Use the printer's configuration switches or control panel to enforce the following interpretation of LF and CR characters: Printer receives Printer prints CR CR LF CR + LF The printer lost characters. While printing, the printer did not print a few characters in each line. The problem might have gotten worse as the printer ran, losing more and more characters. The problem is that the printer cannot keep up with the speed at which the computer sends data over a serial line (this problem should not occur with printers on parallel ports). There are two ways to overcome the problem: If the printer supports XON/XOFF flow control, have FreeBSD use it by specifying the TANDEM bit in the fs capability. If the printer supports carrier flow control, specify the MDMBUF bit in the fs capability. Make sure the cable connecting the printer to the computer is correctly wired for carrier flow control. If the printer does not support any flow control, use some combination of the NLDELAY, TBDELAY, CRDELAY, VTDELAY, and BSDELAY bits in the fs capability to add appropriate delays to the stream of data sent to the printer. It printed garbage. The printer printed what appeared to be random garbage, but not the desired text. This is usually another symptom of incorrect communications parameters with a serial printer. Double-check the bps rate in the br capability, and the parity bits in the fs and fc capabilities; make sure the printer is using the same settings as specified in the /etc/printcap file. Nothing happened. If nothing happened, the problem is probably within FreeBSD and not the hardware. Add the log file (lf) capability to the entry for the printer you are debugging in the /etc/printcap file. For example, here is the entry for rattan, with the lf capability: rattan|line|diablo|lp|Diablo 630 Line Printer:\ :sh:sd=/var/spool/lpd/rattan:\ :lp=/dev/lpt0:\ :if=/usr/local/libexec/if-simple:\ :lf=/var/log/rattan.log Then, try printing again. Check the log file (in our example, /var/log/rattan.log) to see any error messages that might appear. Based on the messages you see, try to correct the problem. If you do not specify a lf capability, LPD uses /dev/console as a default. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml index c6ff707515..0222980a24 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/security/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2758 +1,2758 @@ Security Much of this chapter has been taken from the &man.security.7; man page, originally written by &a.dillon;. Synopsis The following chapter will provide a basic introduction to system security concepts, some general good rules of thumb, and some advanced topics such as S/Key, OpenSSL, Kerberos, and others. Introduction Security is a function that begins and ends with the system administrator. While all BSD UNIX multi-user systems have some inherent security, the job of building and maintaining additional - security mechanisms to keep those users “honest” is + security mechanisms to keep those users honest is probably one of the single largest undertakings of the sysadmin. Machines are only as secure as you make them, and security concerns are ever competing with the human necessity for convenience. UNIX systems, in general, are capable of running a huge number of simultaneous processes and many of these processes operate as servers – meaning that external entities can connect and talk to them. As yesterday's mini-computers and mainframes become today's desktops, and as computers become networked and internetworked, security becomes an ever bigger issue. Security is best implemented through a layered - “onion” approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is + onion approach. In a nutshell, what you want to do is to create as many layers of security as are convenient and then carefully monitor the system for intrusions. You do not want to overbuild your security or you will interefere with the detection side, and detection is one of the single most important aspects of any security mechanism. For example, it makes little sense to set the schg flags (see &man.chflags.1;) on every system binary because while this may temporarily protect the binaries, it prevents a hacker who has broken in from making an easily detectable change that may result in your security mechanisms not detecting the hacker at all. System security also pertains to dealing with various forms of attack, including attacks that attempt to crash or otherwise make a system unusable but do not attempt to break root. Security concerns can be split up into several categories: Denial of service attacks. User account compromises. Root compromise through accessible servers. Root compromise via user accounts. Backdoor creation. A denial of service attack is an action that deprives the machine of needed resources. Typically, D.O.S. attacks are brute-force mechanisms that attempt to crash or otherwise make a machine unusable by overwhelming its servers or network stack. Some D.O.S. attacks try to take advantages of bugs in the networking stack to crash a machine with a single packet. The latter can only be fixed by applying a bug fix to the kernel. Attacks on servers can often be fixed by properly specifying options to limit the load the servers incur on the system under adverse conditions. Brute-force network attacks are harder to deal with. A spoofed-packet attack, for example, is nearly impossible to stop short of cutting your system off from the internet. It may not be able to take your machine down, but it can fill up internet pipe. A user account compromise is even more common then a D.O.S. attack. Many sysadmins still run standard telnetd, rlogind, rshd, and ftpd servers on their machines. These servers, by default, do not operate over encrypted connections. The result is that if you have any moderate-sized user base, one or more of your users logging into your system from a remote location (which is the most common and convenient way to login to a system) will have his or her password sniffed. The attentive system admin will analyze his remote access logs looking for suspicious source addresses even for successful logins. One must always assume that once an attacker has access to a user account, the attacker can break root. However, the reality is that in a well secured and maintained system, access to a user account does not necessarily give the attacker access to root. The distinction is important because without access to root the attacker cannot generally hide his tracks and may, at best, be able to do nothing more then mess with the user's files or crash the machine. User account compromises are very common because users tend not to take the precautions that sysadmins take. System administrators must keep in mind that there are potentially many ways to break root on a machine. The attacker may know the root password, the attacker may find a bug in a root-run server and be able to break root over a network connection to that server, or the attacker may know of a bug in an suid-root program that allows the attacker to break root once he has broken into a user's account. If an attacker has found a way to break root on a machine, the attacker may not have a need to install Many of the root holes found and closed to date involve a considerable amount of work by the hacker to cleanup after himself, so most hackers do install backdoors. This gives you a convienient way to detect the hacker. Making it impossible for a hacker to install a backdoor may actually be detrimental to your security because it will not close off the hole the hacker found to break in in the first place. Security remedies should always be implemented with a - multi-layered “onion peel” approach and can be + multi-layered onion peel approach and can be categorized as follows: Securing root and staff accounts. Securing root – root-run servers and suid/sgid binaries. Securing user accounts. Securing the password file. Securing the kernel core, raw devices, and filesystems. Quick detection of inappropriate changes made to the system. Paranoia. The next section of this chapter will cover the above bullet items in greater depth. Securing FreeBSD The sections that follow will cover the methods of securing your FreeBSD system that were mentioned in the last section of this chapter. Securing the root account and staff accounts First off, do not bother securing staff accounts if you have not secured the root account. Most systems have a password assigned to the root account. The first thing you do is assume that the password is always compromised. This does not mean that you should remove the password. The password is almost always necessary for console access to the machine. What it does mean is that you should not make it possible to use the password outside of the console or possibly even with the &man.su.1; command. For example, make sure that your pty's are specified as being unsecure in the /etc/ttys file so that direct root logins via telnet or rlogin are disallowed. If using other login services such as sshd, make sure that direct root logins are disabled there as well. Consider every access method – services such as ftp often fall through the cracks. Direct root logins should only be allowed via the system console. Of course, as a sysadmin you have to be able to get to root, so we open up a few holes. But we make sure these holes require additional password verification to operate. One way to make root accessible is to add appropriate staff accounts to the wheel group (in /etc/group). The staff members placed in the wheel group are allowed to su to root. You should never give staff members native wheel access by putting them in the wheel group in their password entry. Staff accounts should be placed in a staff group, and then added to the wheel group via the /etc/group file. Only those staff members who actually need to have root access should be placed in the wheel group. It is also possible, when using an authentication method such as kerberos, to use kerberos's .k5login file in the root account to allow a &man.ksu.1; to root without having to place anyone at all in the wheel group. This may be the better solution since the wheel mechanism still allows an intruder to break root if the intruder has gotten hold of your password file and can break into a staff account. While having the wheel mechanism is better then having nothing at all, it is not necessarily the safest option. An indirect way to secure the root account is to secure your staff accounts by using an alternative login access method and *'ing out the crypted password for the staff accounts. This way an intruder may be able to steal the password file but will not be able to break into any staff accounts (or, indirectly, root, even if root has a crypted password associated with it). Staff members get into their staff accounts through a secure login mechanism such as &man.kerberos.1; or &man.ssh.1; using a private/public key pair. When you use something like kerberos, you generally must secure the machines which run the kerberos servers and your desktop workstation. When you use a public/private key pair with ssh, you must generally secure the machine you are logging in from (typically your workstation), but you can also add an additional layer of protection to the key pair by password protecting the keypair when you create it with &man.ssh-keygen.1;. Being able to * out the passwords for staff accounts also guarantees that staff members can only login through secure access methods that you have setup. You can thus force all staff members to use secure, encrypted connections for all of their sessions which closes an important hole used by many intruders: That of sniffing the network from an unrelated, less secure machine. The more indirect security mechanisms also assume that you are logging in from a more restrictive server to a less restrictive server. For example, if your main box is running all sorts of servers, your workstation should not be running any. In order for your workstation to be reasonably secure you should run as few servers as possible, up to and including no servers at all, and you should run a password-protected screen blanker. Of course, given physical access to a workstation an attacker can break any sort of security you put on it. This is definitely a problem that you should consider but you should also consider the fact that the vast majority of break-ins occur remotely, over a network, from people who do not have physical access to your workstation or servers. Using something like kerberos also gives you the ability to disable or change the password for a staff account in one place and have it immediately effect all the machine the staff member may have an account on. If a staff member's account gets compromised, the ability to instantly change his password on all machines should not be underrated. With discrete passwords, changing a password on N machines can be a mess. You can also impose re-passwording restrictions with kerberos: not only can a kerberos ticket be made to timeout after a while, but the kerberos system can require that the user choose a new password after a certain period of time (say, once a month). Securing Root-run Servers and SUID/SGID Binaries The prudent sysadmin only runs the servers he needs to, no more, no less. Be aware that third party servers are often the most bug-prone. For example, running an old version of imapd or popper is like giving a universal root ticket out to the entire world. Never run a server that you have not checked out carefully. Many servers do not need to be run as root. For example, the ntalk, comsat, and finger daemons can be run in special user sandboxes. A sandbox isn't perfect unless you go to a large amount of trouble, but the onion approach to security still stands: If someone is able to break in through a server running in a sandbox, they still have to break out of the sandbox. The more layers the attacker must break through, the lower the likelihood of his success. Root holes have historically been found in virtually every server ever run as root, including basic system servers. If you are running a machine through which people only login via sshd and never login via telnetd or rshd or rlogind, then turn off those services! FreeBSD now defaults to running ntalkd, comsat, and finger in a sandbox. Another program which may be a candidate for running in a sandbox is &man.named.8;. The default rc.conf includes the arguments necessary to run namedin a sandbox in a commented-out form. Depending on whether you are installing a new system or upgrading an existing system, the special user accounts used by these sandboxes may not be installed. The prudent sysadmin would research and implement sandboxes for servers whenever possible. There are a number of other servers that typically do not run in sandboxes: sendmail, popper, imapd, ftpd, and others. There are alternatives to some of these, but installing them may require more work then you are willing to perform (the convenience factor strikes again). You may have to run these servers as root and rely on other mechanisms to detect break-ins that might occur through them. The other big potential root hole in a system are the suid-root and sgid binaries installed on the system. Most of these binaries, such as rlogin, reside in /bin, /sbin, /usr/bin, or /usr/sbin. While nothing is 100% safe, the system-default suid and sgid binaries can be considered reasonably safe. Still, root holes are occasionally found in these binaries. A root hole was found in Xlib in 1998 that made xterm (which is typically suid) vulnerable. It is better to be safe then sorry and the prudent sysadmin will restrict suid binaries that only staff should run to a special group that only staff can access, and get rid of (chmod 000) any suid binaries that nobody uses. A server with no display generally does not need an xterm binary. Sgid binaries can be almost as dangerous. If an intruder can break an sgid-kmem binary the intruder might be able to read /dev/kmem and thus read the crypted password file, potentially compromising any passworded account. Alternatively an intruder who breaks group kmem can monitor keystrokes sent through pty's, including pty's used by users who login through secure methods. An intruder that breaks the tty group can write to almost any user's tty. If a user is running a terminal program or emulator with a keyboard-simulation feature, the intruder can potentially generate a data stream that causes the user's terminal to echo a command, which is then run as that user. Securing User Accounts User accounts are usually the most difficult to secure. While you can impose Draconian access restrictions on your staff and * out their passwords, you may not be able to do so with any general user accounts you might have. If you do have sufficient control then you may win out and be able to secure the user accounts properly. If not, you simply have to be more vigilant in your monitoring of those accounts. Use of ssh and kerberos for user accounts is more problematic due to the extra administration and technical support required, but still a very good solution compared to a crypted password file. Securing the Password File The only sure fire way is to * out as many passwords as you can and use ssh or kerberos for access to those accounts. Even though the crypted password file (/etc/spwd.db) can only be read by root, it may be possible for an intruder to obtain read access to that file even if the attacker cannot obtain root-write access. Your security scripts should always check for and report changes to the password file (see Checking file integrity below). Securing the Kernel Core, Raw Devices, and Filesystems If an attacker breaks root he can do just about anything, but there are certain conveniences. For example, most modern kernels have a packet sniffing device driver built in. Under FreeBSD it is called the bpf device. An intruder will commonly attempt to run a packet sniffer on a compromised machine. You do not need to give the intruder the capability and most systems should not have the bpf device compiled in. But even if you turn off the bpf device, you still have /dev/mem and /dev/kmem to worry about. For that matter, the intruder can still write to raw disk devices. Also, there is another kernel feature called the module loader, &man.kldload.8;. An enterprising intruder can use a KLD module to install his own bpf device or other sniffing device on a running kernel. To avoid these problems you have to run the kernel at a higher secure level, at least securelevel 1. The securelevel can be set with a sysctl on the kern.securelevel variable. Once you have set the securelevel to 1, write access to raw devices will be denied and special chflags flags, such as schg, will be enforced. You must also ensure that the schg flag is set on critical startup binaries, directories, and script files – everything that gets run up to the point where the securelevel is set. This might be overdoing it, and upgrading the system is much more difficult when you operate at a higher secure level. You may compromise and run the system at a higher secure level but not set the schg flag for every system file and directory under the sun. Another possibility is to simply mount / and /usr read-only. It should be noted that being too draconian in what you attempt to protect may prevent the all-important detection of an intrusion. Checking File Integrity: Binaries, Configuration Files, Etc. When it comes right down to it, you can only protect your core system configuration and control files so much before the convenience factor rears its ugly head. For example, using chflags to set the schg bit on most of the files in / and /usr is probably counterproductive because while it may protect the files, it also closes a detection window. The last layer of your security onion is perhaps the most important – detection. The rest of your security is pretty much useless (or, worse, presents you with a false sense of safety) if you cannot detect potential incursions. Half the job of the onion is to slow down the attacker rather then stop him in order to give the detection side of the equation a chance to catch him in the act. The best way to detect an incursion is to look for modified, missing, or unexpected files. The best way to look for modified files is from another (often centralized) limited-access system. Writing your security scripts on the extra-secure limited-access system makes them mostly invisible to potential hackers, and this is important. In order to take maximum advantage you generally have to give the limited-access box significant access to the other machines in the business, usually either by doing a read-only NFS export of the other machines to the limited-access box, or by setting up ssh keypairs to allow the limit-access box to ssh to the other machines. Except for its network traffic, NFS is the least visible method – allowing you to monitor the filesystems on each client box virtually undetected. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a switch, the NFS method is often the better choice. If your limited-access server is connected to the client boxes through a hub or through several layers of routing, the NFS method may be too insecure (network-wise) and using ssh may be the better choice even with the audit-trail tracks that ssh lays. Once you give a limit-access box at least read access to the client systems it is supposed to monitor, you must write scripts to do the actual monitoring. Given an NFS mount, you can write scripts out of simple system utilities such as &man.find.1; and &man.md5.1;. It is best to physically md5 the client-box files boxes at least once a day, and to test control files such as those found in /etc and /usr/local/etc even more often. When mismatches are found relative to the base md5 information the limited-access machine knows is valid, it should scream at a sysadmin to go check it out. A good security script will also check for inappropriate suid binaries and for new or deleted files on system partitions such as / and /usr. When using ssh rather then NFS, writing the security script is much more difficult. You essentially have to scp the scripts to the client box in order to run them, making them visible, and for safety you also need to scp the binaries (such as find) that those scripts use. The ssh daemon on the client box may already be compromised. All in all, using ssh may be necessary when running over unsecure links, but it's also a lot harder to deal with. A good security script will also check for changes to user and staff members access configuration files: .rhosts, .shosts, .ssh/authorized_keys and so forth… files that might fall outside the purview of the MD5 check. If you have a huge amount of user disk space it may take too long to run through every file on those partitions. In this case, setting mount flags to disallow suid binaries and devices on those partitions is a good idea. The nodev and nosuid options (see &man.mount.8;) are what you want to look into. I would scan them anyway at least once a week, since the object of this layer is to detect a break-in whether or not the break-in is effective. Process accounting (see &man.accton.8;) is a relatively low-overhead feature of the operating system which I recommend using as a post-break-in evaluation mechanism. It is especially useful in tracking down how an intruder has actually broken into a system, assuming the file is still intact after the break-in occurs. Finally, security scripts should process the log files and the logs themselves should be generated in as secure a manner as possible – remote syslog can be very useful. An intruder tries to cover his tracks, and log files are critical to the sysadmin trying to track down the time and method of the initial break-in. One way to keep a permanent record of the log files is to run the system console to a serial port and collect the information on a continuing basis through a secure machine monitoring the consoles. Paranoia A little paranoia never hurts. As a rule, a sysadmin can add any number of security features as long as they do not effect convenience, and can add security features that do effect convenience with some added thought. Even more importantly, a security administrator should mix it up a bit – if you use recommendations such as those given by this document verbatim, you give away your methodologies to the prospective hacker who also has access to this document. Denial of Service Attacks This section covers Denial of Service attacks. A DOS attack is typically a packet attack. While there is not much you can do about modern spoofed packet attacks that saturate your network, you can generally limit the damage by ensuring that the attacks cannot take down your servers. Limiting server forks. Limiting springboard attacks (ICMP response attacks, ping broadcast, etc.). Kernel Route Cache. A common DOS attack is against a forking server that attempts to cause the server to eat processes, file descriptors, and memory until the machine dies. Inetd (see &man.inetd.8;) has several options to limit this sort of attack. It should be noted that while it is possible to prevent a machine from going down it is not generally possible to prevent a service from being disrupted by the attack. Read the inetd manual page carefully and pay specific attention to the , , and options. Note that spoofed-IP attacks will circumvent the option to inetd, so typically a combination of options must be used. Some standalone servers have self-fork-limitation parameters. Sendmail has its option which tends to work much better than trying to use sendmail's load limiting options due to the load lag. You should specify a MaxDaemonChildren parameter when you start sendmail high enough to handle your expected load but no so high that the computer cannot handle that number of sendmails without falling on its face. It is also prudent to run sendmail in queued mode () and to run the daemon (sendmail -bd) separate from the queue-runs (sendmail -q15m). If you still want realtime delivery you can run the queue at a much lower interval, such as , but be sure to specify a reasonable MaxDaemonChildren option for that sendmail to prevent cascade failures. Syslogd can be attacked directly and it is strongly recommended that you use the option whenever possible, and the option otherwise. You should also be fairly careful with connect-back services such as tcpwrapper's reverse-identd, which can be attacked directly. You generally do not want to use the reverse-ident feature of tcpwrappers for this reason. It is a very good idea to protect internal services from external access by firewalling them off at your border routers. The idea here is to prevent saturation attacks from outside your LAN, not so much to protect internal services from network-based root compromise. Always configure an exclusive firewall, i.e., - “firewall everything except ports A, B, - C, D, and M-Z”. This way you can firewall off all of your + firewall everything except ports A, B, + C, D, and M-Z. This way you can firewall off all of your low ports except for certain specific services such as named (if you are primary for a zone), ntalkd, sendmail, and other internet-accessible services. If you try to configure the firewall the other way – as an inclusive or permissive firewall, there is a good - chance that you will forget to “close” a couple of + chance that you will forget to close a couple of services or that you will add a new internal service and forget to update the firewall. You can still open up the high-numbered port range on the firewall to allow permissive-like operation without compromising your low ports. Also take note that FreeBSD allows you to control the range of port numbers used for dynamic binding via the various net.inet.ip.portrange sysctl's (sysctl -a | fgrep portrange), which can also ease the complexity of your firewall's configuration. I usually use a normal first/last range of 4000 to 5000, and a hiport range of 49152 to 65535, then block everything under 4000 off in my firewall (except for certain specific internet-accessible ports, of course). Another common DOS attack is called a springboard attack – to attack a server in a manner that causes the server to generate responses which then overload the server, the local network, or some other machine. The most common attack of this nature is the ICMP ping broadcast attack. The attacker spoofs ping packets sent to your LAN's broadcast address with the source IP address set to the actual machine they wish to attack. If your border routers are not configured to stomp on ping's to broadcast addresses, your LAN winds up generating sufficient responses to the spoofed source address to saturate the victim, especially when the attacker uses the same trick on several dozen broadcast addresses over several dozen different networks at once. Broadcast attacks of over a hundred and twenty megabits have been measured. A second common springboard attack is against the ICMP error reporting system. By constructing packets that generate ICMP error responses, an attacker can saturate a server's incoming network and cause the server to saturate its outgoing network with ICMP responses. This type of attack can also crash the server by running it out of mbuf's, especially if the server cannot drain the ICMP responses it generates fast enough. The FreeBSD kernel has a new kernel compile option called ICMP_BANDLIM which limits the effectiveness of these sorts of attacks. The last major class of springboard attacks is related to certain internal inetd services such as the udp echo service. An attacker simply spoofs a UDP packet with the source address being server A's echo port, and the destination address being server B's echo port, where server A and B are both on your LAN. The two servers then bounce this one packet back and forth between each other. The attacker can overload both servers and their LANs simply by injecting a few packets in this manner. Similar problems exist with the internal chargen port. A competent sysadmin will turn off all of these inetd-internal test services. Spoofed packet attacks may also be used to overload the kernel route cache. Refer to the net.inet.ip.rtexpire, rtminexpire, and rtmaxcache sysctl parameters. A spoofed packet attack that uses a random source IP will cause the kernel to generate a temporary cached route in the route table, viewable with netstat -rna | fgrep W3. These routes typically timeout in 1600 seconds or so. If the kernel detects that the cached route table has gotten too big it will dynamically reduce the rtexpire but will never decrease it to less then rtminexpire. There are two problems: The kernel does not react quickly enough when a lightly loaded server is suddenly attacked. The rtminexpire is not low enough for the kernel to survive a sustained attack. If your servers are connected to the internet via a T3 or better it may be prudent to manually override both rtexpire and rtminexpire via &man.sysctl.8;. Never set either parameter to zero (unless you want to crash the machine :-). Setting both parameters to 2 seconds should be sufficient to protect the route table from attack. Access Issues with Kerberos and SSH There are a few issues with both kerberos and ssh that need to be addressed if you intend to use them. Kerberos V is an excellent authentication protocol but the kerberized telnet and rlogin suck rocks. There are bugs that make them unsuitable for dealing with binary streams. Also, by default kerberos does not encrypt a session unless you use the option. ssh encrypts everything by default. ssh works quite well in every respect except that it forwards encryption keys by default. What this means is that if you have a secure workstation holding keys that give you access to the rest of the system, and you ssh to an unsecure machine, your keys becomes exposed. The actual keys themselves are not exposed, but ssh installs a forwarding port for the duration of your login and if a hacker has broken root on the unsecure machine he can utilize that port to use your keys to gain access to any other machine that your keys unlock. We recommend that you use ssh in combination with kerberos whenever possible for staff logins. ssh can be compiled with kerberos support. This reduces your reliance on potentially exposable ssh keys while at the same time protecting passwords via kerberos. ssh keys should only be used for automated tasks from secure machines (something that kerberos is unsuited to). We also recommend that you either turn off key-forwarding in the ssh configuration, or that you make use of the from=IP/DOMAIN option that ssh allows in its authorized_keys file to make the key only useable to entities logging in from specific machines. DES, MD5, and Crypt Parts rewritten and updated by &a.unfurl;, 21 March 2000. Every user on a UNIX system has a password associated with their account. It seems obvious that these passwords need to be known only to the user and the actual operating system. In order to keep these passwords secret, they are encrypted with - what is known as a “one-way hash”, that is, they can + what is known as a one-way hash, that is, they can only be easily encrypted but not decrypted. In other words, what we told you a moment ago was obvious is not even true: the operating system itself does not really know the password. It only knows the encrypted form of the password. The only way to get the - “plain-text” password is by a brute force search of the + plain-text password is by a brute force search of the space of possible passwords. Unfortunately the only secure way to encrypt passwords when UNIX came into being was based on DES, the Data Encryption Standard. This is not such a problem for users that live in the US, but since the source code for DES cannot be exported outside the US, FreeBSD had to find a way to both comply with US law and retain compatibility with all the other UNIX variants that still use DES. The solution was to divide up the encryption libraries so that US users could install the DES libraries and use DES but international users still had an encryption method that could be exported abroad. This is how FreeBSD came to use MD5 as its default encryption method. MD5 is believed to be more secure than DES, so installing DES is offered primarily for compatibility reasons. Recognizing your crypt mechanism It is pretty easy to identify which encryption method FreeBSD is set up to use. Examining the encrypted passwords in the /etc/master.passwd file is one way. Passwords encrypted with the MD5 hash are longer than those with encrypted with the DES hash and also begin with the characters $1$. DES password strings do not have any particular identifying characteristics, but they are shorter than MD5 passwords, and are coded in a 64-character alphabet which does not include the $ character, so a relatively short string which does not begin with a dollar sign is very likely a DES password. The libraries can identify the passwords this way as well. As a result, the DES libraries are able to identify MD5 passwords, and use MD5 to check passwords that were encrypted that way, and DES for the rest. They are able to do this because the DES libraries also contain MD5. Unfortunately, the reverse is not true, so the MD5 libraries cannot authenticate passwords that were encrypted with DES. Identifying which library is being used by the programs on your system is easy as well. Any program that uses crypt is linked against libcrypt which for each type of library is a symbolic link to the appropriate implementation. For example, on a system using the DES versions: &prompt.user; ls -l /usr/lib/libcrypt* lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 13 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.a -> libdescrypt.a lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 18 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt.so.2.0 -> libdescrypt.so.2.0 lrwxr-xr-x 1 root wheel 15 Mar 19 06:56 libcrypt_p.a -> libdescrypt_p.a On a system using the MD5-based libraries, the same links will be present, but the target will be libscrypt rather than libdescrypt. S/Key S/Key is a one-time password scheme based on a one-way hash function. FreeBSD uses the MD4 hash for compatibility but other systems have used MD5 and DES-MAC. S/Key has been part of the FreeBSD base system since version 1.1.5 and is also used on a growing number of other operating systems. S/Key is a registered trademark of Bell Communications Research, Inc. There are three different sorts of passwords which we will talk about in the discussion below. The first is your usual UNIX-style or - Kerberos password; we will call this a “UNIX password”. + Kerberos password; we will call this a UNIX password. The second sort is the one-time password which is generated by the S/Key key program and accepted by the keyinit program and the login prompt; we will - call this a “one-time password”. The final sort of + call this a one-time password. The final sort of password is the secret password which you give to the key program (and sometimes the keyinit program) which it uses to generate - one-time passwords; we will call it a “secret password” - or just unqualified “password”. + one-time passwords; we will call it a secret password + or just unqualified password. The secret password does not have anything to do with your UNIX password; they can be the same but this is not reccomended. S/Key secret passwords are not limted to 8 characters like UNIX passwords, they can be as long as you like. Passwords of six or seven word long phrases are fairly common. For the most part, the S/Key system operates completely independently of the UNIX password system. Besides the password, there are two other pieces of data that are important to S/Key. One is what is known as the - “seed” or “key” and consists of two letters - and five digits. The other is what is called the “iteration - count” and is a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the + seed or key and consists of two letters + and five digits. The other is what is called the iteration + count and is a number between 1 and 100. S/Key creates the one-time password by concatenating the seed and the secret password, then applying the MD4 hash as many times as specified by the iteration count and turning the result into six short English words. These six English words are your one-time password. The login and su programs keep track of the last one-time password used, and the user is authenticated if the hash of the user-provided password is equal to the previous password. Because a one-way hash is used it is impossible to generate future one-time passwords if a sucessfully used password is captured; the interation count is decremented after each sucessfull login to keep the user and the login program in sync. When the iteration count gets down to 1 S/Key must be reinitialized. There are four programs involved in the S/Key system which we will discuss below. The key program accepts an iteration count, a seed, and a secret password, and generates a one-time password. The keyinit program is used to initialized S/Key, and to change passwords, iteration counts, or seeds; it takes either a secret password, or an iteration count, seed, and one-time password. The keyinfo program examines the /etc/skeykeys file and prints out the invoking user's current iteration count and seed. Finally, the login and su programs contain the necessary logic to accept S/Key one-time passwords for authentication. The login program is also capable of disallowing the use of UNIX passwords on connections coming from specified addresses. There are four different sorts of operations we will cover. The first is using the keyinit program over a secure connection to set up S/Key for the first time, or to change your password or seed. The second operation is using the keyinit program over an insecure connection, in conjunction with the key program over a secure connection, to do the same. The third is using the key program to log in over an insecure connection. The fourth is using the key program to generate a number of keys which can be written down or printed out to carry with you when going to some location without secure connections to anywhere. Secure connection initialization To initialize S/Key for the first time, change your password, or change your seed while logged in over a secure connection (e.g., on the console of a machine or via ssh), use the keyinit command without any parameters while logged in as yourself: &prompt.user; keyinit Adding unfurl: Reminder - Only use this method if you are directly connected. If you are using telnet or rlogin exit with no password and use keyinit -s. Enter secret password: Again secret password: ID unfurl s/key is 99 to17757 DEFY CLUB PRO NASH LACE SOFT At the Enter secret password: prompt you should enter a password or phrase. Remember, this is not the password that you will use to login with, this is used to generate - your one-time login keys. The “ID” line gives the + your one-time login keys. The ID line gives the parameters of your particular S/Key instance; your login name, the iteration count, and seed. When logging in with S/Key, the system will remember these parameters and present them back to you so you do not have to remember them. The last line gives the particular one-time password which corresponds to those parameters and your secret password; if you were to re-login immediately, this one-time password is the one you would use. Insecure connection initialization To initialize S/Key or change your secret password over an insecure connection, you will need to already have a secure connection to some place where you can run the key program; this might be in the form of a desk accessory on a Macintosh, or a shell prompt on a machine you trust. You will also need to make up an iteration count (100 is probably a good value), and you may make up your own seed or use a randomly-generated one. Over on the insecure connection (to the machine you are initializing), use the keyinit -s command: &prompt.user; keyinit -s Updating unfurl: Old key: to17758 Reminder you need the 6 english words from the key command. Enter sequence count from 1 to 9999: 100 Enter new key [default to17759]: s/key 100 to 17759 s/key access password: To accept the default seed (which the keyinit program confusingly calls a key), press return. Then before entering an access password, move over to your secure connection or S/Key desk accessory, and give it the same parameters: &prompt.user; key 100 to17759 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE Now switch back over to the insecure connection, and copy the one-time password generated by key over to the keyinit program: s/key access password:CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE ID unfurl s/key is 100 to17759 CURE MIKE BANE HIM RACY GORE The rest of the description from the previous section applies here as well. Generating a single one-time password Once you've initialized S/Key, when you login you will be presented with a prompt like this: &prompt.user; telnet example.com Trying 10.0.0.1... Connected to example.com Escape character is '^]'. FreeBSD/i386 (example.com) (ttypa) login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: As a side note, the S/Key prompt has a useful feature (not shown here): if you press return at the password prompt, the login program will turn echo on, so you can see what you are typing. This can be extremely useful if you are attempting to type in an S/Key by hand, such as from a printout. Also, if this machine were configured to disallow UNIX passwords over a connection from my machine, the prompt would have also included the annotation (s/key required), indicating that only S/Key one-time passwords will be accepted. At this point you need to generate your one-time password to answer this login prompt. This must be done on a trusted system that you can run the key command on. (There are versions of the key program from DOS, Windows and MacOS as well.) The key program needs both the iteration count and the seed as command line options. You can cut-and-paste these right from the login prompt on the machine that you are logging in to. On the trusted system: &prompt.user; key 97 fw13894 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Now that you have your one-time password you can continue logging in: login: <username> s/key 97 fw13894 Password: <return to enable echo> s/key 97 fw13894 Password [echo on]: WELD LIP ACTS ENDS ME HAAG Last login: Tue Mar 21 11:56:41 from 10.0.0.2 ... This is the easiest mechanism if you have a trusted machine. There is a Java S/Key key applet, The Java OTP Calculator, that you can download and run locally on any Java supporting browser. Generating multiple one-time passwords Sometimes you have have to go places where you do not have access to a trusted machine or secure connection. In this case, it is possible to use the key command to generate a number of one-time passwords before hand to be printed out and taken with you. For example: &prompt.user; key -n 5 30 zz99999 Reminder - Do not use this program while logged in via telnet or rlogin. Enter secret password: <secret password> 26: SODA RUDE LEA LIND BUDD SILT 27: JILT SPY DUTY GLOW COWL ROT 28: THEM OW COLA RUNT BONG SCOT 29: COT MASH BARR BRIM NAN FLAG 30: CAN KNEE CAST NAME FOLK BILK The requests five keys in sequence, the specifies what the last iteration number should be. Note that these are printed out in reverse order of eventual use. If you are really paranoid, you might want to write the results down by hand; otherwise you can cut-and-paste into lpr. Note that each line shows both the iteration count and the one-time password; you may still find it handy to scratch off passwords as you use them. Restricting use of UNIX passwords Restrictions can be placed on the use of UNIX passwords based on the host name, user name, terminal port, or IP address of a login session. These restrictions can be found in the configuration file /etc/skey.access. The &man.skey.access.5; manual page has more info on the complete format of the file and also details some security cautions to be aware of before depending on this file for security. If there is no /etc/skey.access file (this is the FreeBSD default), then all users will be allowed to use UNIX passwords. If the file exists, however, then all users will be required to use S/Key unless explicitly permitted to do otherwise by configuration statements in the skey.access file. In all cases, UNIX passwords are permitted on the console. Here is a sample configuration file which illustrates the three most common sorts of configuration statements: permit internet 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 permit user fnord permit port ttyd0 The first line (permit internet) allows users whose IP source address (which is vulnerable to spoofing) matches the specified value and mask, to use UNIX passwords. This should not be considered a security mechanism, but rather, a means to remind authorized users that they are using an insecure network and need to use S/Key for authentication. The second line (permit user) allows the specified username, in this case fnord, to use UNIX passwords at any time. Generally speaking, this should only be used for people who are either unable to use the key program, like those with dumb terminals, or those who are uneducable. The third line (permit port) allows all users logging in on the specified terminal line to use UNIX passwords; this would be used for dial-ups. Kerberos Contributed by &a.markm; (based on contribution by &a.md;). Kerberos is a network add-on system/protocol that allows users to authenticate themselves through the services of a secure server. Services such as remote login, remote copy, secure inter-system file copying and other high-risk tasks are made considerably safer and more controllable. The following instructions can be used as a guide on how to set up Kerberos as distributed for FreeBSD. However, you should refer to the relevant manual pages for a complete description. In FreeBSD, the Kerberos is not that from the original 4.4BSD-Lite, distribution, but eBones, which had been previously ported to FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, and was sourced from outside the USA/Canada, and is thus available to system owners outside those countries. For those needing to get a legal foreign distribution of this software, please do not get it from a USA or Canada site. You will get that site in big trouble! A legal copy of this is available from ftp.internat.FreeBSD.org, which is in South Africa and an official FreeBSD mirror site. Creating the initial database This is done on the Kerberos server only. First make sure that you do not have any old Kerberos databases around. You should change to the directory /etc/kerberosIV and check that only the following files are present: &prompt.root; cd /etc/kerberosIV &prompt.root; ls README krb.conf krb.realms If any additional files (such as principal.* or master_key) exist, then use the kdb_destroy command to destroy the old Kerberos database, of if Kerberos is not running, simply delete the extra files. You should now edit the krb.conf and krb.realms files to define your Kerberos realm. In this case the realm will be GRONDAR.ZA and the server is grunt.grondar.za. We edit or create the krb.conf file: &prompt.root; cat krb.conf GRONDAR.ZA GRONDAR.ZA grunt.grondar.za admin server CS.BERKELEY.EDU okeeffe.berkeley.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-1.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-2.mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU kerberos-3.mit.edu LCS.MIT.EDU kerberos.lcs.mit.edu TELECOM.MIT.EDU bitsy.mit.edu ARC.NASA.GOV trident.arc.nasa.gov In this case, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to not include them for simplicity. The first line names the realm in which this system works. The other lines contain realm/host entries. The first item on a line is a realm, and the second is a host in that realm that is acting as a - “key distribution centre”. The words admin + key distribution centre. The words admin server following a hosts name means that host also provides an administrative database server. For further explanation of these terms, please consult the Kerberos man pages. Now we have to add grunt.grondar.za to the GRONDAR.ZA realm and also add an entry to put all hosts in the .grondar.za domain in the GRONDAR.ZA realm. The krb.realms file would be updated as follows: &prompt.root; cat krb.realms grunt.grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .grondar.za GRONDAR.ZA .berkeley.edu CS.BERKELEY.EDU .MIT.EDU ATHENA.MIT.EDU .mit.edu ATHENA.MIT.EDU Again, the other realms do not need to be there. They are here as an example of how a machine may be made aware of multiple realms. You may wish to remove them to simplify things. The first line puts the specific system into the named realm. The rest of the lines show how to default systems of a particular subdomain to a named realm. Now we are ready to create the database. This only needs to run on the Kerberos server (or Key Distribution Centre). Issue the kdb_init command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_init Realm name [default ATHENA.MIT.EDU ]: GRONDAR.ZA You will be prompted for the database Master Password. It is important that you NOT FORGET this password. Enter Kerberos master key: Now we have to save the key so that servers on the local machine can pick it up. Use the kstash command to do this. &prompt.root; kstash Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! This saves the encrypted master password in /etc/kerberosIV/master_key. Making it all run Two principals need to be added to the database for each system that will be secured with Kerberos. Their names are kpasswd and rcmd These two principals are made for each system, with the instance being the name of the individual system. These daemons, kpasswd and rcmd allow other systems to change Kerberos passwords and run commands like rcp, rlogin and rsh. Now let's add these entries: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: passwd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: passwd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? y Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: rcmd Instance: grunt <Not found>, Create [y] ? Principal: rcmd, Instance: grunt, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Verifying password New Password: <---- enter RANDOM here Random password [y] ? Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Creating the server file We now have to extract all the instances which define the services on each machine. For this we use the ext_srvtab command. This will create a file which must be copied or moved by secure means to each Kerberos client's /etc/kerberosIV directory. This file must be present on each server and client, and is crucial to the operation of Kerberos. &prompt.root; ext_srvtab grunt Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Generating 'grunt-new-srvtab'.... Now, this command only generates a temporary file which must be renamed to srvtab so that all the server can pick it up. Use the mv command to move it into place on the original system: &prompt.root; mv grunt-new-srvtab srvtab If the file is for a client system, and the network is not deemed safe, then copy the client-new-srvtab to removable media and transport it by secure physical means. Be sure to rename it to srvtab in the client's /etc/kerberosIV directory, and make sure it is mode 600: &prompt.root; mv grumble-new-srvtab srvtab &prompt.root; chmod 600 srvtab Populating the database We now have to add some user entries into the database. First let's create an entry for the user jane. Use the kdb_edit command to do this: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: , kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a secure password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Testing it all out First we have to start the Kerberos daemons. NOTE that if you have correctly edited your /etc/rc.conf then this will happen automatically when you reboot. This is only necessary on the Kerberos server. Kerberos clients will automagically get what they need from the /etc/kerberosIV directory. &prompt.root; kerberos & Kerberos server starting Sleep forever on error Log file is /var/log/kerberos.log Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Current Kerberos master key version is 1 Local realm: GRONDAR.ZA &prompt.root; kadmind -n & KADM Server KADM0.0A initializing Please do not use 'kill -9' to kill this job, use a regular kill instead Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Now we can try using the kinit command to get a ticket for the id jane that we created above: &prompt.user; kinit jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane" Password: Try listing the tokens using klist to see if we really have them: &prompt.user; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt245 Principal: jane@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal Apr 30 11:23:22 Apr 30 19:23:22 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Now try changing the password using passwd to check if the kpasswd daemon can get authorization to the Kerberos database: &prompt.user; passwd realm GRONDAR.ZA Old password for jane: New Password for jane: Verifying password New Password for jane: Password changed. Adding <command>su</command> privileges Kerberos allows us to give each user who needs root privileges their own separate supassword. We could now add an id which is authorized to su to root. This is controlled by having an instance of root associated with a principal. Using kdb_edit we can create the entry jane.root in the Kerberos database: &prompt.root; kdb_edit Opening database... Enter Kerberos master key: Current Kerberos master key version is 1. Master key entered. BEWARE! Previous or default values are in [brackets] , enter return to leave the same, or new value. Principal name: jane Instance: root <Not found>, Create [y] ? y Principal: jane, Instance: root, kdc_key_ver: 1 New Password: <---- enter a SECURE password here Verifying password New Password: <---- re-enter the password here Principal's new key version = 1 Expiration date (enter yyyy-mm-dd) [ 2000-01-01 ] ? Max ticket lifetime (*5 minutes) [ 255 ] ? 12 <--- Keep this short! Attributes [ 0 ] ? Edit O.K. Principal name: <---- null entry here will cause an exit Now try getting tokens for it to make sure it works: &prompt.root; kinit jane.root MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Kerberos Initialization for "jane.root" Password: Now we need to add the user to root's .klogin file: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Now try doing the su: &prompt.user; su Password: and take a look at what tokens we have: &prompt.root; klist Ticket file: /tmp/tkt_root_245 Principal: jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Issued Expires Principal May 2 20:43:12 May 3 04:43:12 krbtgt.GRONDAR.ZA@GRONDAR.ZA Using other commands In an earlier example, we created a principal called jane with an instance root. This was based on a user with the same name as the principal, and this is a Kerberos default; that a <principal>.<instance> of the form <username>.root will allow that <username> to su to root if the necessary entries are in the .klogin file in root's home directory: &prompt.root; cat /root/.klogin jane.root@GRONDAR.ZA Likewise, if a user has in their own home directory lines of the form: &prompt.user; cat ~/.klogin jane@GRONDAR.ZA jack@GRONDAR.ZA This allows anyone in the GRONDAR.ZA realm who has authenticated themselves to jane or jack (via kinit, see above) access to rlogin to jane's account or files on this system (grunt) via rlogin, rsh or rcp. For example, Jane now logs into another system, using Kerberos: &prompt.user; kinit MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: %prompt.user; rlogin grunt Last login: Mon May 1 21:14:47 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Or Jack logs into Jane's account on the same machine (Jane having set up the .klogin file as above, and the person in charge of Kerberos having set up principal jack with a null instance: &prompt.user; kinit &prompt.user; rlogin grunt -l jane MIT Project Athena (grunt.grondar.za) Password: Last login: Mon May 1 21:16:55 from grumble Copyright (c) 1980, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994 The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. FreeBSD BUILT-19950429 (GR386) #0: Sat Apr 29 17:50:09 SAT 1995 Firewalls Contributed by &a.gpalmer; and &a.alex;. Firewalls are an area of increasing interest for people who are connected to the Internet, and are even finding applications on private networks to provide enhanced security. This section will hopefully explain what firewalls are, how to use them, and how to use the facilities provided in the FreeBSD kernel to implement them. People often think that having a firewall between your - internal network and the “Big Bad Internet” will solve all + internal network and the Big Bad Internet will solve all your security problems. It may help, but a poorly setup firewall system is more of a security risk than not having one at all. A firewall can add another layer of security to your systems, but it cannot stop a really determined cracker from penetrating your internal network. If you let internal security lapse because you believe your firewall to be impenetrable, you have just made the crackers job that much easier. What is a firewall? There are currently two distinct types of firewalls in common use on the Internet today. The first type is more properly called a packet filtering router, where the kernel on a multi-homed machine chooses whether to forward or block packets based on a set of rules. The second type, known as a proxy server, relies on daemons to provide authentication and to forward packets, possibly on a multi-homed machine which has kernel packet forwarding disabled. Sometimes sites combine the two types of firewalls, so that only a certain machine (known as a bastion host) is allowed to send packets through a packet filtering router onto an internal network. Proxy services are run on the bastion host, which are generally more secure than normal authentication mechanisms. FreeBSD comes with a kernel packet filter (known as IPFW), which is what the rest of this section will concentrate on. Proxy servers can be built on FreeBSD from third party software, but there is such a variety of proxy servers available that it would be impossible to cover them in this document. Packet filtering routers A router is a machine which forwards packets between two or more networks. A packet filtering router has an extra piece of code in its kernel which compares each packet to a list of rules before deciding if it should be forwarded or not. Most modern IP routing software has packet filtering code within it that defaults to forwarding all packets. To enable the filters, you need to define a set of rules for the filtering code so it can decide if the packet should be allowed to pass or not. To decide whether a packet should be passed on, the code looks through its set of rules for a rule which matches the contents of this packets headers. Once a match is found, the rule action is obeyed. The rule action could be to drop the packet, to forward the packet, or even to send an ICMP message back to the originator. Only the first match counts, as the rules are searched in order. - Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a “rule - chain”. + Hence, the list of rules can be referred to as a rule + chain. The packet matching criteria varies depending on the software used, but typically you can specify rules which depend on the source IP address of the packet, the destination IP address, the source port number, the destination port number (for protocols which support ports), or even the packet type (UDP, TCP, ICMP, etc). Proxy servers Proxy servers are machines which have had the normal system daemons (telnetd, ftpd, etc) replaced with special servers. These servers are called proxy servers as they normally only allow onward connections to be made. This enables you to run (for example) a proxy telnet server on your firewall host, and people can telnet in to your firewall from the outside, go through some authentication mechanism, and then gain access to the internal network (alternatively, proxy servers can be used for signals coming from the internal network and heading out). Proxy servers are normally more secure than normal servers, and often have a wider variety of authentication mechanisms available, - including “one-shot” password systems so that even if + including one-shot password systems so that even if someone manages to discover what password you used, they will not be able to use it to gain access to your systems as the password instantly expires. As they do not actually give users access to the host machine, it becomes a lot more difficult for someone to install backdoors around your security system. Proxy servers often have ways of restricting access further, so that only certain hosts can gain access to the servers, and often they can be set up so that you can limit which users can talk to which destination machine. Again, what facilities are available depends largely on what proxy software you choose. What does IPFW allow me to do? IPFW, the software supplied with FreeBSD, is a packet filtering and accounting system which resides in the kernel, and has a user-land control utility, &man.ipfw.8;. Together, they allow you to define and query the rules currently used by the kernel in its routing decisions. There are two related parts to IPFW. The firewall section allows you to perform packet filtering. There is also an IP accounting section which allows you to track usage of your router, based on similar rules to the firewall section. This allows you to see (for example) how much traffic your router is getting from a certain machine, or how much WWW (World Wide Web) traffic it is forwarding. As a result of the way that IPFW is designed, you can use IPFW on non-router machines to perform packet filtering on incoming and outgoing connections. This is a special case of the more general use of IPFW, and the same commands and techniques should be used in this situation. Enabling IPFW on FreeBSD As the main part of the IPFW system lives in the kernel, you will need to add one or more options to your kernel configuration file, depending on what facilities you want, and recompile your kernel. See reconfiguring the kernel for more details on how to recompile your kernel. There are currently three kernel configuration options relevant to IPFW: options IPFIREWALL Compiles into the kernel the code for packet filtering. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE Enables code to allow logging of packets through &man.syslogd.8;. Without this option, even if you specify that packets should be logged in the filter rules, nothing will happen. options IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE_LIMIT=10 Limits the number of packets logged through &man.syslogd.8; on a per entry basis. You may wish to use this option in hostile environments in which you want to log firewall activity, but do not want to be open to a denial of service attack via syslog flooding. When a chain entry reaches the packet limit specified, logging is turned off for that particular entry. To resume logging, you will need to reset the associated counter using the &man.ipfw.8; utility: &prompt.root; ipfw zero 4500 Where 4500 is the chain entry you wish to continue logging. Previous versions of FreeBSD contained an IPFIREWALL_ACCT option. This is now obsolete as the firewall code automatically includes accounting facilities. Configuring IPFW The configuration of the IPFW software is done through the &man.ipfw.8; utility. The syntax for this command looks quite complicated, but it is relatively simple once you understand its structure. There are currently four different command categories used by the utility: addition/deletion, listing, flushing, and clearing. Addition/deletion is used to build the rules that control how packets are accepted, rejected, and logged. Listing is used to examine the contents of your rule set (otherwise known as the chain) and packet counters (accounting). Flushing is used to remove all entries from the chain. Clearing is used to zero out one or more accounting entries. Altering the IPFW rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -N command index action log protocol addresses options There is one valid flag when using this form of the command: -N Resolve addresses and service names in output. The command given can be shortened to the shortest unique form. The valid commands are: add Add an entry to the firewall/accounting rule list delete Delete an entry from the firewall/accounting rule list Previous versions of IPFW used separate firewall and accounting entries. The present version provides packet accounting with each firewall entry. If an index value is supplied, it used to place the entry at a specific point in the chain. Otherwise, the entry is placed at the end of the chain at an index 100 greater than the last chain entry (this does not include the default policy, rule 65535, deny). The log option causes matching rules to be output to the system console if the kernel was compiled with IPFIREWALL_VERBOSE. Valid actions are: reject Drop the packet, and send an ICMP host or port unreachable (as appropriate) packet to the source. allow Pass the packet on as normal. (aliases: pass and accept) deny Drop the packet. The source is not notified via an ICMP message (thus it appears that the packet never arrived at the destination). count Update packet counters but do not allow/deny the packet based on this rule. The search continues with the next chain entry. Each action will be recognized by the shortest unambiguous prefix. The protocols which can be specified are: all Matches any IP packet icmp Matches ICMP packets tcp Matches TCP packets udp Matches UDP packets The address specification is: from address/maskport to address/maskport via interface You can only specify port in conjunction with protocols which support ports (UDP and TCP). The is optional and may specify the IP address or domain name of a local IP interface, or an interface name (e.g. ed0) to match only packets coming through this interface. Interface unit numbers can be specified with an optional wildcard. For example, ppp* would match all kernel PPP interfaces. The syntax used to specify an address/mask is: address or address/mask-bits or address:mask-pattern A valid hostname may be specified in place of the IP address. is a decimal number representing how many bits in the address mask should be set. e.g. specifying 192.216.222.1/24 will create a mask which will allow any address in a class C subnet (in this case, 192.216.222) to be matched. is an IP address which will be logically AND'ed with the address given. The - keyword any may be used to specify “any IP - address”. + keyword any may be used to specify any IP + address. The port numbers to be blocked are specified as: port,port,port… to specify either a single port or a list of ports, or port-port to specify a range of ports. You may also combine a single range with a list, but the range must always be specified first. The options available are: frag Matches if the packet is not the first fragment of the datagram. in Matches if the packet is on the way in. out Matches if the packet is on the way out. ipoptions spec Matches if the IP header contains the comma separated list of options specified in spec. The supported list of IP options are: ssrr (strict source route), lsrr (loose source route), rr (record packet route), and ts (timestamp). The absence of a particular option may be denoted with a leading !. established Matches if the packet is part of an already established TCP connection (i.e. it has the RST or ACK bits set). You can optimize the performance of the firewall by placing established rules early in the chain. setup Matches if the packet is an attempt to establish a TCP connection (the SYN bit set is set but the ACK bit is not). tcpflags flags Matches if the TCP header contains the comma separated list of flags. The supported flags are fin, syn, rst, psh, ack, and urg. The absence of a particular flag may be indicated by a leading !. icmptypes types Matches if the ICMP type is present in the list types. The list may be specified as any combination of ranges and/or individual types separated by commas. Commonly used ICMP types are: 0 echo reply (ping reply), 3 destination unreachable, 5 redirect, 8 echo request (ping request), and 11 time exceeded (used to indicate TTL expiration as with &man.traceroute.8;). Listing the IPFW rules The syntax for this form of the command is: ipfw -a -t -N l There are three valid flags when using this form of the command: -a While listing, show counter values. This option is the only way to see accounting counters. -t Display the last match times for each chain entry. The time listing is incompatible with the input syntax used by the &man.ipfw.8; utility. -N Attempt to resolve given addresses and service names. Flushing the IPFW rules The syntax for flushing the chain is: ipfw flush This causes all entries in the firewall chain to be removed except the fixed default policy enforced by the kernel (index 65535). Use caution when flushing rules, the default deny policy will leave your system cut off from the network until allow entries are added to the chain. Clearing the IPFW packet counters The syntax for clearing one or more packet counters is: ipfw zero index When used without an index argument, all packet counters are cleared. If an index is supplied, the clearing operation only affects a specific chain entry. Example commands for ipfw This command will deny all packets from the host evil.crackers.org to the telnet port of the host nice.people.org by being forwarded by the router: &prompt.root ipfw add deny tcp from evil.crackers.org to nice.people.org 23 The next example denies and logs any TCP traffic from the entire crackers.org network (a class C) to the nice.people.org machine (any port). &prompt.root; ipfw add deny log tcp from evil.crackers.org/24 to nice.people.org If you do not want people sending X sessions to your internal network (a subnet of a class C), the following command will do the necessary filtering: &prompt.root; ipfw add deny tcp from any to my.org/28 6000 setup To see the accounting records: &prompt.root; ipfw -a list or in the short form &prompt.root; ipfw -a l You can also see the last time a chain entry was matched with: &prompt.root; ipfw -at l Building a packet filtering firewall The following suggestions are just that: suggestions. The requirements of each firewall are different and I cannot tell you how to build a firewall to meet your particular requirements. When initially setting up your firewall, unless you have a test bench setup where you can configure your firewall host in a controlled environment, I strongly recommend you use the logging version of the commands and enable logging in the kernel. This will allow you to quickly identify problem areas and cure them without too much disruption. Even after the initial setup phase is complete, I recommend using the logging for of `deny' as it allows tracing of possible attacks and also modification of the firewall rules if your requirements alter. If you use the logging versions of the accept command, it can generate large amounts of log data as one log line will be generated for every packet that passes through the firewall, so large ftp/http transfers, etc, will really slow the system down. It also increases the latencies on those packets as it requires more work to be done by the kernel before the packet can be passed on. syslogd with also start using up a lot more processor time as it logs all the extra data to disk, and it could quite easily fill the partition /var/log is located on. You should enable your firewall from /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf. The associated manpage explains which knobs to fiddle and lists some preset firewall configurations. If you do not use a preset configuration, ipfw list will output the current ruleset into a file that you can pass to rc.conf. If you do not use /etc/rc.conf.local or /etc/rc.conf to enable your firewall, it is important to make sure your firewall is enabled before any IP interfaces are configured. The next problem is what your firewall should actually do! This is largely dependent on what access to your network you want to allow from the outside, and how much access to the outside world you want to allow from the inside. Some general rules are: Block all incoming access to ports below 1024 for TCP. This is where most of the security sensitive services are, like finger, SMTP (mail) and telnet. Block all incoming UDP traffic. There are very few useful services that travel over UDP, and what useful traffic there is is normally a security threat (e.g. Suns RPC and NFS protocols). This has its disadvantages also, since UDP is a connectionless protocol, denying incoming UDP traffic also blocks the replies to outgoing UDP traffic. This can cause a problem for people (on the inside) using external archie (prospero) servers. If you want to allow access to archie, you'll have to allow packets coming from ports 191 and 1525 to any internal UDP port through the firewall. ntp is another service you may consider allowing through, which comes from port 123. Block traffic to port 6000 from the outside. Port 6000 is the port used for access to X11 servers, and can be a security threat (especially if people are in the habit of doing xhost + on their workstations). X11 can actually use a range of ports starting at 6000, the upper limit being how many X displays you can run on the machine. The upper limit as defined by RFC 1700 (Assigned Numbers) is 6063. Check what ports any internal servers use (e.g. SQL servers, etc). It is probably a good idea to block those as well, as they normally fall outside the 1-1024 range specified above. Another checklist for firewall configuration is available from CERT at ftp://ftp.cert.org/pub/tech_tips/packet_filtering As I said above, these are only guidelines. You will have to decide what filter rules you want to use on your firewall yourself. I cannot accept ANY responsibility if someone breaks into your network, even if you follow the advice given above. OpenSSL As of FreeBSD 4.0, the OpenSSL toolkit is a part of the base system. OpenSSL provides a general-purpose cryptography library, as well as the Secure Sockets Layer v2/v3 (SSLv2/SSLv3) and Transport Layer Security v1 (TLSv1) network security protocols. However, some of the algorithms (specifically, RSA and IDEA) included in OpenSSL are protected by patents in the USA and elsewhere, and are not available for unrestricted use (in particular, IDEA is not available at all in FreeBSD's version of OpenSSL). As a result, FreeBSD has available two different versions of the OpenSSL RSA libraries depending on geographical location (USA/non-USA). Source Code Installations OpenSSL is part of the src-crypto and src-securecvsup collections. See the Obtaining FreeBSD section for more information about obtaining and updating FreeBSD source code. International (Non-USA) Users People who are located outside the USA, and who obtain their crypto sources from internat.FreeBSD.org (the International Crypto Repository) or an international mirror site, will build a - version of OpenSSL which includes the “native” OpenSSL + version of OpenSSL which includes the native OpenSSL implementation of RSA, but does not include IDEA, because the latter is restricted in certain locations elsewhere in the world. In the future a more flexible geographical identification system may allow building of IDEA in countries for which it is not restricted. Please be aware of any local restrictions on the import, use and redistribution of cryptography which may exist in your country. USA Users As noted above, RSA is patented in the USA, with terms preventing general use without an appropriate license. Therefore the standard OpenSSL RSA code may not be used in the USA, and has been removed from the version of OpenSSL carried on USA mirror sites. The RSA patent is due to expire on September 20, 2000, at which - time it is intended to add the “full” RSA code back to + time it is intended to add the full RSA code back to the USA version of OpenSSL. However (and fortunately), the RSA patent holder (RSA Security, has - provided a “RSA reference implementation” toolkit + provided a RSA reference implementation toolkit (RSAREF) which is available for certain classes of use, including non-commercial use (see the RSAREF license for their definition of non-commercial). If you meet the conditions of the RSAREF license and wish to use it in conjunction with OpenSSL to provide RSA support, you can install the rsaref port, which is located in /usr/ports/security/rsaref, or the rsaref-2.0 package. The OpenSSL library will then automatically detect and use the RSAREF libraries. Please obtain legal advice if you are unsure of your compliance with the license terms. The RSAREF implementation is inferior to the - “native&rdquo OpenSSL implementation (it is much slower, + native OpenSSL implementation (it is much slower, and cannot be used with keys larger than 1024 bits). If you are not located in the USA then you are doing yourself a disadvantage by using RSAREF. Users who have purchased an appropriate RSA source code license from RSA Security may use the International version of OpenSSL described above to obtain native RSA support. IDEA code is also removed from the USA version of OpenSSL for patent reasons. Binary Installations If your FreeBSD installation was a binary installation (e.g., installed from the Walnut Creek CDROM, or from a snapshot downloaded from ftp.FreeBSD.org) and you selected to install the crypto collection, then the sysinstall utility will automatically select the correct version to install during the installation process. If the international version was selected but could not be installed during sysinstall (e.g. you have not configured network access, and the version must be downloaded from a FTP site) then you can add the international RSA library after installation as a package. The librsaintl package contains the RSA code for International (non-USA) users. This is not legal for use in the USA, but international users should use this version because the RSA implementation is faster and more flexible. It is available from ftp.internat.FreeBSD.org and does not require RSAREF. IPsec Contributed by &a.shin;, 5 March 2000. IPsec mechanism provides secure communication either for IP layer and socket layer communication. This section should explain how to use them. About IPsec implementation, please refer section 23.5.4. The current IPsec implementation supports both transport mode and tunnel mode. However, tunnel mode comes with some restrictions. http://www.kame.net/newsletter/ has more comprehensive examples. Transport mode example with IPv4 Let's setup security association to deploy a secure channel between HOST A (10.2.3.4) and HOST B (10.6.7.8). Here we show a little complicated example. From HOST A to HOST B, only old AH is used. From HOST B to HOST A, new AH and new ESP are combined. Now we should choose algorithm to be used corresponding to "AH"/"new AH"/"ESP"/"new ESP". Please refer to the &man.setkey.8; man page to know algorithm names. Our choice is MD5 for AH, new-HMAC-SHA1 for new AH, and new-DES-expIV with 8 byte IV for new ESP. Key length highly depends on each algorithm. For example, key length must be equal to 16 bytes for MD5, 20 for new-HMAC-SHA1, and 8 for new-DES-expIV. Now we choose "MYSECRETMYSECRET", "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME", "PASSWORD", respectively. OK, let's assign SPI (Security Parameter Index) for each protocol. Please note that we need 3 SPIs for this secure channel since three security headers are produced (one for from HOST A to HOST B, two for from HOST B to HOST A). Please also note that SPI MUST be greater than or equal to 256. We choose, 1000, 2000, and 3000, respectively. (1) HOST A ------> HOST B (1)PROTO=AH ALG=MD5(RFC1826) KEY=MYSECRETMYSECRET SPI=1000 (2.1) HOST A <------ HOST B <------ (2.2) (2.1) PROTO=AH ALG=new-HMAC-SHA1(new AH) KEY=KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME SPI=2000 (2.2) PROTO=ESP ALG=new-DES-expIV(new ESP) IV length = 8 KEY=PASSWORD SPI=3000 Now, let's setup security association. Execute &man.setkey.8; on both HOST A and B: &prompt.root; setkey -c add 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 ah-old 1000 -m transport -A keyed-md5 "MYSECRETMYSECRET" ; add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 ah 2000 -m transport -A hmac-sha1 "KAMEKAMEKAMEKAMEKAME" ; add 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 esp 3000 -m transport -E des-cbc "PASSWORD" ; ^D Actually, IPsec communication doesn't process until security policy entries will be defined. In this case, you must setup each host. At A: &prompt.root; setkey -c spdadd 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 any -P out ipsec ah/transport/10.2.3.4-10.6.7.8/require ; ^D At B: &prompt.root; setkey -c spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec esp/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ; spdadd 10.6.7.8 10.2.3.4 any -P out ipsec ah/transport/10.6.7.8-10.2.3.4/require ; ^D HOST A --------------------------------------> HOST E 10.2.3.4 10.6.7.8 | | ========== old AH keyed-md5 ==========> <========= new AH hmac-sha1 =========== <========= new ESP des-cbc ============ Transport mode example with IPv6 Another example using IPv6. ESP transport mode is recommended for TCP port number 110 between Host-A and Host-B. ============ ESP ============ | | Host-A Host-B fec0::10 -------------------- fec0::11 Encryption algorithm is blowfish-cbc whose key is "kamekame", and authentication algorithm is hmac-sha1 whose key is "this is the test key". Configuration at Host-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ; spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ; add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; EOF and at Host-B: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0::11[110] fec0::10[any] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0::11-fec0::10/use ; spdadd fec0::10[any] fec0::11[110] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0::10-fec0::11/use ; add fec0::10 fec0::11 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0::11 fec0::10 esp 0x10002 -m transport -E blowfish-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; EOF Note the direction of SP. Tunnel mode example with IPv4 Tunnel mode between two security gateways Security protocol is old AH tunnel mode, i.e. specified by RFC1826, with keyed-md5 whose key is "this is the test" as authentication algorithm. ======= AH ======= | | Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B 10.0.1.0/24 ---- 172.16.0.1 ----- 172.16.0.2 ---- 10.0.2.0/24 Configuration at Gateway-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P out ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ; spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P in ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ; add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF If port number field is omitted such above then "[any]" is employed. `-m' specifies the mode of SA to be used. "-m any" means wild-card of mode of security protocol. You can use this SA for both tunnel and transport mode. and at Gateway-B: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd 10.0.2.0/24 10.0.1.0/24 any -P out ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.2-172.16.0.1/require ; spdadd 10.0.1.0/24 10.0.2.0/24 any -P in ipsec ah/tunnel/172.16.0.1-172.16.0.2/require ; add 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.2 ah-old 0x10003 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; add 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.1 ah-old 0x10004 -m any -A keyed-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Making SA bundle between two security gateways AH transport mode and ESP tunnel mode is required between Gateway-A and Gateway-B. In this case, ESP tunnel mode is applied first, and AH transport mode is next. ========== AH ========= | ======= ESP ===== | | | | | Network-A Gateway-A Gateway-B Network-B fec0:0:0:1::/64 --- fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 --- fec0:0:0:2::/64 Tunnel mode example with IPv6 Encryption algorithm is 3des-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-sha1. Authentication algorithm for AH is hmac-md5. Configuration at Gateway-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0:0:0:1::/64 fec0:0:0:2::/64 any -P out ipsec esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ah/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ; spdadd fec0:0:0:2::/64 fec0:0:0:1::/64 any -P in ipsec esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ah/transport/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel -E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10001 -m tunnel -E 3des-cbc "kamekame12341234kame1234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 ah 0x10001 -m transport -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF Making SAs with the different end ESP tunnel mode is required between Host-A and Gateway-A. Encryption algorithm is cast128-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-sha1. ESP transport mode is recommended between Host-A and Host-B. Encryption algorithm is rc5-cbc, and authentication algorithm for ESP is hmac-md5. ================== ESP ================= | ======= ESP ======= | | | | | Host-A Gateway-A Host-B fec0:0:0:1::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::1 ---- fec0:0:0:2::2 Configuration at Host-A: &prompt.root; setkey -c <<EOF spdadd fec0:0:0:1::1[any] fec0:0:0:2::2[80] tcp -P out ipsec esp/transport/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::2/use esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:1::1-fec0:0:0:2::1/require ; spdadd fec0:0:0:2::1[80] fec0:0:0:1::1[any] tcp -P in ipsec esp/transport/fec0:0:0:2::2-fec0:0:0:l::1/use esp/tunnel/fec0:0:0:2::1-fec0:0:0:1::1/require ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::2 esp 0x10001 -m transport -E cast128-cbc "12341234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:1::1 fec0:0:0:2::1 esp 0x10002 -E rc5-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; add fec0:0:0:2::2 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10003 -m transport -E cast128-cbc "12341234" -A hmac-sha1 "this is the test key" ; add fec0:0:0:2::1 fec0:0:0:1::1 esp 0x10004 -E rc5-cbc "kamekame" -A hmac-md5 "this is the test" ; EOF diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml index 20891636d2..5edffa56cb 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/serialcomms/chapter.sgml @@ -1,2742 +1,2742 @@ Serial Communications Synopsis UNIX has always had support for serial communications. In fact, the very first UNIX machines relied on serial lines for user input and output. Things have changed a lot from the days when the average - “terminal” consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial + terminal consisted of a 10-character-per-second serial printer and a keyboard. This chapter will cover some of the ways in which FreeBSD uses serial communications. Serial Basics Assembled from FAQ. This section should give you some general information about serial ports. If you do not find what you want here, check into the Terminal and Dialup sections of the handbook. The ttydX (or cuaaX) device is the regular device you will want to open for your applications. When a process opens the device, it will have a default set of terminal I/O settings. You can see these settings with the command &prompt.root; stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1 When you change the settings to this device, the settings are in effect until the device is closed. When it is reopened, it goes back to the default set. To make changes to the default set, you can open and - adjust the settings of the “initial state” device. For + adjust the settings of the initial state device. For example, to turn on CLOCAL mode, 8 bits, and XON/XOFF flow control by default for ttyd5, do: &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff A good place to do this is in /etc/rc.serial. Now, an application will have these settings by default when it opens ttyd5. It can still change these settings to its liking, though. You can also prevent certain settings from being changed by an - application by making adjustments to the “lock state” + application by making adjustments to the lock state device. For example, to lock the speed of ttyd5 to 57600 bps, do &prompt.root; stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600 Now, an application that opens ttyd5 and tries to change the speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps. Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock state devices writable only by root. The MAKEDEV script does not do this when it creates the device entries. Terminals Contributed by &a.kelly; 28 July 1996 Terminals provide a convenient and low-cost way to access the power of your FreeBSD system when you are not at the computer's console or on a connected network. This section describes how to use terminals with FreeBSD. Uses and Types of Terminals The original Unix systems did not have consoles. Instead, people logged in and ran programs through terminals that were connected to the computer's serial ports. It is quite similar to using a modem and some terminal software to dial into a remote system to do text-only work. Today's PCs have consoles capable of high quality graphics, but the ability to establish a login session on a serial port still exists in nearly every Unix-style operating system today; FreeBSD is no exception. By using a terminal attached to a unused serial port, you can log in and run any text program that you would normally run on the console or in an xterm window in the X Window System. For the business user, you can attach many terminals to a FreeBSD system and place them on your employees' desktops. For a home user, a spare computer such as an older IBM PC or a Macintosh can be a terminal wired into a more powerful computer running FreeBSD. You can turn what might otherwise be a single-user computer into a powerful multiple user system. For FreeBSD, there are three kinds of terminals: Dumb terminals PCs acting as terminals X terminals The remaining subsections describe each kind. Dumb Terminals Dumb terminals are specialized pieces of hardware that let you connect to computers over serial lines. They are called - “dumb” because they have only enough computational power + dumb because they have only enough computational power to display, send, and receive text. You cannot run any programs on them. It is the computer to which you connect them that has all the power to run text editors, compilers, email, games, and so forth. There are hundreds of kinds of dumb terminals made by many manufacturers, including Digital Equipment Corporation's VT-100 and Wyse's WY-75. Just about any kind will work with FreeBSD. Some high-end terminals can even display graphics, but only certain software packages can take advantage of these advanced features. Dumb terminals are popular in work environments where workers do not need access to graphic applications such as those provided by the X Window System. PCs Acting As Terminals If a dumb terminal has just enough ability to display, send, and receive text, then certainly any spare personal computer can be a dumb terminal. All you need is the proper cable and some terminal emulation software to run on the computer. Such a configuration is popular in homes. For example, if your spouse is busy working on your FreeBSD system's console, you can do some text-only work at the same time from a less powerful personal computer hooked up as a terminal to the FreeBSD system. X Terminals X terminals are the most sophisticated kind of terminal available. Instead of connecting to a serial port, they usually connect to a network like Ethernet. Instead of being relegated to text-only applications, they can display any X application. We introduce X terminals just for the sake of completeness. However, this chapter does not cover setup, configuration, or use of X terminals. Cables and Ports To connect a terminal to your FreeBSD system, you need the right kind of cable and a serial port to which to connect it. This section tells you what to do. If you are already familiar with your terminal and the cable it requires, skip to Configuration. Cables Because terminals use serial ports, you need to use serial—also known as RS-232C—cables to connect the terminal to the FreeBSD system. There are a couple of kinds of serial cables. Which one you'll use depends on the terminal you want to connect: If you are connecting a personal computer to act as a terminal, use a null-modem cable. A null-modem cable connects two computers or terminals together. If you have an actual terminal, your best source of information on what cable to use is the documentation that accompanied the terminal. If you do not have the documentation, then try a null-modem cable. If that does not work, then try a standard cable. Also, the serial port on both the terminal and your FreeBSD system must have connectors that will fit the cable you are using. Null-modem cables A null-modem cable passes some signals straight through, like - “signal ground,” but switches other signals. For - example, the “send data” pin on one end goes to the - “receive data” pin on the other end. + signal ground, but switches other signals. For + example, the send data pin on one end goes to the + receive data pin on the other end. If you like making your own cables, here is a table showing a recommended way to construct a null-modem cable for use with terminals. This table shows the RS-232C signal names and the pin numbers on a DB-25 connector. Signal Pin # Pin # Signal TxD 2 connects to 3 RxD RxD 3 connects to 2 TxD DTR 20 connects to 6 DSR DSR 6 connects to 20 DTR SG 7 connects to 7 SG DCD 8 connects to 4 RTS RTS 4 5 CTS CTS 5 connects to 8 DCD For DCD to RTS, connect pins 4 to 5 internally in the connector hood, and then to pin 8 in the remote hood. Standard RS-232C Cables A standard serial cable passes all the RS-232C signals - straight-through. That is, the “send data” pin on one - end of the cable goes to the “send data” pin on the + straight-through. That is, the send data pin on one + end of the cable goes to the send data pin on the other end. This is the type of cable to connect a modem to your FreeBSD system, and the type of cable needed for some terminals. Ports Serial ports are the devices through which data is transferred between the FreeBSD host computer and the terminal. This section describes the kinds of ports that exist and how they are addressed in FreeBSD. Kinds of Ports Several kinds of serial ports exist. Before you purchase or construct a cable, you need to make sure it will fit the ports on your terminal and on the FreeBSD system. Most terminals will have DB25 ports. Personal computers, including PCs running FreeBSD, will have DB25 or DB9 ports. If you have a multiport serial card for your PC, you may have RJ-12 or RJ-45 ports. See the documentation that accompanied the hardware for specifications on the kind of port in use. A visual inspection of the port often works, too. Port Names In FreeBSD, you access each serial port through an entry in the /dev directory. There are two different kinds of entries: Callin ports are named /dev/ttydX where X is the port number, starting from zero. Generally, you use the callin port for terminals. Callin ports require that the serial line assert the data carrier detect (DCD) signal to work. Callout ports are named /dev/cuaaX. You usually do not use the callout port for terminals, just for modems. You may use the callout port if the serial cable or the terminal does not support the carrier detect signal. See the &man.sio.4; manual page for more information. If you have connected a terminal to the first serial port (COM1 in DOS parlance), then you want to use /dev/ttyd0 to refer to the terminal. If it is on the second serial port (also known as COM2), it is /dev/ttyd1, and so forth. Note that you may have to configure your kernel to support each serial port, especially if you have a multiport serial card. See Configuring the FreeBSD Kernel for more information. Configuration This section describes what you need to configure on your FreeBSD system to enable a login session on a terminal. It assumes you have already configured your kernel to support the serial port to which the terminal is connected—and that you have connected it. In a nutshell, you need to tell the init process, which is responsible for process control and initialization, to start a getty process, which is responsible for reading a login name and starting the login program. To do so, you have to edit the /etc/ttys file. First, use the su command to become root. Then, make the following changes to /etc/ttys: Add an line to /etc/ttys for the entry in the /dev directory for the serial port if it is not already there. Specify that /usr/libexec/getty be run on the port, and specify the appropriate getty type from the /etc/gettytab file. Specify the default terminal type. - Set the port to “on.” + Set the port to on. Specify whether the port should be - “secure.” + secure. Force init to reread the /etc/ttys file. As an optional step, you may wish to create a custom getty type for use in step 2 by making an entry in /etc/gettytab. This document does not explain how to do so; you are encouraged to see the &man.gettytab.5; and the &man.getty.8; manual pages for more information. The remaining sections detail how to do these steps. We will use a running example throughout these sections to illustrate what we need to do. In our example, we will connect two terminals to the system: a Wyse-50 and a old 286 IBM PC running Procomm terminal software emulating a VT-100 terminal. We connect the Wyse to the second serial port and the 286 to the sixth serial port (a port on a multiport serial card). For more information on the /etc/ttys file, see the &man.ttys.5; manual page. Adding an Entry to <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> First, you need to add an entry to the /etc/ttys file, unless one is already there. The /etc/ttys file lists all of the ports on your FreeBSD system where you want to allow logins. For example, the first virtual console ttyv0 has an entry in this file. You can log in on the console using this entry. This file contains entries for the other virtual consoles, serial ports, and pseudo-ttys. For a hardwired terminal, just list the serial port's /dev entry without the /dev part. When you installed your FreeBSD system, the /etc/ttys file included entries for the first four serial ports: ttyd0 through ttyd3. If you are attaching a terminal on one of those ports, you do not need to add an entry. In our example, we attached a Wyse-50 to the second serial port, ttyd1, which is already in the file. We need to add an entry for the 286 PC connected to the sixth serial port. Here is an excerpt of the /etc/ttys file after we add the new entry: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd5 Specifying the <replaceable>getty</replaceable> Type Next, we need to specify what program will be run to handle the logins on a terminal. For FreeBSD, the standard program to do that is /usr/libexec/getty. It is what provides the login: prompt. The program getty takes one (optional) parameter on its command line, the getty type. A getty type tells about characteristics on the terminal line, like bps rate and parity. The getty program reads these characteristics from the file /etc/gettytab. The file /etc/gettytab contains lots of entries for terminal lines both old and new. In almost all cases, the entries that start with the text std will work for hardwired terminals. These entries ignore parity. There is a std entry for each bps rate from 110 to 115200. Of course, you can add your own entries to this file. The manual page &man.gettytab.5; provides more information. When setting the getty type in the /etc/ttys file, make sure that the communications settings on the terminal match. For our example, the Wyse-50 uses no parity and connects at 38400 bps. The 286 PC uses no parity and connects at 19200 bps. Here is the /etc/ttys file so far (showing just the two terminals in which we are interested): ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" unknown off secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" Note that the second field—where we specify what program to run—appears in quotes. This is important, otherwise the type argument to getty might be interpreted as the next field. Specifying the Default Terminal Type The third field in the /etc/ttys file lists the default terminal type for the port. For dialup ports, you typically put unknown or dialup in this field because users may dial up with practically any kind of terminal or software. For hardwired terminals, the terminal type does not change, so you can put a real terminal type in this field. Users will usually use the tset program in their .login or .profile files to check the terminal type and prompt for one if necessary. By setting a terminal type in the /etc/ttys file, users can forego such prompting. To find out what terminal types FreeBSD supports, see the file /usr/share/misc/termcap. It lists about 600 terminal types. You can add more if you wish. See the &man.termcap.5; manual page for information. In our example, the Wyse-50 is a Wyse-50 type of terminal (although it can emulate others, we will leave it in Wyse-50 mode). The 286 PC is running Procomm which will be set to emulate a VT-100. Here are the pertinent yet unfinished entries from the /etc/ttys file: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 off secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 Enabling the Port The next field in /etc/ttys, the fourth field, tells whether to enable the port. Putting on here will have the init process start the program in the second field, getty, which will prompt for a login. If you put off in the fourth field, there will be no getty, and hence no logins on the port. So, naturally, you want an on in this field. Here again is the /etc/ttys file. We have turned each port on. ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on secure ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on Specifying Secure Ports We have arrived at the last field (well, almost: there is an optional window specifier, but we will ignore that). The last field tells whether the port is secure. - What does “secure” mean? + What does secure mean? It means that the root account (or any account with a user ID of 0) may login on the port. Insecure ports do not allow root to login. How do you use secure and insecure ports? By marking a port as insecure, the terminal to which it is connected will not allow root to login. People who know the root password to your FreeBSD system will first have to login using a regular user account. To gain superuser privileges, they will then have to use the su command. Because of this, you will have two records to help track down possible compromises of root privileges: both the login and the su command make records in the system log (and logins are also recorded in the wtmp file). By marking a port as secure, the terminal will allow root in. People who know the root password will just login as root. You will not have the potentially useful login and su command records. Which should you use? - Just use “insecure.” Use “insecure” + Just use insecure. Use insecure even for terminals not in public user areas or behind locked doors. It is quite easy to login and use su if you need superuser privileges. Here finally are the completed entries in the /etc/ttys file, with comments added to describe where the terminals are: ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wy50 on insecure # Kitchen ttyd5 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" vt100 on insecure # Guest bathroom Force <command>init</command> to Reread <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> When you boot FreeBSD, the first process, init, will read the /etc/ttys file and start the programs listed for each enabled port to prompt for logins. After you edit /etc/ttys, you do not want to have to reboot your system to get init to see the changes. So, init will reread /etc/ttys if it receives a SIGHUP (hangup) signal. So, after you have saved your changes to /etc/ttys, send SIGHUP to init by typing: &prompt.root; kill -HUP 1 (The init process always has process ID 1.) If everything is set up correctly, all cables are in place, and the terminals are powered up, you should see login prompts. Your terminals are ready for their first logins! Debugging your connection Even with the most meticulous attention to detail, something could still go wrong while setting up a terminal. Here is a list of symptoms and some suggested fixes. No login prompt appears Make sure the terminal is plugged in and powered up. If it is a personal computer acting as a terminal, make sure it is running terminal emulation software on the correct serial port. Make sure the cable is connected firmly to both the terminal and the FreeBSD computer. Make sure it is the right kind of cable. Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. If you have a video display terminal, make sure the contrast and brightness controls are turned up. If it is a printing terminal, make sure paper and ink are in good supply. Make sure that a getty process is running and serving the terminal. Type &prompt.root; ps -axww|grep getty to get a list of running getty processes. You should see an entry for the terminal. For example, the display 22189 d1 Is+ 0:00.03 /usr/libexec/getty std.38400 ttyd1 shows that a getty is running on the second serial port ttyd1 and is using the std.38400 entry in /etc/gettytab. If no getty process is running, make sure you have enabled the port in /etc/ttys. Make sure you have run kill -HUP 1. Garbage appears instead of a login prompt Make sure the terminal and FreeBSD agree on the bps rate and parity settings. Check the getty processes to make sure the correct getty type is in use. If not, edit /etc/ttys and run kill -HUP 1. Characters appear doubled; the password appears when typed Switch the terminal (or the terminal emulation software) - from “half duplex” or “local echo” to - “full duplex.” + from half duplex or local echo to + full duplex. Dialin Service Contributed by &a.ghelmer;. This document provides suggestions for configuring a FreeBSD system to handle dialup modems. This document is written based on the author's experience with FreeBSD versions 1.0, 1.1, and 1.1.5.1 (and experience with dialup modems on other UNIX-like operating systems); however, this document may not answer all of your questions or provide examples specific enough to your environment. The author cannot be responsible if you damage your system or lose data due to attempting to follow the suggestions here. Prerequisites To begin with, the author assumes you have some basic knowledge of FreeBSD. You need to have FreeBSD installed, know how to edit files in a UNIX-like environment, and how to look up manual pages on the system. As discussed below, you will need certain versions of FreeBSD, and knowledge of some terminology & modem and cabling. FreeBSD Version First, it is assumed that you are using FreeBSD version 1.1 or higher (including versions 2.x). FreeBSD version 1.0 included two different serial drivers, which complicates the situation. Also, the serial device driver (sio) has improved in every release of FreeBSD, so more recent versions of FreeBSD are assumed to have better and more efficient drivers than earlier versions. Terminology A quick rundown of terminology: bps Bits per Second — the rate at which data is transmitted DTE Data Terminal Equipment — for example, your computer DCE Data Communications Equipment — your modem RS-232 EIA standard for serial communications via hardware If you need more information about these terms and data communications in general, the author remembers reading that The RS-232 Bible (anybody have an ISBN?) is a good reference. When talking about communications data rates, the author does - not use the term “baud”. Baud refers to the number of + not use the term baud. Baud refers to the number of electrical state transitions that may be made in a period of time, - while “bps” (bits per second) is the - “correct” term to use (at least it does not seem to + while bps (bits per second) is the + correct term to use (at least it does not seem to bother the curmudgeons quite a much). External vs. Internal Modems External modems seem to be more convenient for dialup, because external modems often can be semi-permanently configured via parameters stored in non-volatile RAM and they usually provide lighted indicators that display the state of important RS-232 signals. Blinking lights impress visitors, but lights are also very useful to see whether a modem is operating properly. Internal modems usually lack non-volatile RAM, so their configuration may be limited only to setting DIP switches. If your internal modem has any signal indicator lights, it is probably difficult to view the lights when the system's cover is in place. Modems and Cables A background knowledge of these items is assumed You know how to connect your modem to your computer so that the two can communicate (unless you have an internal modem, which does not need such a cable) You are familiar with your modem's command set, or know where to look up needed commands You know how to configure your modem (probably via a terminal communications program) so you can set the non-volatile RAM parameters The first, connecting your modem, is usually simple — most straight-through serial cables work without any problems. You need to have a cable with appropriate connectors (DB-25 or DB-9, male or female) on each end, and the cable must be a DCE-to-DTE cable with these signals wired: Transmitted Data (SD) Received Data (RD) Request to Send (RTS) Clear to Send (CTS) Data Set Ready (DSR) Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Carrier Detect (CD) Signal Ground (SG) FreeBSD needs the RTS and CTS signals for flow-control at speeds above 2400bps, the CD signal to detect when a call has been answered or the line has been hung up, and the DTR signal to reset the modem after a session is complete. Some cables are wired without all of the needed signals, so if you have problems, such as a login session not going away when the line hangs up, you may have a problem with your cable. The second prerequisite depends on the modem(s) you use. If you do not know your modem's command set by heart, you will need to have the modem's reference book or user's guide handy. Sample commands for USR Sportster 14,400 external modems will be given, which you may be able to use as a reference for your own modem's commands. Lastly, you will need to know how to setup your modem so that it will work well with FreeBSD. Like other UNIX-like operating systems, FreeBSD uses the hardware signals to find out when a call has been answered or a line has been hung up and to hangup and reset the modem after a call. FreeBSD avoids sending commands to the modem or watching for status reports from the modem. If you are familiar with connecting modems to PC-based bulletin board systems, this may seem awkward. Serial Interface Considerations FreeBSD supports NS8250-, NS16450-, NS16550-, and NS16550A-based EIA RS-232C (CCITT V.24) communications interfaces. The 8250 and 16450 devices have single-character buffers. The 16550 device provides a 16-character buffer, which allows for better system performance. (Bugs in plain 16550's prevent the use of the 16-character buffer, so use 16550A's if possible). Because single-character-buffer devices require more work by the operating system than the 16-character-buffer devices, 16550A-based serial interface cards are much preferred. If the system has many active serial ports or will have a heavy load, 16550A-based cards are better for low-error-rate communications. Quick Overview Here is the process that FreeBSD follows to accept dialup logins. A getty process, spawned by init, patiently waits to open the assigned serial port (/dev/ttyd0, for our example). The command ps ax might show this: 4850 ?? I 0:00.09 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 When a user dials the modem's line and the modems connect, the CD line is asserted by the modem. The kernel notices that carrier has been detected and completes getty's open of the port. getty sends a login: prompt at the specified initial line speed. getty watches to see if legitimate characters are received, and, in a typical configuration, if it finds junk (probably due to the modem's connection speed being different than getty's speed), getty tries adjusting the line speeds until it receives reasonable characters. We hope getty finds the correct speed and the user sees a login: prompt. After the user enters his/her login name, getty executes /usr/bin/login, which completes the login by asking for the user's password and then starting the user's shell. Let's dive into the configuration... Kernel Configuration FreeBSD kernels typically come prepared to search for four serial ports, known in the PC-DOS world as COM1:, COM2:, COM3:, and COM4:. FreeBSD can presently also handle - “dumb” multiport serial interface cards, such as the Boca + dumb multiport serial interface cards, such as the Boca Board 1008 and 2016 (please see the manual page &man.sio.4; for kernel configuration information if you have a multiport serial card). The default kernel only looks for the standard COM ports, though. To see if your kernel recognizes any of your serial ports, watch for messages while the kernel is booting, or use the /sbin/dmesg command to replay the kernel's boot messages. In particular, look for messages that start with the characters sio. Hint: to view just the messages that have the word sio, use the command: &prompt.root; /sbin/dmesg | grep 'sio' For example, on a system with four serial ports, these are the serial-port specific kernel boot messages: sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa sio0: type 16550A sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa sio1: type 16550A sio2 at 0x3e8-0x3ef irq 5 on isa sio2: type 16550A sio3 at 0x2e8-0x2ef irq 9 on isa sio3: type 16550A If your kernel does not recognize all of your serial ports, you will probably need to configure a custom FreeBSD kernel for your system. Please see the BSD System Manager's Manual chapter on - “Building Berkeley Kernels with Config” [the source for + Building Berkeley Kernels with Config [the source for which is in /usr/src/share/doc/smm] and - “FreeBSD Configuration Options” [in + FreeBSD Configuration Options [in /sys/conf/options and in /sys/arch/conf/options.arch, with arch for example being i386] for more information on configuring and building kernels. You may have to unpack the kernel source distribution if have not installed the system sources already (srcdist/srcsys.?? in FreeBSD 1.1, srcdist/sys.?? in FreeBSD 1.1.5.1, or the entire source distribution in FreeBSD 2.0) to be able to configure and build kernels. Create a kernel configuration file for your system (if you have not already) by cding to /sys/i386/conf. Then, if you are creating a new custom configuration file, copy the file GENERICAH (or GENERICBT, if you have a BusTek SCSI controller on FreeBSD 1.x) to YOURSYS, where YOURSYS is the name of your system, but in upper-case letters. Edit the file, and change the device lines: device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty irq 4 vector siointr device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty irq 3 vector siointr device sio2 at isa? port "IO_COM3" tty irq 5 vector siointr device sio3 at isa? port "IO_COM4" tty irq 9 vector siointr You can comment-out or completely remove lines for devices you do not have. If you have a multiport serial board, such as the Boca Board BB2016, please see the &man.sio.4; man page for complete information on how to write configuration lines for multiport boards. Be careful if you are using a configuration file that was previously used for a different version of FreeBSD because the device flags have changed between versions. port "IO_COM1" is a substitution for port 0x3f8, IO_COM2 is 0x2f8, IO_COM3 is 0x3e8, and IO_COM4 is 0x2e8, which are fairly common port addresses for their respective serial ports; interrupts 4, 3, 5, and 9 are fairly common interrupt request lines. Also note that regular serial ports cannot share interrupts on ISA-bus PCs (multiport boards have on-board electronics that allow all the 16550A's on the board to share one or two interrupt request lines). When you are finished adjusting the kernel configuration file, use - the program config as documented in “Building - Berkeley Kernels with Config” and the + the program config as documented in Building + Berkeley Kernels with Config and the &man.config.8; manual page to prepare a kernel building directory, then build, install, and test the new kernel. Device Special Files - Most devices in the kernel are accessed through “device - special files”, which are located in the + Most devices in the kernel are accessed through device + special files, which are located in the /dev directory. The sio devices are accessed through the /dev/ttyd? (dial-in) and /dev/cua0? (call-out) devices. On FreeBSD version 1.1.5 and higher, there are also initialization devices (/dev/ttyid? and /dev/cuai0?) and locking devices (/dev/ttyld? and /dev/cual0?). The initialization devices are used to initialize communications port parameters each time a port is opened, such as crtscts for modems which use CTS/RTS signaling for flow control. The locking devices are used to lock flags on ports to prevent users or programs changing certain parameters; see the manual pages &man.termios.4;, &man.sio.4;, and &man.stty.1; for information on the terminal settings, locking & initializing devices, and setting terminal options, respectively. Making Device Special Files A shell script called MAKEDEV in the /dev directory manages the device special files. (The manual page for &man.MAKEDEV.8; on FreeBSD 1.1.5 is fairly bogus in its discussion of COM ports, so ignore it.) To use MAKEDEV to make dialup device special files for COM1: (port 0), cd to /dev and issue the command MAKEDEV ttyd0. Likewise, to make dialup device special files for COM2: (port 1), use MAKEDEV ttyd1. MAKEDEV not only creates the /dev/ttyd? device special files, but also creates the /dev/cua0? (and all of the initializing and locking special files under FreeBSD 1.1.5 and up) and removes the hardwired terminal special file /dev/tty0?, if it exists. After making new device special files, be sure to check the permissions on the files (especially the /dev/cua* files) to make sure that only users who should have access to those device special files can read & write on them — you probably do not want to allow your average user to use your modems to dialout. The default permissions on the /dev/cua* files should be sufficient: crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 129 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cua01 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 161 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cuai01 crw-rw---- 1 uucp dialer 28, 193 Feb 15 14:38 /dev/cual01 These permissions allow the user uucp and users in the group dialer to use the call-out devices. Configuration Files There are three system configuration files in the /etc directory that you will probably need to edit to allow dialup access to your FreeBSD system. The first, /etc/gettytab, contains configuration information for the /usr/libexec/getty daemon. Second, /etc/ttys holds information that tells /sbin/init what tty devices should have getty processes running on them. Lastly, you can place port initialization commands in the /etc/rc.serial script if you have FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 or higher; otherwise, you can initialize ports in the /etc/rc.local script. There are two schools of thought regarding dialup modems on UNIX. One group likes to configure their modems and system so that no matter at what speed a remote user dials in, the local computer-to-modem RS-232 interface runs at a locked speed. The benefit of this configuration is that the remote user always sees a system login prompt immediately. The downside is that the system does not know what a user's true data rate is, so full-screen programs like Emacs will not adjust their screen-painting methods to make their response better for slower connections. The other school configures their modems' RS-232 interface to vary its speed based on the remote user's connection speed. For example, V.32bis (14.4 Kbps) connections to the modem might make the modem run its RS-232 interface at 19.2 Kbps, while 2400 bps connections make the modem's RS-232 interface run at 2400 bps. Because getty does not understand any particular modem's connection speed reporting, getty gives a login: message at an initial speed and watches the characters that come back in response. If the user sees junk, it is assumed that they know they should press the <Enter> key until they see a recognizable prompt. If the data rates do not match, getty sees - anything the user types as “junk”, tries going to the next + anything the user types as junk, tries going to the next speed and gives the login: prompt again. This procedure can continue ad nauseum, but normally only takes a keystroke or two before the user sees a good prompt. Obviously, this login sequence does not look as clean as the former - “locked-speed” method, but a user on a low-speed + locked-speed method, but a user on a low-speed connection should receive better interactive response from full-screen programs. The author will try to give balanced configuration information, but is biased towards having the modem's data rate follow the connection rate. <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename> /etc/gettytab is a &man.termcap.5;-style file of configuration information for &man.getty.8;. Please see the &man.gettytab.5; manual page for complete information on the format of the file and the list of capabilities. Locked-Speed Config If you are locking your modem's data communications rate at a particular speed, you probably will not need to make any changes to /etc/gettytab. Matching-Speed Config You will need to setup an entry in /etc/gettytab to give getty information about the speeds you wish to use for your modem. If you have a 2400 bps modem, you can probably use the existing D2400 entry. This entry already exists in the FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 gettytab file, so you do not need to add it unless it is missing under your version of FreeBSD: # # Fast dialup terminals, 2400/1200/300 rotary (can start either way) # D2400|d2400|Fast-Dial-2400:\ :nx=D1200:tc=2400-baud: 3|D1200|Fast-Dial-1200:\ :nx=D300:tc=1200-baud: 5|D300|Fast-Dial-300:\ :nx=D2400:tc=300-baud: If you have a higher speed modem, you will probably need to add an entry in /etc/gettytab; here is an entry you could use for a 14.4 Kbps modem with a top interface speed of 19.2 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis Modem # um|V300|High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=V19200:tc=std.300: un|V1200|High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=V300:tc=std.1200: uo|V2400|High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=V1200:tc=std.2400: up|V9600|High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=V2400:tc=std.9600: uq|V19200|High Speed Modem at 19200,8-bit:\ :nx=V9600:tc=std.19200: On FreeBSD 1.1.5 and later, this will result in 8-bit, no parity connections. Under FreeBSD 1.1, add :np: parameters to the std.xxx entries at the top of the file for 8 bits, no parity; otherwise, the default is 7 bits, even parity. The example above starts the communications rate at 19.2 Kbps (for a V.32bis connection), then cycles through 9600 bps (for V.32), 2400 bps, 1200 bps, 300 bps, and back to 19.2 Kbps. Communications rate cycling is implemented with the - nx= (“next table”) capability. - Each of the lines uses a tc= (“table - continuation”) entry to pick up the rest of the - “standard” settings for a particular data rate. + nx= (next table) capability. + Each of the lines uses a tc= (table + continuation) entry to pick up the rest of the + standard settings for a particular data rate. If you have a 28.8 Kbps modem and/or you want to take advantage of compression on a 14.4 Kbps modem, you need to use a higher communications rate than 19.2 Kbps. Here is an example of a gettytab entry starting a 57.6 Kbps: # # Additions for a V.32bis or V.34 Modem # Starting at 57.6 Kbps # vm|VH300|Very High Speed Modem at 300,8-bit:\ :nx=VH57600:tc=std.300: vn|VH1200|Very High Speed Modem at 1200,8-bit:\ :nx=VH300:tc=std.1200: vo|VH2400|Very High Speed Modem at 2400,8-bit:\ :nx=VH1200:tc=std.2400: vp|VH9600|Very High Speed Modem at 9600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH2400:tc=std.9600: vq|VH57600|Very High Speed Modem at 57600,8-bit:\ :nx=VH9600:tc=std.57600: If you have a slow CPU or a heavily loaded system and you do not have 16550A-based serial ports, you may receive sio - “silo” errors at 57.6 Kbps. + silo errors at 57.6 Kbps. <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> /etc/ttys is the list of ttys for init to monitor. /etc/ttys also provides security information to login (user root may only login on ttys marked secure). See the manual page for &man.ttys.5; for more information. You will need to either modify existing lines in /etc/ttys or add new lines to make init run getty processes automatically on your new dialup ports. The general format of the line will be the same, whether you are using a locked-speed or matching-speed configuration: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" dialup on The first item in the above line is the device special file for this entry — ttyd0 means /dev/ttyd0 is the file that this getty will be watching. The second item, "/usr/libexec/getty xxx" (xxx will be replaced by the initial gettytab capability) is the process init will run on the device. The third item, dialup, is the default terminal type. The fourth parameter, on, indicates to init that the line is operational. There can be a fifth parameter, secure, but it should only be used for terminals which are physically secure (such as the system console). The default terminal type (dialup in the example above) may depend on local preferences. dialup is the traditional default terminal type on dialup lines so that users may customize their login scripts to notice when the terminal is dialup and automatically adjust their terminal type. However, the author finds it easier at his site to specify vt102 as the default terminal type, since the users just use VT102 emulation on their remote systems. After you have made changes to /etc/ttys, you may send the init process a HUP signal to re-read the file. You can use the command &prompt.root; kill -1 1 to send the signal. If this is your first time setting up the system, though, you may want to wait until your modem(s) are properly configured and connected before signaling init. Locked-Speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to have a fixed-speed entry provided to getty. For a modem whose port speed is locked at 19.2 Kbps, the ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.19200" dialup on If your modem is locked at a different data rate, substitute the appropriate name for the std.speed entry for std.19200 from /etc/gettytab for your modem's data rate. Matching-Speed Config In a matching-speed configuration, your ttys entry needs to reference the appropriate - beginning “auto-baud” (sic) entry in + beginning auto-baud (sic) entry in /etc/gettytab. For example, if you added the above suggested entry for a matching-speed modem that starts at 19.2 Kbps (the gettytab entry containing the V19200 starting point), your ttys entry might look like this: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty V19200" dialup on <filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename> or <filename>/etc/rc.local</filename> High-speed modems, like V.32, V.32bis, and V.34 modems, need to use hardware (RTS/CTS) flow control. You can add stty commands to /etc/rc.serial on FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 and up, or /etc/rc.local on FreeBSD 1.1, to set the hardware flow control flag in the FreeBSD kernel for the modem ports. For example, on a sample FreeBSD 1.1.5.1 system, /etc/rc.serial reads: #!/bin/sh # # Serial port initial configuration stty -f /dev/ttyid1 crtscts stty -f /dev/cuai01 crtscts This sets the termios flag crtscts on serial port #1's (COM2:) dialin and dialout initialization devices. On an old FreeBSD 1.1 system, these entries were added to /etc/rc.local to set the crtscts flag on the devices: # Set serial ports to use RTS/CTS flow control stty -f /dev/ttyd0 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd1 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd2 crtscts stty -f /dev/ttyd3 crtscts Since there is no initialization device special file on FreeBSD 1.1, one has to just set the flags on the sole device special file and hope the flags are not cleared by a miscreant. Modem Settings If you have a modem whose parameters may be permanently set in non-volatile RAM, you will need to use a terminal program (such as Telix under PC-DOS or tip under FreeBSD) to set the parameters. Connect to the modem using the same communications speed as the initial speed getty will use and configure the modem's non-volatile RAM to match these requirements: CD asserted when connected DTR asserted for operation; dropping DTR hangs up line & resets modem CTS transmitted data flow control Disable XON/XOFF flow control RTS received data flow control Quiet mode (no result codes) No command echo Please read the documentation for your modem to find out what commands and/or DIP switch settings you need to give it. For example, to set the above parameters on a USRobotics Sportster 14,400 external modem, one could give these commands to the modem: ATZ AT&C1&D2&H1&I0&R2&W You might also want to take this opportunity to adjust other settings in the modem, such as whether it will use V.42bis and/or MNP5 compression. The USR Sportster 14,400 external modem also has some DIP switches that need to be set; for other modems, perhaps you can use these settings as an example: Switch 1: UP — DTR Normal Switch 2: Do not care (Verbal Result Codes/Numeric Result Codes) Switch 3: UP — Suppress Result Codes Switch 4: DOWN — No echo, offline commands Switch 5: UP — Auto Answer Switch 6: UP — Carrier Detect Normal Switch 7: UP — Load NVRAM Defaults Switch 8: Do not care (Smart Mode/Dumb Mode) Result codes should be disabled/suppressed for dialup modems to avoid problems that can occur if getty mistakenly gives a login: prompt to a modem that is in command mode and the modem echoes the command or returns a result code. I have heard this sequence can result in a extended, silly conversation between getty and the modem. Locked-speed Config For a locked-speed configuration, you will need to configure the modem to maintain a constant modem-to-computer data rate independent of the communications rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem-to-computer data rate at the speed used to issue the commands: ATZ AT&B1&W Matching-speed Config For a variable-speed configuration, you will need to configure your modem to adjust its serial port data rate to match the incoming call rate. On a USR Sportster 14,400 external modem, these commands will lock the modem's error-corrected data rate to the speed used to issue the commands, but allow the serial port rate to vary for non-error-corrected connections: ATZ AT&B2&W Checking the Modem's Configuration Most high-speed modems provide commands to view the modem's current operating parameters in a somewhat human-readable fashion. On the USR Sportster 14,400 external modems, the command ATI5 displays the settings that are stored in the non-volatile RAM. To see the true operating parameters of the modem (as influenced by the USR's DIP switch settings), use the commands ATZ and then ATI4. If you have a different brand of modem, check your modem's manual to see how to double-check your modem's configuration parameters. Troubleshooting Here are a few steps you can follow to check out the dialup modem on your system. Checking out the FreeBSD system Hook up your modem to your FreeBSD system, boot the system, and, if your modem has status indication lights, watch to see whether the modem's DTR indicator lights when the login: prompt appears on the system's console — if it lights up, that should mean that FreeBSD has started a getty process on the appropriate communications port and is waiting for the modem to accept a call. If the DTR indicator doesn't light, login to the FreeBSD system through the console and issue a ps ax to see if FreeBSD is trying to run a getty process on the correct port. You should see a lines like this among the processes displayed: 114 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 115 ?? I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd1 If you see something different, like this: 114 d0 I 0:00.10 /usr/libexec/getty V19200 ttyd0 and the modem has not accepted a call yet, this means that getty has completed its open on the communications port. This could indicate a problem with the cabling or a mis-configured modem, because getty should not be able to open the communications port until CD (carrier detect) has been asserted by the modem. If you do not see any getty processes waiting to open the desired ttyd? port, double-check your entries in /etc/ttys to see if there are any mistakes there. Also, check the log file /var/log/messages to see if there are any log messages from init or getty regarding any problems. If there are any messages, triple-check the configuration files /etc/ttys and /etc/gettytab, as well as the appropriate device special files /dev/ttyd?, for any mistakes, missing entries, or missing device special files. Try Dialing In Try dialing into the system; be sure to use 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit on the remote system. If you do not get a prompt right away, or get garbage, try pressing <Enter> about once per second. If you still do not see a login: prompt after a while, try sending a BREAK. If you are using a high-speed modem to do the dialing, try dialing again after locking the dialing modem's interface speed (via AT&B1 on a USR Sportster, for example). If you still cannot get a login: prompt, check /etc/gettytab again and double-check that The initial capability name specified in /etc/ttys for the line matches a name of a capability in /etc/gettytab Each nx= entry matches another gettytab capability name Each tc= entry matches another gettytab capability name If you dial but the modem on the FreeBSD system will not answer, make sure that the modem is configured to answer the phone when DTR is asserted. If the modem seems to be configured correctly, verify that the DTR line is asserted by checking the modem's indicator lights (if it has any). If you have gone over everything several times and it still does not work, take a break and come back to it later. If it still does not work, perhaps you can send an electronic mail message to the &a.questions;describing your modem and your problem, and the good folks on the list will try to help. Acknowledgments Thanks to these people for comments and advice: &a.kelly; for a number of good suggestions Dialout Service Information integrated from FAQ. The following are tips to getting your host to be able to connect over the modem to another computer. This is appropriate for establishing a terminal session with a remote host. This is useful to log onto a BBS. This kind of connection can be extremely helpful to get a file on the Internet if you have problems with PPP. If you need to ftp something and PPP is broken, use the terminal session to ftp it. Then use zmodem to transfer it to your machine. Why cannot I run <command>tip</command> or <command>cu</command>? On your system, the programs tip and cu are probably executable only by uucp and group dialer. You can use the group dialer to control who has access to your modem or remote systems. Just add yourself to group dialer. Alternatively, you can let everyone on your system run tip and cu by typing: &prompt.root; chmod 4511 /usr/bin/tip You do not have to run this command for cu, since cu is just a hard link to tip. My stock Hayes modem is not supported, what can I do? Actually, the man page for tip is out of date. There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in. Just use at=hayes in your /etc/remote file. The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of the advanced features of newer modems—messages like BUSY, NO DIALTONE, or CONNECT 115200 will just confuse it. You should turn those messages off when you use tip (using ATX0&W). Also, the dial timeout for tip is 60 seconds. Your modem should use something less, or else tip will think there is a communication problem. Try ATS7=45&W. Actually, as shipped tip does not yet support it fully. The solution is to edit the file tipconf.h in the directory /usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip Obviously you need the source distribution to do this. Edit the line #define HAYES 0 to #define HAYES 1. Then make and make install. Everything works nicely after that. How am I expected to enter these AT commands? - Make what is called a “direct” entry in your + Make what is called a direct entry in your /etc/remote file. For example, if your modem is hooked up to the first serial port, /dev/cuaa0, then put in the following line: cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br capability. Then, type tip cuaa0 and you will be connected to your modem. If there is no /dev/cuaa0 on your system, do this: &prompt.root; cd /dev &prompt.root; MAKEDEV cuaa0 Or use cu as root with the following command: &prompt.root; cu -lline -sspeed line is the serial port (e.g./dev/cuaa0) and speed is the speed (e.g.57600). When you are done entering the AT commands hit ~. to exit. The <literal>@</literal> sign for the pn capability does not work! The @ sign in the phone number capability tells tip to look in /etc/phones for a phone number. But the @ sign is also a special character in capability files like /etc/remote. Escape it with a backslash: pn=\@ How can I dial a phone number on the command line? - Put what is called a “generic” entry in your + Put what is called a generic entry in your /etc/remote file. For example: tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du: tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: Then you can things like: &prompt.root; tip -115200 5551234 If you prefer cu over tip, use a generic cu entry: cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du: and type: &prompt.root; cu 5551234 -s 115200 Do I have to type in the bps rate every time I do that? Put in an entry for tip1200 or cu1200, but go ahead and use whatever bps rate is appropriate with the br capability. tip thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why it looks for a tip1200 entry. You do not have to use 1200 bps, though. I access a number of hosts through a terminal server. Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing CONNECT <host> each time, use tip's cm capability. For example, these entries in /etc/remote: pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13: muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\ :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13: deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\ :dv=/dev/cua02:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234: will let you type tip pain or tip muffin to connect to the hosts pain or muffin; and tip deep13 to get to the terminal server. Can tip try more than one line for each site? This is often a problem where a university has several modem lines and several thousand students trying to use them... Make an entry for your university in /etc/remote and use @ for the pn capability: big-university:\ :pn=\@:tc=dialout dialout:\ :dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none: Then, list the phone numbers for the university in /etc/phones: big-university 5551111 big-university 5551112 big-university 5551113 big-university 5551114 tip will try each one in the listed order, then give up. If you want to keep retrying, run tip in a while loop. Why do I have to hit CTRL+P twice to send CTRL+P once? - CTRL+P is the default “force” character, used to tell + CTRL+P is the default force character, used to tell tip that the next character is literal data. You can set the force character to any other character with the - ~s escape, which means “set a - variable.” + ~s escape, which means set a + variable. Type ~sforce=single-char followed by a newline. single-char is any single character. If you leave out single-char, then the force character is the nul character, which you can get by typing CTRL+2 or CTRL+SPACE. A pretty good value for single-char is SHIFT+CTRL+6, which I have seen only used on some terminal servers. You can have the force character be whatever you want by specifying the following in your $HOME/.tiprc file: force=<single-char> Suddenly everything I type is in UPPER CASE?? You must have pressed CTRL+A, tip's - “raise character,” specially designed for people with + raise character, specially designed for people with broken caps-lock keys. Use ~s as above and set the variable raisechar to something reasonable. In fact, you can set it to the same as the force character, if you never expect to use either of these features. Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users who need to type CTRL+2 and CTRL+A a lot: force=^^ raisechar=^^ The ^^ is SHIFT+CTRL+6. How can I do file transfers with <command>tip</command>? If you are talking to another UNIX system, you can send and receive files with ~p (put) and ~t (take). These commands run cat and echo on the remote system to accept and send files. The syntax is: ~p local-file remote-file ~t remote-file local-file There is no error checking, so you probably should use another protocol, like zmodem. How can I run zmodem with <command>tip</command>? To receive files, start the sending program on the remote end. Then, type ~C rz to begin receiving them locally. To send files, start the receiving program on the remote end. Then, type ~C sz files to send them to the remote system. Setting Up the Serial Console &a.yokota; and &a.wpaul;: The text is heavily based on /sys/i386/boot/biosboot/README.serial written by &a.wpaul;. Introduction The FreeBSD/i386 operating system can boot on a system with only a dumb terminal on a serial port as a console. Such a configuration should be useful for two classes of people; system administrators who wish to install FreeBSD on a dedicated file/compute/terminal server machines that have no keyboard or monitor attached, and developers who want to debug the kernel or device drivers. Starting from version 3.1, FreeBSD/i386 employs a three stage bootstrap. The first two stages are in the boot block code which is stored at the beginning of the FreeBSD slice on the boot disk. The boot block will then load and run the boot loader (/boot/loader) as the third stage code. (See &man.boot.8; and &man.loader.8; for more details on the boot process.) In order to set up the serial console you must configure the boot block code, the boot loader code and the kernel. In FreeBSD version 3.0, the boot loader does not exist and there are only two stages in the bootstrap; the boot blocks directly load the kernel into memory. If you are using FreeBSD 3.0, then you should disregard any reference to the boot loader in this section. You can still use the serial port as a console. FreeBSD versions 2.X are quite different from 3.X, in that the serial port driver, &man.sio.4;, must be configured in a different way. This chapter will not describe the settings for version 2.X systems. If you are using these older versions of FreeBSD, please consult /sys/i386/boot/biosboot/README.serial instead. 6 Steps to Set up the Serial Console Prepare a serial cable. You will need either a null-modem cable or a standard serial cable and a null-modem adapter. See for a discussion on serial cables. Unplug your keyboard. Most PC systems probe for the keyboard during the Power-On Self-Test (POST) and will generate an error if the keyboard is not detected. Some machines complain loudly about the lack of a keyboard and will not continue to boot until it is plugged in. If your computer complains about the error, but boots anyway, then you do not have to do anything special. (One machine with a Phoenix BIOS that I have here merely says Keyboard failed then continues to boot normally.) If your computer refuses to boot without a keyboard attached then you will have to configure the BIOS so that it ignores this error (if it can). Consult your motherboard's manual for details on how to do this. - Setting the keyboard to “Not installed” in the + Setting the keyboard to Not installed in the BIOS setup does not mean that you will not be able to use your keyboard. All this does is tell the BIOS not to probe for a keyboard at power-on so that it will not complain if the keyboard is not plugged in. You can leave the - keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to “Not - installed” and the keyboard will still work. + keyboard plugged in even with this flag set to Not + installed and the keyboard will still work. If your system has a PS/2 mouse, chances are very good that you may have to unplug your mouse as well as your keyboard. This is because PS/2 mice share some hardware with the keyboard, and leaving the mouse plugged in can fool the keyboard probe into thinking the keyboard is still there. It is said that a Gateway 2000 Pentium 90Mhz system with an AMI BIOS that behaves this way. In general this is not a problem since the mouse is not much good without the keyboard anyway. Plug a dumb terminal into COM1: (sio0). If you do not have a dumb terminal, you can use an old PC/XT with a modem program, or the serial port on another UNIX box. If you do not have a COM1: (sio0), get one. At this time, there is no way to select a port other than COM1: for the boot blocks without recompiling the boot blocks. If you are already using COM1: for another device, you will have to temporarily remove that device and install a new boot block and kernel once you get FreeBSD up and running. (It is assumed that COM1: will be available on a file/compute/terminal server anyway; if you really need COM1: for something else (and you can not switch that something else to COM2: (sio1)), then you probably should not even be bothering with all this in the first place.) Make sure the configuration file of your kernel has appropriate flags set for COM1: (sio0). Relevant flags are: 0x10 Enables console support for this unit. The other console flags are ignored unless this is set. Currently, at most one unit can have console support; the first one (in config file order) with this flag set is preferred. This option alone will not make the serial port the console. Set the following flag or use the option described below, together with this flag. 0x20 Forces this unit to be the console (unless there is another higher priority console), regardless of the option discussed below. This flag replaces the COMCONSOLE option in FreeBSD versions 2.X. The flag 0x20 must be used together with the flag. 0x40 Reserves this unit (in conjunction with 0x10) and makes the unit unavailable for normal access. You should not set this flag to the serial port unit which you want to use as the serial console. The only use of this flag is to designate the unit for kernel remote debugging. See for more information on remote debugging. In FreeBSD 4.0-CURRENT or later the semantics of the flag 0x40 are slightly different and there is another flag to specify a serial port for remote debugging. Example: device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 irq 4 See &man.sio.4; for more details. If the flags were not set, you need to run UserConfig (on a different console) or recompile the kernel. Create boot.config in the root directory of the a partition on the boot drive. This file will instruct the boot block code how you would like to boot the system. In order to activate the serial console, you need one or more of the following options—if you want multiple options, include them all on the same line: Toggles internal and serial consoles. You can use this to switch console devices. For instance, if you boot from the internal (video) console, you can use to direct the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial port as its console device. Alternatively, if you boot from the serial port, you can use the to tell the boot loader and the kernel to use the video display as the console instead. Toggles single and dual console configurations. In the single configuration the console will be either the internal console (video display) or the serial port, depending on the state of the option above. In the dual console configuration, both the video display and the serial port will become the console at the same time, regardless of the state of the option. However, that the dual console configuration takes effect only during the boot block is running. Once the boot loader gets control, the console specified by the option becomes the only console. Makes the boot block probe the keyboard. If no keyboard is found, the and options are automatically set. Due to space constraints in the current version of the boot blocks, the option is capable of detecting extended keyboards only. Keyboards with less than 101 keys (and without F11 and F12 keys) may not be detected. Keyboards on some laptop computers may not be properly found because of this limitation. If this is to be the case with your system, you have to abandon using the option. Unfortunately there is no workaround for this problem. Use either the option to select the console automatically, or the option to activate the serial console. You may include other options described in &man.boot.8; as well. The options, except for , will be passed to the boot loader (/boot/loader). The boot loader will determine which of the internal video or the serial port should become the console by examining the state of the option alone. This means that if you specify the option but not the option in /boot.config, you can use the serial port as the console only during the boot block; the boot loader will use the internal video display as the console. Boot the machine. When you start your FreeBSD box, the boot blocks will echo the contents of /boot.config to the console. For example; /boot.config: -P Keyboard: no The second line appears only if you put in /boot.config and indicates presence/absence of the keyboard. These messages go to either serial or internal console, or both, depending on the option in /boot.config. Options Message goes to none internal console serial console serial and internal consoles serial and internal consoles , keyboard present internal console , keyboard absent serial console After the above messages, there will be a small pause before the boot blocks continue loading the boot loader and before any further messages printed to the console. Under normal circumstances, you do not need to interrupt the boot blocks, but you may want to do so in order to make sure things are set up correctly. Hit any key, other than Enter/Return, at the console to interrupt the boot process. The boot blocks will then prompt you for further action. You should now see something like: >> FreeBSD/i386 BOOT Default: 0:wd(0,a)/boot/loader boot: Verify the above message appears on either the serial or internal console or both, according to the options you put in /boot.config. If the message appears in the correct console, hit Enter/Return to continue the boot process. If you want the serial console but you do not see the prompt on the serial terminal, something is wrong with your settings. In the meantime, you enter and hit Enter/Return (if possible) to tell the boot block (and then the boot loader and the kernel) to choose the serial port for the console. Once the system is up, go back and check what went wrong. After the boot loader is loaded and you are in the third stage of the boot process you can still switch between the internal console and the serial console by setting appropriate environment variables in the boot loader. See . Summary Here is the summary of various settings discussed in this section and the console eventually selected. Case 1: You set the flags to 0x10 for sio0 device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x10 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal internal serial serial serial serial and internal internal internal serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal internal , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Case 2: You set the flags to 0x30 for sio0 device sio0 at isa? port "IO_COM1" tty flags 0x30 irq 4 Options in /boot.config Console during boot blocks Console during boot loader Console in kernel nothing internal internal serial serial serial serial serial and internal internal serial serial and internal serial serial , keyboard present internal internal serial , keyboard absent serial and internal serial serial Tips for the Serial Console Setting A Faster Serial Port Speed By default the serial port settings are set to 9600 baud, 8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit. If you wish to change the speed, you need to recompile at least the boot blocks. Add the following line to /etc/make.conf and compile new boot blocks: BOOT_COMCONSOLE_SPEED=19200 If the serial console is configured in some other way than by booting with , or if the serial console used by the kernel is different from the one used by the boot blocks, then you must also add the following option to the kernel configuration file and compile a new kernel: options CONSPEED=19200 Using Serial Port Other Than <devicename>sio0</devicename> For The Console Using a port other than sio0 as the console requires some recompiling. If you want to use another serial port for whatever reasons, recompile the boot blocks, the boot loader and the kernel as follows. Get the kernel source. Edit /etc/make.conf and set BOOT_COMCONSOLE_PORT to the address of the port you want to use (0x3F8, 0x2F8, 0x3E8 or 0x2E8). Only sio0 through sio3 (COM1: through COM4:) can be used; multiport serial cards will not work. No interrupt setting is needed. Create a custom kernel configuration file and add appropriate flags for the serial port you want to use. For example, if you want to make sio1 (COM2:) the console: device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x10 irq 3 or device sio1 at isa? port "IO_COM2" tty flags 0x30 irq 3 The console flags for the other serial ports should not be set. Recompile and install the boot blocks: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot/i386/boot2 &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install Recompile and install the boot loader: &prompt.root; cd /sys/boot/i386/loader &prompt.root; make &prompt.root; make install Rebuild and install the kernel. Write the boot blocks to the boot disk with &man.disklabel.8; and boot from the new kernel. Entering the DDB Debugger from the Serial Line If you wish to drop into the kernel debugger from the serial console (useful for remote diagnostics, but also dangerous if you generate a spurious BREAK on the serial port!) then you should compile your kernel with the following options: options BREAK_TO_DEBUGGER options DDB Getting a Login Prompt on the Serial Console While this is not required, you may wish to get a login prompt over the serial line, now that you can see boot messages and can enter the kernel debugging session through the serial console. Here is how to do it. Open the file /etc/ttys with an editor and locate the lines: ttyd0 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd2 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd3 "/usr/libexec/getty std.9600" unknown off secure ttyd0 through ttyd3 corresponds to COM1 through COM4. Change off to on for the desired port. If you have changed the speed of the serial port, you need to change std.9600 to match the current setting, e.g. std.19200. You may also want to change the terminal type from unknown to the actual type of your serial terminal. After editing the file, you must kill -HUP 1 to make this change take effect. Changing Console from the Boot Loader Previous sections described how to set up the serial console by tweaking the boot block. This section shows that you can specify the console by entering some commands and environment variables in the boot loader. As the boot loader is invoked as the third stage of the boot process, after the boot block, the settings in the boot loader will override the settings in the boot block. Setting Up the Serial Console You can easily specify the boot loader and the kernel to use the serial console by writing just one line in /boot/loader.rc: set console=comconsole This will take effect regardless of the settings in the boot block discussed in the previous section. You had better put the above line as the first line of /boot/loader.rc so as to see boot messages on the serial console as early as possible. Likewise, you can specify the internal console as: set console=vidconsole If you do not set the boot loader environment variable console, the boot loader, and subsequently the kernel, will use whichever console indicated by the option in the boot block. In versions 3.2 or later, you may specify the console in /boot/loader.conf.local or /boot/loader.conf, rather than in /boot/loader.rc. In this method your /boot/loader.rc should look like: include /boot/loader.4th start Then, create /boot/loader.conf.local and put the following line there. console=comconsole or console=vidconsole See &man.loader.conf.5; for more information. At the moment, the boot loader has no option equivalent to the option in the boot block, and there is no provision to automatically select the internal console and the serial console based on the presence of the keyboard. Using Serial Port Other than <devicename>sio0</devicename> for the Console You need to recompile the boot loader to use a serial port other than sio0 for the serial console. Follow the procedure described in . Caveats The idea here is to allow people to set up dedicated servers that require no graphics hardware or attached keyboards. Unfortunately, while (most?) every system will let you boot without a keyboard, there are quite a few that will not let you boot without a graphics adapter. Machines with AMI BIOSes can be configured to boot with no graphics adapter installed simply by changing the `graphics adapter' setting in the CMOS configuration to `Not installed.' However, many machines do not support this option and will refuse to boot if you have no display hardware in the system. With these machines, you'll have to leave some kind of graphics card plugged in, (even if it's just a junky mono board) although you will not have to attach a monitor into it. You might also try installing an AMI BIOS. diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/staff/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/staff/chapter.sgml index 0ef31311eb..a0ac0c009e 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/staff/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/staff/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1119 +1,1119 @@ FreeBSD Project Staff The FreeBSD Project is managed and operated by the following groups of people: The FreeBSD Core Team - The FreeBSD core team constitutes the project's “Board of - Directors”, responsible for deciding the project's overall goals + The FreeBSD core team constitutes the project's Board of + Directors, responsible for deciding the project's overall goals and direction as well as managing specific areas of the FreeBSD project landscape. (in alphabetical order by last name): &a.asami; &a.jmb; &a.ache; &a.bde; &a.gibbs; &a.dg; &a.jkh; &a.phk; &a.rich; &a.gpalmer; &a.dfr; &a.sos; &a.peter; &a.wollman; &a.joerg; The FreeBSD Developers These are the people who have commit privileges and do the engineering work on the FreeBSD source tree. All core team members are also developers. &a.jmas; &a.will; &a.ugen; &a.dbaker; &a.jhb; &a.mbarkah; &a.stb; &a.pb; &a.abial; &a.jb; &a.nbm; &a.torstenb; &a.wilko; &a.jake; &a.dburr; &a.charnier; &a.luoqi; &a.ejc; &a.kjc; &a.gclarkii; &a.archie; &a.chris; &a.alc; &a.cracauer; &a.dec; &a.adam; &a.bsd; &a.jwd; &a.dillon; &a.mdodd; &a.dufault; &a.uhclem; &a.tegge; &a.deischen; &a.eivind; &a.julian; &a.rse; &a.ru; &a.se; &a.jasone; &a.sef; &a.jedgar; &a.green; &a.fenner; &a.jfieber; &a.jfitz; &a.scrappy; &a.lars; &a.dirk; &a.shige; &a.billf; &a.gallatin; &a.patrick; &a.tg; &a.brandon; &a.gioria; &a.graichen; &a.cg; &a.rgrimes; &a.jmg; &a.hanai; &a.roger; &a.mharo; &a.thepish; &a.jhay; &a.sheldonh; &a.helbig; &a.ghelmer; &a.erich; &a.nhibma; &a.flathill; &a.pho; &a.hosokawa; &a.hsu; &a.foxfair; &a.tom; &a.mph; &a.imura; &a.shin; &a.itojun; &a.iwasaki; &a.mjacob; &a.gj; &a.nsj; &a.joe; &a.kato; &a.kris; &a.andreas; &a.motoyuki; &a.jkoshy; &a.kuriyama; &a.reg; &a.grog; &a.jlemon; &a.truckman; &a.lile; &a.kevlo; &a.imp; &a.ade; &a.jmacd; &a.smace; &a.gehenna; &a.mckay; &a.mckusick; &a.ken; &a.hm; &a.tedm; &a.jim; &a.marcel; &a.dan; &a.amurai; &a.markm; &a.knu; &a.nakai; &a.max; &a.newton; &a.rnordier; &a.davidn; &a.obrien; &a.danny; &a.ljo; &a.fsmp; &a.smpatel; &a.cp; &a.wpaul; &a.alfred; &a.wes; &a.cpiazza; &a.jdp; &a.bp; &a.steve; &a.mpp; &a.jraynard; &a.darrenr; &a.csgr; &a.martin; &a.paul; &a.roberto; &a.chuckr; &a.jesusr; &a.guido; &a.groudier; &a.dima; &a.asmodai; &a.ps; &a.sada; &a.wsanchez; &a.nsayer; &a.wosch; &a.dick; &a.jseger; &a.simokawa; &a.vanilla; &a.msmith; &a.des; &a.sobomax; &a.dcs; &a.brian; &a.mks; &a.stark; &a.karl; &a.sumikawa; &a.murray; &a.gsutter; &a.unfurl; &a.nyan; &a.tanimura; &a.taoka; &a.mtaylor; &a.dt; &a.cwt; &a.pst; &a.ume; &a.hoek; &a.nectar; &a.jayanth; &a.swallace; &a.rwatson; &a.dwhite; &a.nate; &a.yokota; &a.andy; &a.phantom; &a.jmz; The FreeBSD Documentation Project The FreeBSD Documentation Project is responsible for a number of different services, each service being run by an individual and his deputies (if any): Documentation Project Architect &a.nik; Webmaster &a.wosch; Handbook Editor &a.jim; FAQ Editor &a.faq; News Editor &a.jim; In the Press Editor &a.jkoshy; FreeBSD Really-Quick NewsLetter Editor Chris Coleman chrisc@vmunix.com Gallery Editor &a.phantom; Commercial Editor &a.phantom; Web Changes Editor &a.www; User Groups Editor &a.grog; FreeBSD Projects and Tasklist Editor &a.asmodai; FreeBSD Java Project &a.patrick; LinuxDoc to DocBook conversion &a.nik; Who is Responsible for What Principal Architect &a.dg; Documentation Project Manager &a.nik; Boot blocks &a.rnordier;, &a.jhb; Boot loader &a.dcs; Internationalization &a.ache; Networking &a.wollman; Postmaster &a.jmb; Release Coordinator &a.jkh; Public Relations & Corporate Liaison &a.jkh; Security Officer &a.imp; Source Repository Managers Principal: &a.peter; Assistant: &a.jdp; International (Crypto): &a.markm; Ports Manager &a.asami; XFree86 Project, Inc. Liaison &a.rich; Usenet Support &a.joerg; GNATS Administrator &a.steve; Webmaster &a.wosch; diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml index 090af3974f..71f22c7765 100644 --- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml +++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/x11/chapter.sgml @@ -1,1328 +1,1328 @@ The X Window System This chapter has been graciously donated by &a.grog; from his book, The Complete FreeBSD, and remains copyright of him. Modifications for the handbook made by &a.jim;. Synopsis The following chapter will cover installing and configuring X11 on your system. For more information on X11 and to see whether your video card is supported, check the XFree86 web site. Overview FreeBSD comes with XFree86, a port of X11R6 that supports several versions of Intel-based UNIX. This chapter describes how to set up your XFree86 server. It is based on material supplied with the FreeBSD release, specifically the files README.FreeBSD and README.Config in the directory /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc. If you find any discrepancy, the material in those files will be more up-to-date than this description. In addition, the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/RELNOTES contains OS-independent information about the current release. X uses a lot of memory. In order to run X, your system should have an absolute minimum of 8 MB of memory, but performance will be painful with so little memory. A more practical minimum is 16 MB, and you can improve performance by adding more memory. If you use X intensively, you will continue seeing performance improvement by increasing to as much as 128 MB of RAM. There is lots of useful information in the rest of this chapter, but maybe you are not interested in information right now. You just want to get your X server up and running. However, be warned: An incorrect installation can burn out your monitor or your video board. However, if you know you are in spec, and you have a standard Super VGA board and a good multifrequency monitor, then you can probably get things up and running without reading this chapter. Installing XFree86 The easiest way to install XFree86 is with the sysinstall program, either when you are installing the system, or later by starting the program /stand/sysinstall. In the rest of this chapter, we will look at what makes up the distribution, and we will also take a look at manually installing X11. The XFree86 Distribution XFree86 is distributed as a bewildering number of archives. In the following section, we will take a look at what you should install. Do not worry too much, though; if you cannot decide what to pick and you have 200MB of disk space free, it's safe to unpack everything. At a minimum you need to unpack the archives in the following table and at least one server that matches your VGA board. You will need 10Mb for the minimum required run-time binaries only, and between 1.7 and 3 MB for the server. Below is a table of the required components. Archive Description Xbin.tgz All the executable X client applications and shared libraries. Xfnts.tgz The misc and 75 dpi fonts. Xlib.tgz Data files and libraries needed at runtime. The X Server In addition to the archives above, you need at least one server, which will take up about 3 MB of disk. The choice depends primarily on what kind of display board you have. The default server name is /usr/X11R6/bin/X, and it is a link to a specific server binary /usr/X11R6/bin/XF86_xxxx. You will find the server archives for the standard PC architecture in /cdrom/XF86336/Servers, and the servers for the Japanese PC98 architecture in /cdrom/XF86336/PC98-Servers if you have the CD set. Alternatively, they are available on our FTP site at ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel.current;-RELEASE/XF86336/Servers/ or ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel.current;-RELEASE/XF86336/PC98-Servers/ Available X servers for the standard PC architechture: Archive Description X8514.tgz 8-bit color for IBM 8514 and true compatibles. XAGX.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for AGX and XGA boards. XI128.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for I128 boards. XMa32.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for ATI Mach32 boards. XMa64.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color fot ATI Mach64 boards. XMa8.tgz 8-bit color for ATI Mach8 boards. XMono.tgz 1-bit monochrome for VGA, Super-VGA, Hercules, and others. XP9K.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color for Weitek P9000 boards (Diamond Viper). XS3.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color for S3 boards. XS3V.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for S3 ViRGE boards. XSVGA.tgz >=8-bit color for Super-VGA cards. XVG16.tgz 4-bit color for VGA and Super-VGA cards. XW32.tgz 8-bit color for ET4000/W32, /W32i, /W32p, and ET6000 cards. Available X servers for the Japanese PC98 architecture: Archive Description X9GAN.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 GA-98NB/WAP boards. X9GA9.tgz 8, 16, and 32-bit color for PC98 S3 GA-968 boards. X9480.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 PEGC X9NKV.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 NEC-CIRRUS/EPSON NKV/NKV2 boards. X9WBS.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 WAB-S boards. X9WEP.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 WAB-EP boards. X9WSN.tgz 8-bit color for PC98 WSN-A2F boards. X9EGC.tgz 4-bit color for PC98 EGC. X9TGU.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 Trident Cyber9320/9680 boards. X9NS3.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 NEC S3 boards. X9SPW.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 S3 PW/PCSKB boards. X9LPW.tgz 8 and 16-bit color for PC98 S3 PW/LB boards. Each of these servers includes a manual page which contains details of supported chipsets and server-specific configuration options. There are also a number of archives are provided for X programmers: Archive Description Xprog.tgz Config, lib*.a, and *.h files needed for compiling clients. Xctrb.tgz Contributed sources. Xlk98.tgz - The “link kit” for building servers, + The link kit for building servers, Japanese PC98 version. Xlkit.tgz - The “link kit” for building servers, + The link kit for building servers, normal PC architecture. Xsrc-1.tgz Part 1 of the complete sources. Xsrc-2.tgz Part 2 of the complete sources. Xsrc-3.tgz Part 3 of the complete sources. You will need Xprog.tgz if you intend to install ports of X software. XFree86 also includes a number of optional parts, such as documentation, and setup programs. Archive Description Xdoc.tgz READMEs Xjdoc.tgz READMEs in Japanese. Xps.tgz READMEs in PostScript. Xhtml.tgz READMEs in HTML. Xman.tgz Manual pages. Xcfg.tgz Customizable xinit and xdm runtime configuration files. Xset.tgz The X86Setup utility; a graphical version of the xf86config utility. Xjset.tgz The XF86Setup utility, Japanese version, for the normal PC architecture. XF86Setup is a graphical mode setup program for XFree86, and you may prefer it to the standard setup program xf86config. You do not need any special archives for xf86config; it is included in Xbin.tgz. The first time you install, you will need Xcfg.tgz to create your initial configuration files. Do not use it when upgrading; it overwrites your configuration files. There are also additional fonts that are available with XFree86: Archive Description Xf100.tgz 100 dpi fonts. Xfscl.tgz Speedo and Type1 fonts. Xfnon.tgz Japanese, Chinese, and other non-english fonts. Xfcyr.tgz Cyrillic fonts. Unlike the X servers described above, the archives for the following servers are all in the main directory. Archive Description Xfsrv.tgz The font server. Xnest.tgz A nested server running as a client window on another display. Xprt.tgz The print server. Xvfb.tgz The Virtual Framebuffer X server, which renders into memory or an mmapped file. Installing XFree86 Manually If you do not use sysinstall to install X, you need to perform a number of steps: Create the directories and unpack the required archives. Choose and install an X server. Set up the environment to be able to access X. Find a virtual terminal in which to run X. Configure X for your hardware. This sounds like a lot of work, but if you approach it methodically, it is not too bad. In the rest of this section, we will look at each step in turn. Unpacking the Archives You must unpack the archives as root, since a number of the executables are set-user-id (they run as root even when started by other users). If you unpack the server as an ordinary user, it may abort when you try to run it. You must also use a umask value of 022 (permissions rwxr-xr-x), because the X server requires special permissions. &prompt.user; su Password: &prompt.root; umask 022 If you do not have enough space in the /usr file system, create a directory on another partition and symlink it to /usr. For example, if you have a file system /home with adequate space, you could do: &prompt.root; cd /home &prompt.root; mkdir X11R6 &prompt.root; ln -s /home/X11R6 /usr/X11R6 Next, decide which archives you want to install. For a minimal installation, choose Xbin.tgz, Xfnts.tgz, Xlib.tgz, and Xcfg.tgz. If you have already configured X for your hardware, you can omit Xcfg.tgz. If you are using sh, unpack like this: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; for i in bin fnts lib cfg; do &prompt.root; tar xzf X$i.tgz &prompt.root; done If you are using csh, enter: &prompt.root; mkdir -p /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; foreach i (bin fnts lib cfg) ? tar xzf X$i.tgz ? end Installing the Server Choose a server archive corresponding to your VGA board. If the table in the section above does not give you enough information, check the server man pages, /usr/X11R6/man/man1/XF86_*, which list the VGA chipsets supported by each server. For example, if you have an ET4000 based board you will use the XF86_SVGA server. In this case you would enter: &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6 &prompt.root; tar xzf XSVGA.tgz [substitute your server name here] Setting up the environment Next, you may wish to create a symbolic link /usr/X11/bin/X that points to the server that matches your video board. In this example, it is the XF86_SVGA server: &prompt.root; cd /usr/X11R6/bin &prompt.root; rm X &prompt.root; ln -s XF86_SVGA X X needs this symbolic link in order to be able to work correctly, but you have the option of setting it when you run xf86config – see below. Next, check that the directory /usr/X11R6/bin is in the default path for sh in /etc/profile and for csh in /etc/csh.login, and add it if it is not. It is best to do this with an editor, but if you want to take a shortcut, you can enter: &prompt.root; echo 'PATH=$PATH:/usr/X11R6/bin' >>/etc/profile or: &prompt.root; echo 'set path = ($path /usr/X11R6/bin)' >>/etc/csh.login Alternatively, make sure everybody who uses X puts /usr/X11R6/bin in their shell's PATH variable. Next, invoke ldconfig to put the shared libraries in ld.so's cache: &prompt.root; ldconfig -m /usr/X11R6/lib You can omit invoking ldconfig if you plan to reboot before using X. You do not need to uncompress the font files, but if you do, you must run mkfontdir in the corresponding font directory, otherwise your server will abort - with the message “could not open default font - `fixed'”. + with the message could not open default font + `fixed'. Assigning a virtual terminal to X Next, make sure you have a spare virtual console which is running a getty. First check how many virtual consoles you have: &prompt.root; dmesg | grep virtual sc0: VGA color <16 virtual consoles, flags=0x0> Then check /etc/ttys to make sure there is at least one virtual terminal (ttyvxx device) which does not have a getty enabled. Look for the keyword off: &prompt.root; grep ttyv /etc/ttys ttyv0 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure ttyv1 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure ttyv2 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure ttyv3 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 off secure In this case, /dev/ttyv3 is available, if your kernel has least 4 VTs. If not, either disable a getty in /etc/ttys by changing on to off, or build another kernel with more virtual terminals. Configuring X for Your Hardware After installing the X software, you will need to customize the file XF86Config, which tells the X server about your hardware and how you want to run it. In order to set up XF86Config, you will need the following hardware information: Your mouse type, the bit rate if it is a serial mouse, and the name of the device to which it is connected. This will typically be /dev/ttyd0 or /dev/ttyd1 for a serial mouse, /dev/psm0 for a PS/2 mouse, or /dev/mse0 for a bus mouse. The type of the video board and the amount of display memory. If it is a no-name board, establish what VGA chip set it uses. The parameters of your monitor; vertical and horizontal frequency. Identifying the hardware How do you decide what your hardware is? The manufacturer should tell you, but very often the information you get about - your display board and monitor is pitiful; “Super VGA - board with 76 Hz refresh rate and 16,777,216 colors”. + your display board and monitor is pitiful; Super VGA + board with 76 Hz refresh rate and 16,777,216 colors. This tells you the maximum pixel depth (24 bits – - the number of colors is 2(pixel depth)), but it doesn't tell you anything else about the display board. As we will see later, the real parameters you need to know are the maximum horizontal frequency, the dot clock range, the chipset and the amount of display memory. You could be unlucky trying to get some of this information, but you can get some with the SuperProbe program. It should always be able to tell you the chipset and the amount of memory on board. Occasionally SuperProbe can crash your system. Make sure you are not doing anything important when you run it. Running SuperProbe looks like this: &prompt.root; SuperProbe (warnings and acknowledgements omitted) First video: Super-VGA Chipset: Tseng ET4000 (Port Probed) Memory: 1024 Kbytes RAMDAC: Generic 8-bit pseudo-color DAC (with 6-bit wide lookup tables (or in 6-bit mode)) SuperProbe is very finicky about running at all, and you will often get messages like: SuperProbe: Cannot be run while an X server is running SuperProbe: If an X server is not running, unset $DISPLAY and try again SuperProbe: Cannot open video In other words, even if no X server is running, SuperProbe will not work if you have the environment variable DISPLAY set. How do you unset it? With Bourne-style shells, you enter: &prompt.root; unset DISPLAY In the C shell, you enter: &prompt.root; unsetenv DISPLAY Running <command>xf86config</command> The easy way to create your configuration file is with one of the utilities xf86config (note the lower case name) or XF86Setup. Both lead you through the configuration step by step. xf86config runs in character mode, while XF86Setup runs in a graphical mode. XF86Setup can have problems with unusual hardware, so I personally prefer xf86config. You can also use sysinstall, but this does not change much; sysinstall just starts xf86config for you, and it is easier to start it directly. In this section, we will use an example to illustrate configuration via xf86config. We are installing X for an ancient Diamond SpeedStar with 1 MB of display memory, a Logitech MouseMan mouse, and an ADI MicroScan 5AP monitor. The mouse is connected to the system via the first serial port, /dev/ttyd0. To run xf86config, type in the name. If /usr/X11R6/bin is included in your PATH environment variable, you just need to type xf86config. If it is not, you need to type out the full path to xf86config, like so: &prompt.root; /usr/X11R6/bin/xf86config This program will create a basic XF86Configfile, based on menu selections you make. The XF86Config file usually resides in /usr/X11R6/lib/X11 or /etc. A sample XF86Config file is supplied with XFree86; it is configured for a standard VGA card and monitor with 640x480 resolution. This program will ask for a pathname when it is ready to write the file. You can either take the sample XF86Config as a base and edit it for your configuration, or let this program produce a base XF86Config file for your configuration and fine-tune it. Refer to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/README.Config for a detailed overview of the configuration process. For accelerated servers (including accelerated drivers in the SVGA server), there are many chipset and card-specific options and settings. This program does not know about these. On some configurations some of these settings must be specified. Refer to the server man pages and chipset-specific READMEs. Before continuing with this program, make sure you know the chipset and amount of video memory on your video card. SuperProbe can help with this. It is also helpful if you know what server you want to run. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. ENTER First specify a mouse protocol type. Choose one from the following list: 1. Microsoft compatible (2-button protocol) 2. Mouse Systems (3-button protocol) 3. Bus Mouse 4. PS/2 Mouse 5. Logitech Mouse (serial, old type, Logitech protocol) 6. Logitech MouseMan (Microsoft compatible) 7. MM Series 8. MM HitTablet 9. Microsoft IntelliMouse If you have a two-button mouse, it is most likely of type 1, and if you have a three-button mouse, it can probably support both protocol 1 and 2. There are two main varieties of the latter type; mice with a switch to select the protocol, and mice that default to 1 and require a button to be held at boot-time to select protocol 2. Some mice can be convinced to do 2 by sending a special sequence to the serial port (see the ClearDTR/ClearRTS options). Enter a protocol number: 6 Logitech MouseMan You have selected a Logitech MouseMan type mouse. You might want to enable ChordMiddle which could cause the third button to work. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to enable ChordMiddle? n You definitely want to enable the third button on your mouse, since many X clients use it. With a genuine Logitech mouse, however, you don't need to enable ChordMiddle in order to use the button. If you find that the third button does not work when you start X, you can enable ChordMiddle by editing the configuration file – it is much easier and less error-prone than re-running XF86Setup. Continuing through the setup: If your mouse has only two buttons, it is recommended that you enable Emulate3Buttons. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to enable Emulate3Buttons? n Now give the full device name that the mouse is connected to, for example /dev/tty00. Just pressing enter will use the default, /dev/mouse. Mouse device: /dev/ttyd1 Be very careful about this entry. You must specify the correct name for the device to which the mouse is connected. xf86config is not specific to FreeBSD, and the suggested example is just plain wrong for FreeBSD. Use the names /dev/ttyd0 through /dev/ttyd3 for serial mice, /dev/psm0 for PS/2 mice or /dev/mse0 for a bus mouse. Continuing, we see: Beginning with XFree86 3.1.2D, you can use the new X11R6.1 XKEYBOARD extension to manage the keyboard layout. If you answer 'n' to the following question, the server will use the old method, and you have to adjust your keyboard layout with xmodmap. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want to use XKB? y The following dialogue will allow you to select from a list of already preconfigured keymaps. If you don't find a suitable keymap in the list, the program will try to combine a keymap from additional information you are asked then. Such a keymap is by default untested and may require manual tuning. Please report success or required changes for such a keymap to XFREE86@XFREE86.ORG for addition to the list of preconfigured keymaps in the future. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. List of preconfigured keymaps: 1 Standard 101-key, US encoding 2 Microsoft Natural, US encoding 3 KeyTronic FlexPro, US encoding 4 Standard 101-key, US encoding with ISO9995-3 extensions 5 Standard 101-key, German encoding 6 Standard 101-key, French encoding 7 Standard 101-key, Thai encoding 8 Standard 101-key, Swiss/German encoding 9 Standard 101-key, Swiss/French encoding 10 None of the above Enter a number to choose the keymap. 1 Choose the standard US keyboard Now we want to set the specifications of the monitor. The two critical parameters are the vertical refresh rate, which is the rate at which the the whole screen is refreshed, and most importantly the horizontal sync rate, which is the rate at which scanlines are displayed. The valid range for horizontal sync and vertical sync should be documented in the manual of your monitor. If in doubt, check the monitor database /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/Monitors to see if your monitor is there. Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort. ENTER You must indicate the horizontal sync range of your monitor. You can either select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry- standard monitor types, or give a specific range. It is VERY IMPORTANT that you do not specify a monitor type with a horizontal sync range that is beyond the capabilities of your monitor. If in doubt, choose a conservative setting. hsync in kHz; monitor type with characteristic modes 1 31.5; Standard VGA, 640x480 @@ 60 Hz 2 31.5 - 35.1; Super VGA, 800x600 @@ 56 Hz 3 31.5, 35.5; 8514 Compatible, 1024x768 @@ 87 Hz interlaced (no 800x600) 4 31.5, 35.15, 35.5; Super VGA, 1024x768 @@ 87 Hz interlaced, 800x600 @@ 56 Hz 5 31.5 - 37.9; Extended Super VGA, 800x600 @@ 60 Hz, 640x480 @@ 72 Hz 6 31.5 - 48.5; Non-Interlaced SVGA, 1024x768 @@ 60 Hz, 800x600 @@ 72 Hz 7 31.5 - 57.0; High Frequency SVGA, 1024x768 @@ 70 Hz 8 31.5 - 64.3; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @@ 60 Hz 9 31.5 - 79.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @@ 74 Hz 10 31.5 - 82.0; Monitor that can do 1280x1024 @@ 76 Hz 11 Enter your own horizontal sync range Enter your choice (1-11): Unfortunately, our monitor is not mentioned in the file /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/Monitors, but by chance the manual does specify the frequency range in the Technical Data section. The horizontal frequency range is from 30 to 64 kHz, and the vertical frequency range is from 50 to 100 Hz. The horizontal frequency range is almost exactly covered by choice 8, but that setting threatens to go 0.3 kHz higher in frequency than the technical data state. Do you want to risk it? Doing so will most likely not be a problem, since it is unlikely that the monitor will die at such a small deviation from the specs, and it is also unlikely that your XF86Config will actually generate a horizontal frequency between 64.0 and 64.3 kHz. However, there is no need to take even this slight risk. Just specify the real values: Enter your choice (1-11): 11 Please enter the horizontal sync range of your monitor, in the format used in the table of monitor types above. You can either specify one or more continuous ranges (e.g. 15-25, 30-50), or one or more fixed sync frequencies. Horizontal sync range: 30-64 Next, we select the vertical frequency range: You must indicate the vertical sync range of your monitor. You can either select one of the predefined ranges below that correspond to industry-standard monitor types, or give a specific range. For interlaced modes, the number that counts is the high one (e.g., 87 Hz rather than 43 Hz). 1 50-70 2 50-90 3 50-100 4 40-150 5 Enter your own vertical sync range Enter your choice: 3 exactly the range of the monitor The next step is to specify identification strings. You can think out names if you want, but unless you are juggling a lot of different hardware, you can let xf86config do it for you: You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill in default names. The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed. Enter an identifier for your monitor definition: ENTER Enter the vendor name of your monitor: ENTER Enter the model name of your monitor: ENTER Next comes the choice of the video board. We have an elderly Diamond SpeedStar Plus with an ET4000 chip, and unknown Ramdac and Clock Chip. Let's see how we fare: Now we must configure video card specific settings. At this point you can choose to make a selection out of a database of video card definitions. Because there can be variation in Ramdacs and clock generators even between cards of the same model, it is not sensible to blindly copy the settings (e.g., a Device section). For this reason, after you make a selection, you will still be asked about the components of the card, with the settings from the chosen database entry presented as a strong hint. The database entries include information about the chipset, what server to run, the Ramdac and ClockChip, and comments that will be included in the Device section. However, a lot of definitions only hint about what server to run (based on the chipset the card uses) and are untested. If you can't find your card in the database, there's nothing to worry about. You should only choose a database entry that is exactly the same model as your card; choosing one that looks similar is just a bad idea (e.g. a GemStone Snail 64 may be as different from a GemStone Snail 64+ in terms of hardware as can be). Do you want to look at the card database? y 0 2 the Max MAXColor S3 Trio64V+ S3 Trio64V+ 1 928Movie S3 928 2 AGX (generic) AGX-014/15/16 3 ALG-5434(E) CL-GD5434 4 ASUS 3Dexplorer RIVA128 5 ASUS PCI-AV264CT ATI-Mach64 6 ASUS PCI-V264CT ATI-Mach64 7 ASUS Video Magic PCI V864 S3 864 8 ASUS Video Magic PCI VT64 S3 Trio64 9 AT25 Alliance AT3D 10 AT3D Alliance AT3D 11 ATI 3D Pro Turbo ATI-Mach64 12 ATI 3D Xpression ATI-Mach64 13 ATI 3D Xpression+ PC2TV ATI-Mach64 14 ATI 8514 Ultra (no VGA) ATI-Mach8 15 ATI All-in-Wonder ATI-Mach64 16 ATI Graphics Pro Turbo ATI-Mach64 17 ATI Graphics Pro Turbo 1600 ATI-Mach64 Enter a number to choose the corresponding card definition. Press enter for the next page, q to continue configuration. ENTER Dozens of board definitions come in alphabetic order. Finally we see: 108 DSV3325 S3 ViRGE 109 DSV3326 S3 Trio64V+ 110 DataExpert DSV3325 S3 ViRGE 111 DataExpert DSV3365 S3 Trio64V+ 112 Dell S3 805 S3 801/805 113 Dell onboard ET4000 ET4000 114 Diamond Edge 3D nv1 115 Diamond Multimedia Stealth 3D 2000 S3 ViRGE 116 Diamond Multimedia Stealth 3D 2000 PRO S3 ViRGE/DX 117 Diamond SpeedStar (Plus) ET4000 118 Diamond SpeedStar 24 ET4000 119 Diamond SpeedStar 24X (not fully supported) WD90C31 120 Diamond SpeedStar 64 CL-GD5434 121 Diamond SpeedStar HiColor ET4000 122 Diamond SpeedStar Pro (not SE) CL-GD5426/28 123 Diamond SpeedStar Pro 1100 CL-GD5420/2/4/6/8/9 124 Diamond SpeedStar Pro SE (CL-GD5430/5434) CL-GD5430/5434 125 Diamond SpeedStar64 Graphics 2000/2200 CL-GD5434 Enter a number to choose the corresponding card definition. Press enter for the next page, q to continue configuration. 117 Your selected card definition: Identifier: Diamond SpeedStar (Plus) Chipset: ET4000 Server: XF86_SVGA Press enter to continue, or ctrl-c to abort.ENTER Now you must determine which server to run. Refer to the manpages and other documentation. The following servers are available (they may not all be installed on your system): 1 The XF86_Mono server. This a monochrome server that should work on any VGA-compatible card, in 640x480 (more on some SVGA chipsets). 2 The XF86_VGA16 server. This is a 16-color VGA server that should work on any VGA-compatible card. 3 The XF86_SVGA server. This is a 256 color SVGA server that supports a number of SVGA chipsets. On some chipsets it is accelerated or supports higher color depths. 4 The accelerated servers. These include XF86_S3, XF86_Mach32, XF86_Mach8, XF86_8514, XF86_P9000, XF86_AGX, XF86_W32, XF86_Mach64, XF86_I128 and XF86_S3V. These four server types correspond to the four different "Screen" sections in XF86Config (vga2, vga16, svga, accel). 5 Choose the server from the card definition, XF86_SVGA. Which one of these screen types do you intend to run by default (1-5)? The system already chose XF86_SVGA for us. Do we want to change? We would need a good reason. In this case, we do not have a reason, so we will keep the server from the card definition: Which one of these screen types do you intend to run by default (1-5)? 5 The server to run is selected by changing the symbolic link 'X'. For example, the SVGA server. Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want me to set the symbolic link? y All the programs that start X (xinit, startx, and xdm) start a program /usr/X11R6/bin/X. This symbolic link makes /usr/X11R6/bin/X point to your X server. If you don't have a link, you will not be able to start X. Now you must give information about your video card. This will be used for the "Device" section of your video card in XF86Config. You must indicate how much video memory you have. It is probably a good idea to use the same approximate amount as that detected by the server you intend to use. If you encounter problems that are due to the used server not supporting the amount memory you have (e.g. ATI Mach64 is limited to 1024K with the SVGA server), specify the maximum amount supported by the server. How much video memory do you have on your video card: 1 256K 2 512K 3 1024K 4 2048K 5 4096K 6 Other Enter your choice: 3 You must now enter a few identification/description strings, namely an identifier, a vendor name, and a model name. Just pressing enter will fill in default names (possibly from a card definition). Your card definition is Diamond SpeedStar (Plus). The strings are free-form, spaces are allowed. Enter an identifier for your video card definition: ENTER You can simply press enter here if you have a generic card, or want to describe your card with one string. Enter the vendor name of your video card: ENTER Enter the model (board) name of your video card: ENTER Especially for accelerated servers, Ramdac, Dacspeed and ClockChip settings or special options may be required in the Device section. The RAMDAC setting only applies to the S3, AGX, W32 servers, and some drivers in the SVGA servers. Some RAMDAC's are auto-detected by the server. The detection of a RAMDAC is forced by using a Ramdac "identifier" line in the Device section. The identifiers are shown at the right of the following table of RAMDAC types: 1 AT&T 20C490 (S3 and AGX servers, ARK driver) att20c490 2 AT&T 20C498/21C498/22C498 (S3, autodetected) att20c498 3 AT&T 20C409/20C499 (S3, autodetected) att20c409 4 AT&T 20C505 (S3) att20c505 5 BrookTree BT481 (AGX) bt481 6 BrookTree BT482 (AGX) bt482 7 BrookTree BT485/9485 (S3) bt485 8 Sierra SC15025 (S3, AGX) sc15025 9 S3 GenDAC (86C708) (autodetected) s3gendac 10 S3 SDAC (86C716) (autodetected) s3_sdac 11 STG-1700 (S3, autodetected) stg1700 12 STG-1703 (S3, autodetected) stg1703 Enter a number to choose the corresponding RAMDAC. Press enter for the next page, q to quit without selection of a RAMDAC. q We don't need this A Clockchip line in the Device section forces the detection of a programmable clock device. With a clockchip enabled, any required clock can be programmed without requiring probing of clocks or a Clocks line. Most cards don't have a programmable clock chip. Choose from the following list: 1 Chrontel 8391 ch8391 2 ICD2061A and compatibles (ICS9161A, DCS2824) icd2061a 3 ICS2595 ics2595 4 ICS5342 (similar to SDAC, but not completely compatible) ics5342 5 ICS5341 ics5341 6 S3 GenDAC (86C708) and ICS5300 (autodetected) s3gendac 7 S3 SDAC (86C716) s3_sdac 8 STG 1703 (autodetected) stg1703 9 Sierra SC11412 sc11412 10 TI 3025 (autodetected) ti3025 11 TI 3026 (autodetected) ti3026 12 IBM RGB 51x/52x (autodetected) ibm_rgb5xx Just press enter if you don't want a Clockchip setting. What Clockchip setting do you want (1-12)? ENTER For most configurations, a Clocks line is useful since it prevents the slow and nasty sounding clock probing at server start-up. Probed clocks are displayed at server startup, along with other server and hardware configuration info. You can save this information in a file by running imprecise; some clocks may be slightly too high (varies per run). At this point I can run X -probeonly, and try to extract the clock information from the output. It is recommended that you do this yourself and add a clocks line (note that the list of clocks may be split over multiple Clocks lines) to your Device section afterwards. Be aware that a clocks line is not appropriate for drivers that have a fixed set of clocks and don't probe by default (e.g. Cirrus). Also, for the P9000 server you must simply specify clocks line that matches the modes you want to use. For the S3 server with a programmable clock chip you need a 'ClockChip' line and no Clocks line. You must be root to be able to run X -probeonly now. Do you want me to run 'X -probeonly' now? This last question is worth thinking about. You should run X -probeonly at some point, but it requires some extra work. We'll take the recommendation and try it later. Do you want me to run 'X -probeonly' now? n For each depth, a list of modes (resolutions) is defined. The default resolution that the server will start-up with will be the first listed mode that can be supported by the monitor and card. Currently it is set to: "640x480" "800x600" "1024x768" for 8bpp "640x480" "800x600" for 16bpp "640x480" for 24bpp "640x400" for 32bpp Note that 16, 24 and 32bpp are only supported on a few configurations. Modes that cannot be supported due to monitor or clock constraints will be automatically skipped by the server. 1 Change the modes for 8pp (256 colors) 2 Change the modes for 16bpp (32K/64K colors) 3 Change the modes for 24bpp (24-bit color, packed pixel) 4 Change the modes for 32bpp (24-bit color) 5 The modes are OK, continue. Enter your choice: 5 accept the defaults You can have a virtual screen (desktop), which is screen area that is larger than the physical screen and which is panned by moving the mouse to the edge of the screen. If you don't want virtual desktop at a certain resolution, you cannot have modes listed that are larger. Each color depth can have a differently-sized virtual screen Please answer the following question with either 'y' or 'n'. Do you want a virtual screen that is larger than the physical screen? n It is difficult to decide whether you want a virtual screen larger than the physical screen. I find it extremely disturbing, so I suggest you answer n. You might find it useful, especially if your highest resolution is small. Now the configuration is complete, and sysinstall just need to write the configuration file: I am going to write the XF86Config file now. Make sure you don't accidently overwrite a previously configured one. Shall I write it to /etc/XF86Config? y File has been written. Take a look at it before running 'startx'. Note that the XF86Config file must be in one of the directories searched by the server (e.g. /usr/X11R6/lib/X11) in order to be used. Within the server press ctrl, alt and '+' simultaneously to cycle video resolutions. Pressing ctrl, alt and backspace simultaneously immediately exits the server (use if the monitor doesn't sync for a particular mode). For further configuration, refer to /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/doc/README.Config. Once you have completed this configuration, you are ready to start X.