diff --git a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
index 3ea01a2f64..23db613cc2 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,562 +1,783 @@
DisksSynopsisThis chapter covers how to use disks, whether physical,
memory, or networked, on FreeBSD.Disk namingPhysical drives come in two main flavours,
IDE, or SCSI; but there
are also drives backed by RAID controllers, flash memory, and so
forth. Since these behave quite differently, they have their
own drivers and devices.
Physical disk naming conventionsDrive typeDrive device nameIDE hard drivesad in 4.0-RELEASE,
wd before 4.0-RELEASE.IDE CDROM drivesacd in 3.1-RELEASE,
wcd before 4.0-RELEASE.SCSI hard drivesda from 3.0-RELEASE,
sd before 3.0-RELEASE.SCSI CDROM drivescdAssorted non-standard CDROM drivesmcd for Mitsumi CD-ROM,
scd for Sony CD-ROM,
matcd for Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM
Floppy drivesfdSCSI tape drivessa from 3.0-RELEASE,
st before 3.0-RELEASE.IDE tape drivesast from 4.0-RELEASE,
wst before 4.0-RELEASE.Flash drivesfla for DiskOnChip Flash device
from 3.3-RELEASE.RAID drivesmyxd for Mylex, and
amrd for AMI MegaRAID,
idad for Compaq Smart RAID.
from 4.0-RELEASE. id between
3.2-RELEASE and 4.0-RELEASE.
+
+ Slices and partitions
+
+ Physical disks usually contain
+ slices, unless they are
+ dangerously dedicated. Slice numbers follow
+ the device name, prefixed with an s:
+ da0s1.
+
+ Slices, dangerously dedicated physical
+ drives, and other drives contain
+ partitions, which represented as
+ letters from a to h.
+ b is reserved for swap partitions, and
+ c is an unused partition the size of the
+ entire slice or drive. This is explained in .
+
+
+
+
+ Mounting and unmounting filesystems
+
+ The filesystem is best visualized as a tree,
+ rooted, as it were, at /.
+ /dev, /usr, and the
+ other directories in the root directory are branches, which may
+ have their own branches, such as
+ /usr/local, and so on.
+
+ There are various reasons to house certain of these
+ directories on separate filesystems. /var
+ contains log, spool, and various types of temporary files, and
+ as such, may get filled up. Filling up the root filesystem
+ isn't a good idea, so splitting /var from
+ / is often a good idea.
+
+ Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on
+ other filesystems is if they are to be housed on separate
+ physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, or CDROM
+ drives.
+
+
+ The fstab file
+
+ During the boot process,
+ filesystems listed in /etc/fstab are
+ automatically mounted (unless they are listed with
+ ).
+
+ The /etc/fstab file contains a list
+ of lines of the following format:
+
+ device/mount-pointfstypeoptionsdumpfreqpassno
+
+ device is a device name (which should
+ exist), as explained in the Disk
+ naming conventions above.
+
+ mount-point is a directory (which
+ should exist), on which to mount the filesystem.
+
+ fstype is the filesystem type to pass
+ to &man.mount.8;. The default FreeBSD filesystem is
+ ufs.
+
+ options is either
+ for read-write filesystems, or for
+ read-only filesystems, followed by any other options that may
+ be needed. A common option is for
+ filesystems not normally mounted during the boot sequence.
+ Other options in the &man.mount.8; manual page.
+
+ dumpfreq is the number of days the
+ filesystem should be dumped, and passno is
+ the pass number during which the filesystem is mounted during
+ the boot sequence.
+
+
+
+ The mount command
+
+ The &man.mount.8; command is what is ultimately used to
+ mount filesystems.
+
+ In its most basic form, you use:
+
+
+ &prompt.root; mount devicemountpoint
+
+
+ There are plenty of options, as mentioned in the
+ &man.mount.8; manual page, but the most common are:
+
+
+ mount options
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mount all filesystems in
+ /etc/fstab, as modified by
+ , if given.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Do everything but actually mount the
+ filesystem.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Force the mounting the filesystem.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mount the filesystem read-only.
+
+
+
+
+
+ fstype
+
+
+ Mount the given filesystem as the given filesystem
+ type, or mount only filesystems of the given type, if
+ given the option.
+
+ ufs is the default filesystem
+ type.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Update mount options on the filesystem.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Be verbose.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mount the filesystem read-write.
+
+
+
+
+ The takes a comma-separated list of
+ the options, including the following:
+
+
+
+ nodev
+
+
+ Do not interpret special devices on the
+ filesystem. Useful security option.
+
+
+
+
+ noexec
+
+
+ Do not allow execution of binaries on this
+ filesystem. Useful security option.
+
+
+
+
+ nosuid
+
+
+ Do not interpret setuid or setgid flags on the
+ filesystem. Useful security option.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ The umount command
+
+ The umount command takes, as a parameter, one of a
+ mountpoint, a device name, or the or
+ option.
+
+ All forms take to force unmounting,
+ and for verbosity.
+
+ and are used to
+ unmount all mounted filesystems, possibly modified by the
+ filesystem types listed after .
+ , however, doesn't attempt to unmount the
+ root filesystem.
+ Adding disksOriginally contributed by &a.obrien; 26 April
1998Lets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that currently
only has a single drive. First turn off the computer and install the
drive in the computer following the instructions of the computer,
controller, and drive manufacturer. Due the wide variations of procedures
to do this, the details are beyond the scope of this document.Login as user root. After you've installed the
drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new
disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will
be da1 and we want to mount it on
/1. (if you are adding an IDE drive substitute
wd for da)Because FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must take into
account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different from the traditional
BSD partitions. A PC disk has up to four BIOS partition entries. If the
disk is going to be truly dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the
dedicated mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will have to live
with in one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD calls the PC BIOS
partitions, slices so as not to confuse them with
traditional BSD partitions. You may also use slices on a disk that is
dedicated to FreeBSD, but used in a computer that also has another
operating system installed. This is to not confuse the
fdisk utility of the other operating system.In the slice case the drive will be added as
/dev/da1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk, unit number
1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1), and
e BSD partition. In the dedicated case, the drive
will be added simply as /dev/da1e.Using sysinstallYou may use /stand/sysinstall to partition and
label a new disk using its easy to use menus. Either login as user
root or use the su command. Run
/stand/sysinstall and enter the
Configure menu. With in the FreeBSD
Configuration Menu, scroll down and select the
Partition item. Next you should be presented with a
list of hard drives installed in your system. If you do not see
da1 listed, you need to recheck your physical
installation and dmesg output in the file
/var/run/dmesg.boot.Select da1 to enter the FDISK Partition
Editor. Choose A to use the entire disk
for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to remain cooperative with
any future possible operating systems, answer
YES. Write the changes to the disk using
W. Now exit the FDISK editor using
q. Next you will be asked about the Master Boot
Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system,
choose None.Next enter the Disk Label Editor. This is where
you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A disk can have up to
eight partitions, labeled a-h. A few of the partition labels have
special uses. The a partition is used for the root
partition (/). Thus only your system disk (e.g,
the disk you boot from) should have an a partition.
The b partition is used for swap partitions, and you
may have many disks with swap partitions. The c
partition addresses the entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire
FreeBSD slice in slice mode. The other partitions are for general
use.Sysinstall's Label editor favors the e partition
for non-root, non-swap partitions. With in the Label editor, create a
single file system using C. When prompted if this
will be a FS (file system) or swap, choose FS and
give a mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a disk
in post-install mode, Sysinstall will not create entries in
/etc/fstab for you, so the mount point you specify
isn't important.You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and create a
file system on it. Do this by hitting W. Ignore any
errors from Sysinstall that it could not mount the new partition. Exit
the Label Editor and Sysinstall completely.The last step is to edit /etc/fstab to add an
entry for your new disk.Using command line utilities* Using SlicesDedicatedIf you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating
system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember
this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage
will be done by them. IBM's OS/2 however, will
“appropriate” any partition it finds which it doesn't
understand.&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 bs=1k count=1
&prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da1 auto
&prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # create the `e' partition
&prompt.root; newfs -d0 /dev/rda1e
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /1
&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e
&prompt.root; mount /1An alternate method is:&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 count=2
&prompt.root; disklabel /dev/rda1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/rda1e
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /1
&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e
&prompt.root; mount /1Virtual disks: Network, memory, and file-based filesystemsBesides the disks you physically insert into your computer;
floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth, other forms of disks
are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual
disks.These include network filesystems such as the Network Filesystem and Coda, memory-based
filesystems such as md and
file-backed filesystems created by vnconfig.vnconfig: file-backed filesystem&man.vnconfig.8; configures and enables vnode pseudo disk
devices. A vnode is a representation
of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that
&man.vnconfig.8; uses files to create and operate a
filesystem. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD
images kept in files.To mount an existing filesystem image:Using vnconfig to mount an existing filesystem
image&prompt.root; vnconfig vn0diskimage
&prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mntTo create a new filesystem image with vnconfig:Creating a new file-backed disk with vnconfig&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
&prompt.root; vnconfig -s labels -c vn0newimage
-&prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0
+&prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0 auto
&prompt.root; newfs vn0c
Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated
/dev/rvn0c: 10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors
5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g)
super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
32
&prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/vn0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mntmd: memory filesystemmd is a simple, efficient means to do memory
filesystems.Simply take a filesystem you've prepared with, for
example, &man.vnconfig.8;, and:md memory disk&prompt.root; dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
&prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c/mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/md0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mntDisk QuotasQuotas are an optional feature of the operating system that
allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of
files a user, or members of a group, may allocate on a per-file
system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where
it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or
group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user from
consuming all of the available disk space.Configuring Your System to Enable Disk QuotasBefore attempting to use disk quotas it is necessary to make
sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by
adding the following line to your kernel configuration
file:
options QUOTAThe stock GENERIC kernel does not have
this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and
install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer
to the Configuring the FreeBSD
Kernel section for more information on kernel
configuration.Next you will need to enable disk quotas in
/etc/rc.conf. This is done by adding the
line:
enable_quotas=“YES”For finer control over your quota startup, there is an
additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup,
the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the
quotacheck program. The
quotacheck facility insures that the data in
the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system.
This is a very time consuming process that will significantly
affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to
skip this step, a variable is made available for the
purpose:
check_quotas=“NO”If you are running FreeBSD prior to 3.2-RELEASE, the
configuration is simpler, and consists of only one variable. Set
the following in your /etc/rc.conf:
check_quotas=“YES”Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab
to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where
you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your
file systems.To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the
userquota option to the options field in the
/etc/fstab entry for the file system you want
to to enable quotas on. For example:
/dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the
groupquota option instead of the
userquota keyword. To enable both user and
group quotas, change the entry as follows:
/dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2By default the quota files are stored in the root directory of
the file system with the names quota.user and
quota.group for user and group quotas
respectively. See man fstab for more
information. Even though that man page says that you can specify
an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended
because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this
properly.At this point you should reboot your system with your new
kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the
appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of
the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so
there is no need to manually create any zero length quota
files.In the normal course of operations you should not be required
to run the quotacheck,
quotaon, or quotaoff
commands manually. However, you may want to read their man pages
just to be familiar with their operation.Setting Quota LimitsOnce you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify
that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to
run:&prompt.root; quota -vYou should see a one line summary of disk usage and current
quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled
on.You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the
edquota command.You have several options on how to enforce limits on the
amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many
files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk
space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a
combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down
into two categories; hard and soft limits.A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches their
hard limit they may not make any further allocations on the file
system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of
500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the
user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to
allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail.Soft limits on the other hand can be exceeded for a limited
amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period,
which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her
soft limit longer than their grace period, the soft limit will
turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed.
When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period
will be reset.The following is an example of what you might see when you run
the edquota command. When the
edquota command is invoked, you are placed into
the editor specified by the EDITOR environment
variable, or in the vi editor if the
EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit
the quota limits.&prompt.root; edquota -u test
Quotas for user test:
/usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)
/usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)You will normally see two lines for each file system that has
quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for
inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify
the quota limit. For example, to raise this users block limit
from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of
500 and a hard limit of 600, change:/usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600)The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the
editor.Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of
uids. This can be done by use of the option
on the edquota command. First, assign the
desired quota limit to a user, and then run
edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For
example, if user test has the desired quota
limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota
limits for uids 10,000 through 19,999:&prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999See man edquota for more detailed
information.Checking Quota Limits and Disk UsageYou can use either the quota or the
repquota commands to check quota limits and
disk usage. The quota command can be used to
check individual user and group quotas and disk usage. Only the
super-user may examine quotas and usage for other users, or for
groups that they are not a member of. The
repquota command can be used to get a summary
of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas
enabled.The following is some sample output from the
quota -v command for a user that has quota
limits on two file systems.
Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002):
Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace
/usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60
/usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60On the /usr file system in the above
example this user is currently 15 blocks over their soft limit of
50 blocks and has 5 days of their grace period left. Note the
asterisk * which indicates that the user is
currently over their quota limit.Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk
space on will not show up in the output from the
quota command, even if they have a quota limit
assigned for that file system. The option
will display those file systems, such as the
/usr/var file system in the above
example.Quotas over NFSQuotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server.
The &man.rpc.rquotad.8; daemon makes quota information available
to the &man.quota.1; command on NFS clients, allowing users on
those machines to see their quota statistics.Enable rpc.rquotad in
/etc/inetd.conf like so:
rquotad/1 dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotadNow restart inetd:&prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid`
diff --git a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
index 3ea01a2f64..23db613cc2 100644
--- a/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
+++ b/en_US.ISO_8859-1/books/handbook/disks/chapter.sgml
@@ -1,562 +1,783 @@
DisksSynopsisThis chapter covers how to use disks, whether physical,
memory, or networked, on FreeBSD.Disk namingPhysical drives come in two main flavours,
IDE, or SCSI; but there
are also drives backed by RAID controllers, flash memory, and so
forth. Since these behave quite differently, they have their
own drivers and devices.
Physical disk naming conventionsDrive typeDrive device nameIDE hard drivesad in 4.0-RELEASE,
wd before 4.0-RELEASE.IDE CDROM drivesacd in 3.1-RELEASE,
wcd before 4.0-RELEASE.SCSI hard drivesda from 3.0-RELEASE,
sd before 3.0-RELEASE.SCSI CDROM drivescdAssorted non-standard CDROM drivesmcd for Mitsumi CD-ROM,
scd for Sony CD-ROM,
matcd for Matsushita/Panasonic CD-ROM
Floppy drivesfdSCSI tape drivessa from 3.0-RELEASE,
st before 3.0-RELEASE.IDE tape drivesast from 4.0-RELEASE,
wst before 4.0-RELEASE.Flash drivesfla for DiskOnChip Flash device
from 3.3-RELEASE.RAID drivesmyxd for Mylex, and
amrd for AMI MegaRAID,
idad for Compaq Smart RAID.
from 4.0-RELEASE. id between
3.2-RELEASE and 4.0-RELEASE.
+
+ Slices and partitions
+
+ Physical disks usually contain
+ slices, unless they are
+ dangerously dedicated. Slice numbers follow
+ the device name, prefixed with an s:
+ da0s1.
+
+ Slices, dangerously dedicated physical
+ drives, and other drives contain
+ partitions, which represented as
+ letters from a to h.
+ b is reserved for swap partitions, and
+ c is an unused partition the size of the
+ entire slice or drive. This is explained in .
+
+
+
+
+ Mounting and unmounting filesystems
+
+ The filesystem is best visualized as a tree,
+ rooted, as it were, at /.
+ /dev, /usr, and the
+ other directories in the root directory are branches, which may
+ have their own branches, such as
+ /usr/local, and so on.
+
+ There are various reasons to house certain of these
+ directories on separate filesystems. /var
+ contains log, spool, and various types of temporary files, and
+ as such, may get filled up. Filling up the root filesystem
+ isn't a good idea, so splitting /var from
+ / is often a good idea.
+
+ Another common reason to contain certain directory trees on
+ other filesystems is if they are to be housed on separate
+ physical disks, or are separate virtual disks, such as Network File System mounts, or CDROM
+ drives.
+
+
+ The fstab file
+
+ During the boot process,
+ filesystems listed in /etc/fstab are
+ automatically mounted (unless they are listed with
+ ).
+
+ The /etc/fstab file contains a list
+ of lines of the following format:
+
+ device/mount-pointfstypeoptionsdumpfreqpassno
+
+ device is a device name (which should
+ exist), as explained in the Disk
+ naming conventions above.
+
+ mount-point is a directory (which
+ should exist), on which to mount the filesystem.
+
+ fstype is the filesystem type to pass
+ to &man.mount.8;. The default FreeBSD filesystem is
+ ufs.
+
+ options is either
+ for read-write filesystems, or for
+ read-only filesystems, followed by any other options that may
+ be needed. A common option is for
+ filesystems not normally mounted during the boot sequence.
+ Other options in the &man.mount.8; manual page.
+
+ dumpfreq is the number of days the
+ filesystem should be dumped, and passno is
+ the pass number during which the filesystem is mounted during
+ the boot sequence.
+
+
+
+ The mount command
+
+ The &man.mount.8; command is what is ultimately used to
+ mount filesystems.
+
+ In its most basic form, you use:
+
+
+ &prompt.root; mount devicemountpoint
+
+
+ There are plenty of options, as mentioned in the
+ &man.mount.8; manual page, but the most common are:
+
+
+ mount options
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mount all filesystems in
+ /etc/fstab, as modified by
+ , if given.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Do everything but actually mount the
+ filesystem.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Force the mounting the filesystem.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mount the filesystem read-only.
+
+
+
+
+
+ fstype
+
+
+ Mount the given filesystem as the given filesystem
+ type, or mount only filesystems of the given type, if
+ given the option.
+
+ ufs is the default filesystem
+ type.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Update mount options on the filesystem.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Be verbose.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Mount the filesystem read-write.
+
+
+
+
+ The takes a comma-separated list of
+ the options, including the following:
+
+
+
+ nodev
+
+
+ Do not interpret special devices on the
+ filesystem. Useful security option.
+
+
+
+
+ noexec
+
+
+ Do not allow execution of binaries on this
+ filesystem. Useful security option.
+
+
+
+
+ nosuid
+
+
+ Do not interpret setuid or setgid flags on the
+ filesystem. Useful security option.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ The umount command
+
+ The umount command takes, as a parameter, one of a
+ mountpoint, a device name, or the or
+ option.
+
+ All forms take to force unmounting,
+ and for verbosity.
+
+ and are used to
+ unmount all mounted filesystems, possibly modified by the
+ filesystem types listed after .
+ , however, doesn't attempt to unmount the
+ root filesystem.
+ Adding disksOriginally contributed by &a.obrien; 26 April
1998Lets say we want to add a new SCSI disk to a machine that currently
only has a single drive. First turn off the computer and install the
drive in the computer following the instructions of the computer,
controller, and drive manufacturer. Due the wide variations of procedures
to do this, the details are beyond the scope of this document.Login as user root. After you've installed the
drive, inspect /var/run/dmesg.boot to ensure the new
disk was found. Continuing with our example, the newly added drive will
be da1 and we want to mount it on
/1. (if you are adding an IDE drive substitute
wd for da)Because FreeBSD runs on IBM-PC compatible computers, it must take into
account the PC BIOS partitions. These are different from the traditional
BSD partitions. A PC disk has up to four BIOS partition entries. If the
disk is going to be truly dedicated to FreeBSD, you can use the
dedicated mode. Otherwise, FreeBSD will have to live
with in one of the PC BIOS partitions. FreeBSD calls the PC BIOS
partitions, slices so as not to confuse them with
traditional BSD partitions. You may also use slices on a disk that is
dedicated to FreeBSD, but used in a computer that also has another
operating system installed. This is to not confuse the
fdisk utility of the other operating system.In the slice case the drive will be added as
/dev/da1s1e. This is read as: SCSI disk, unit number
1 (second SCSI disk), slice 1 (PC BIOS partition 1), and
e BSD partition. In the dedicated case, the drive
will be added simply as /dev/da1e.Using sysinstallYou may use /stand/sysinstall to partition and
label a new disk using its easy to use menus. Either login as user
root or use the su command. Run
/stand/sysinstall and enter the
Configure menu. With in the FreeBSD
Configuration Menu, scroll down and select the
Partition item. Next you should be presented with a
list of hard drives installed in your system. If you do not see
da1 listed, you need to recheck your physical
installation and dmesg output in the file
/var/run/dmesg.boot.Select da1 to enter the FDISK Partition
Editor. Choose A to use the entire disk
for FreeBSD. When asked if you want to remain cooperative with
any future possible operating systems, answer
YES. Write the changes to the disk using
W. Now exit the FDISK editor using
q. Next you will be asked about the Master Boot
Record. Since you are adding a disk to an already running system,
choose None.Next enter the Disk Label Editor. This is where
you will create the traditional BSD partitions. A disk can have up to
eight partitions, labeled a-h. A few of the partition labels have
special uses. The a partition is used for the root
partition (/). Thus only your system disk (e.g,
the disk you boot from) should have an a partition.
The b partition is used for swap partitions, and you
may have many disks with swap partitions. The c
partition addresses the entire disk in dedicated mode, or the entire
FreeBSD slice in slice mode. The other partitions are for general
use.Sysinstall's Label editor favors the e partition
for non-root, non-swap partitions. With in the Label editor, create a
single file system using C. When prompted if this
will be a FS (file system) or swap, choose FS and
give a mount point (e.g, /mnt). When adding a disk
in post-install mode, Sysinstall will not create entries in
/etc/fstab for you, so the mount point you specify
isn't important.You are now ready to write the new label to the disk and create a
file system on it. Do this by hitting W. Ignore any
errors from Sysinstall that it could not mount the new partition. Exit
the Label Editor and Sysinstall completely.The last step is to edit /etc/fstab to add an
entry for your new disk.Using command line utilities* Using SlicesDedicatedIf you will not be sharing the new drive with another operating
system, you may use the dedicated mode. Remember
this mode can confuse Microsoft operating systems; however, no damage
will be done by them. IBM's OS/2 however, will
“appropriate” any partition it finds which it doesn't
understand.&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 bs=1k count=1
&prompt.root; disklabel -Brw da1 auto
&prompt.root; disklabel -e da1 # create the `e' partition
&prompt.root; newfs -d0 /dev/rda1e
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /1
&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e
&prompt.root; mount /1An alternate method is:&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda1 count=2
&prompt.root; disklabel /dev/rda1 | disklabel -BrR da1 /dev/stdin
&prompt.root; newfs /dev/rda1e
&prompt.root; mkdir -p /1
&prompt.root; vi /etc/fstab # add an entry for /dev/da1e
&prompt.root; mount /1Virtual disks: Network, memory, and file-based filesystemsBesides the disks you physically insert into your computer;
floppies, CDs, hard drives, and so forth, other forms of disks
are understood by FreeBSD - the virtual
disks.These include network filesystems such as the Network Filesystem and Coda, memory-based
filesystems such as md and
file-backed filesystems created by vnconfig.vnconfig: file-backed filesystem&man.vnconfig.8; configures and enables vnode pseudo disk
devices. A vnode is a representation
of a file, and is the focus of file activity. This means that
&man.vnconfig.8; uses files to create and operate a
filesystem. One possible use is the mounting of floppy or CD
images kept in files.To mount an existing filesystem image:Using vnconfig to mount an existing filesystem
image&prompt.root; vnconfig vn0diskimage
&prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mntTo create a new filesystem image with vnconfig:Creating a new file-backed disk with vnconfig&prompt.root; dd if=/dev/zero of=newimage bs=1k count=5k
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
&prompt.root; vnconfig -s labels -c vn0newimage
-&prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0
+&prompt.root; disklabel -r -w vn0 auto
&prompt.root; newfs vn0c
Warning: 2048 sector(s) in last cylinder unallocated
/dev/rvn0c: 10240 sectors in 3 cylinders of 1 tracks, 4096 sectors
5.0MB in 1 cyl groups (16 c/g, 32.00MB/g, 1280 i/g)
super-block backups (for fsck -b #) at:
32
&prompt.root; mount /dev/vn0c /mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/vn0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mntmd: memory filesystemmd is a simple, efficient means to do memory
filesystems.Simply take a filesystem you've prepared with, for
example, &man.vnconfig.8;, and:md memory disk&prompt.root; dd if=newimage of=/dev/md0
5120+0 records in
5120+0 records out
&prompt.root; mount /dev/md0c/mnt
&prompt.root; df /mnt
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Avail Capacity Mounted on
/dev/md0c 4927 1 4532 0% /mntDisk QuotasQuotas are an optional feature of the operating system that
allow you to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of
files a user, or members of a group, may allocate on a per-file
system basis. This is used most often on timesharing systems where
it is desirable to limit the amount of resources any one user or
group of users may allocate. This will prevent one user from
consuming all of the available disk space.Configuring Your System to Enable Disk QuotasBefore attempting to use disk quotas it is necessary to make
sure that quotas are configured in your kernel. This is done by
adding the following line to your kernel configuration
file:
options QUOTAThe stock GENERIC kernel does not have
this enabled by default, so you will have to configure, build and
install a custom kernel in order to use disk quotas. Please refer
to the Configuring the FreeBSD
Kernel section for more information on kernel
configuration.Next you will need to enable disk quotas in
/etc/rc.conf. This is done by adding the
line:
enable_quotas=“YES”For finer control over your quota startup, there is an
additional configuration variable available. Normally on bootup,
the quota integrity of each file system is checked by the
quotacheck program. The
quotacheck facility insures that the data in
the quota database properly reflects the data on the file system.
This is a very time consuming process that will significantly
affect the time your system takes to boot. If you would like to
skip this step, a variable is made available for the
purpose:
check_quotas=“NO”If you are running FreeBSD prior to 3.2-RELEASE, the
configuration is simpler, and consists of only one variable. Set
the following in your /etc/rc.conf:
check_quotas=“YES”Finally you will need to edit /etc/fstab
to enable disk quotas on a per-file system basis. This is where
you can either enable user or group quotas or both for all of your
file systems.To enable per-user quotas on a file system, add the
userquota option to the options field in the
/etc/fstab entry for the file system you want
to to enable quotas on. For example:
/dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota 1 2Similarly, to enable group quotas, use the
groupquota option instead of the
userquota keyword. To enable both user and
group quotas, change the entry as follows:
/dev/da1s2g /home ufs rw,userquota,groupquota 1 2By default the quota files are stored in the root directory of
the file system with the names quota.user and
quota.group for user and group quotas
respectively. See man fstab for more
information. Even though that man page says that you can specify
an alternate location for the quota files, this is not recommended
because the various quota utilities do not seem to handle this
properly.At this point you should reboot your system with your new
kernel. /etc/rc will automatically run the
appropriate commands to create the initial quota files for all of
the quotas you enabled in /etc/fstab, so
there is no need to manually create any zero length quota
files.In the normal course of operations you should not be required
to run the quotacheck,
quotaon, or quotaoff
commands manually. However, you may want to read their man pages
just to be familiar with their operation.Setting Quota LimitsOnce you have configured your system to enable quotas, verify
that they really are enabled. An easy way to do this is to
run:&prompt.root; quota -vYou should see a one line summary of disk usage and current
quota limits for each file system that quotas are enabled
on.You are now ready to start assigning quota limits with the
edquota command.You have several options on how to enforce limits on the
amount of disk space a user or group may allocate, and how many
files they may create. You may limit allocations based on disk
space (block quotas) or number of files (inode quotas) or a
combination of both. Each of these limits are further broken down
into two categories; hard and soft limits.A hard limit may not be exceeded. Once a user reaches their
hard limit they may not make any further allocations on the file
system in question. For example, if the user has a hard limit of
500 blocks on a file system and is currently using 490 blocks, the
user can only allocate an additional 10 blocks. Attempting to
allocate an additional 11 blocks will fail.Soft limits on the other hand can be exceeded for a limited
amount of time. This period of time is known as the grace period,
which is one week by default. If a user stays over his or her
soft limit longer than their grace period, the soft limit will
turn into a hard limit and no further allocations will be allowed.
When the user drops back below the soft limit, the grace period
will be reset.The following is an example of what you might see when you run
the edquota command. When the
edquota command is invoked, you are placed into
the editor specified by the EDITOR environment
variable, or in the vi editor if the
EDITOR variable is not set, to allow you to edit
the quota limits.&prompt.root; edquota -u test
Quotas for user test:
/usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
inodes in use: 7, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)
/usr/var: blocks in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)
inodes in use: 0, limits (soft = 50, hard = 60)You will normally see two lines for each file system that has
quotas enabled. One line for the block limits, and one line for
inode limits. Simply change the value you want updated to modify
the quota limit. For example, to raise this users block limit
from a soft limit of 50 and a hard limit of 75 to a soft limit of
500 and a hard limit of 600, change:/usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 50, hard = 75)to: /usr: blocks in use: 65, limits (soft = 500, hard = 600)The new quota limits will be in place when you exit the
editor.Sometimes it is desirable to set quota limits on a range of
uids. This can be done by use of the option
on the edquota command. First, assign the
desired quota limit to a user, and then run
edquota -p protouser startuid-enduid. For
example, if user test has the desired quota
limits, the following command can be used to duplicate those quota
limits for uids 10,000 through 19,999:&prompt.root; edquota -p test 10000-19999See man edquota for more detailed
information.Checking Quota Limits and Disk UsageYou can use either the quota or the
repquota commands to check quota limits and
disk usage. The quota command can be used to
check individual user and group quotas and disk usage. Only the
super-user may examine quotas and usage for other users, or for
groups that they are not a member of. The
repquota command can be used to get a summary
of all quotas and disk usage for file systems with quotas
enabled.The following is some sample output from the
quota -v command for a user that has quota
limits on two file systems.
Disk quotas for user test (uid 1002):
Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files quota limit grace
/usr 65* 50 75 5days 7 50 60
/usr/var 0 50 75 0 50 60On the /usr file system in the above
example this user is currently 15 blocks over their soft limit of
50 blocks and has 5 days of their grace period left. Note the
asterisk * which indicates that the user is
currently over their quota limit.Normally file systems that the user is not using any disk
space on will not show up in the output from the
quota command, even if they have a quota limit
assigned for that file system. The option
will display those file systems, such as the
/usr/var file system in the above
example.Quotas over NFSQuotas are enforced by the quota subsystem on the NFS server.
The &man.rpc.rquotad.8; daemon makes quota information available
to the &man.quota.1; command on NFS clients, allowing users on
those machines to see their quota statistics.Enable rpc.rquotad in
/etc/inetd.conf like so:
rquotad/1 dgram rpc/udp wait root /usr/libexec/rpc.rquotad rpc.rquotadNow restart inetd:&prompt.root; kill -HUP `cat /var/run/inetd.pid`