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 <!DOCTYPE book PUBLIC "-//FreeBSD//DTD DocBook V4.1-Based Extension//EN" [
 <!ENTITY % books.ent PUBLIC "-//FreeBSD//ENTITIES DocBook FreeBSD Books Entity Set//EN">
 %books.ent;
 <!ENTITY bibliography SYSTEM "../../../share/sgml/bibliography.sgml">
 ]>
 
 <book>
   <bookinfo>
     <title>Frequently Asked Questions for FreeBSD 6.<replaceable>X</replaceable> and 7.<replaceable>X</replaceable></title>
 
     <corpauthor>The FreeBSD Documentation Project</corpauthor>
 
     <pubdate>$FreeBSD$</pubdate>
 
     <copyright>
       <year>1995</year>
       <year>1996</year>
       <year>1997</year>
       <year>1998</year>
       <year>1999</year>
       <year>2000</year>
       <year>2001</year>
       <year>2002</year>
       <year>2003</year>
       <year>2004</year>
       <year>2005</year>
       <year>2006</year>
       <year>2007</year>
       <year>2008</year>
       <holder>The FreeBSD Documentation Project</holder>
     </copyright>
 
     &bookinfo.legalnotice;
 
     <legalnotice id="trademarks" role="trademarks">
       &tm-attrib.freebsd;
       &tm-attrib.3com;
       &tm-attrib.adobe;
       &tm-attrib.creative;
       &tm-attrib.cvsup;
       &tm-attrib.ibm;
       &tm-attrib.ieee;
       &tm-attrib.intel;
       &tm-attrib.iomega;
       &tm-attrib.linux;
       &tm-attrib.microsoft;
       &tm-attrib.mips;
       &tm-attrib.netscape;
       &tm-attrib.opengroup;
       &tm-attrib.oracle;
       &tm-attrib.sgi;
       &tm-attrib.sparc;
       &tm-attrib.sun;
       &tm-attrib.usrobotics;
       &tm-attrib.xfree86;
       &tm-attrib.general;
     </legalnotice>
 
     <abstract>
       <para>This is the FAQ for FreeBSD versions 6.<replaceable>X</replaceable> and 7.<replaceable>X</replaceable>.
         All entries are assumed to be relevant to FreeBSD 6.<replaceable>X</replaceable> and
         later, unless otherwise noted.  If you are interested in
         helping with this project, send email to the &a.doc;.  The
         latest version of this document is always available from the
         <ulink
         url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/index.html">FreeBSD
         World Wide Web server</ulink>. It may also be downloaded as
         one large <ulink url="book.html">HTML</ulink> file with HTTP
         or as plain text, &postscript;, PDF, etc. from the <ulink
         url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/doc/">FreeBSD FTP
         server</ulink>. You may also want to <ulink
         url="&url.base;/search/index.html">Search the
         FAQ</ulink>.</para>
     </abstract>
   </bookinfo>
 
   <chapter id="introduction">
     <title>Introduction</title>
 
     <para>Welcome to the FreeBSD 6.<replaceable>X</replaceable>-7.<replaceable>X</replaceable> FAQ!</para>
 
     <para>As is usual with Usenet FAQs, this document aims to cover the
       most frequently asked questions concerning the FreeBSD operating
       system (and of course answer them!).  Although originally intended
       to reduce bandwidth and avoid the same old questions being asked
       over and over again, FAQs have become recognized as valuable
       information resources.</para>
 
     <para>Every effort has been made to make this FAQ as informative as
       possible; if you have any suggestions as to how it may be improved,
       please feel free to mail them to the &a.doc;.</para>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="what-is-FreeBSD">
           <para>What is FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
          <para>Briefly, FreeBSD is a &unix;&nbsp;like operating system for
            AMD64 and &intel; EM64T, &i386; PC-98, IA-64, &arm;, &powerpc;
            and &ultrasparc; platforms
            based on U.C. Berkeley's <quote>4.4BSD-Lite</quote>
            release, with some <quote>4.4BSD-Lite2</quote>
            enhancements.  It is also based indirectly on William
            Jolitz's port of U.C.  Berkeley's <quote>Net/2</quote> to
            the &i386;, known as <quote>386BSD</quote>, though very
            little of the 386BSD code remains.  A fuller description of
            what FreeBSD is and how it can work for you may be found on
            the <ulink url="&url.base;/index.html">FreeBSD home
            page</ulink>.</para>
 
          <para>FreeBSD is used by companies, Internet Service Providers,
            researchers, computer professionals, students and home users
            all over the world in their work, education and recreation.</para>
 
          <para>For more detailed information on FreeBSD, please see the
            <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/index.html">FreeBSD
            Handbook</ulink>.</para>
        </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="FreeBSD-goals">
           <para>What is the goal of the FreeBSD Project?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The goal of the FreeBSD Project is to provide software
             that may be used for any purpose and without strings attached.
             Many of us have a significant investment in the code (and
             project) and would certainly not mind a little financial
             compensation now and then, but we definitely do not
             insist on it.  We believe that our first and foremost
             <quote>mission</quote> is to provide code to any and all
             comers, and for whatever purpose, so that the code gets the
             widest possible use and provides the widest possible benefit.
             This is, we believe, one of the most fundamental goals of Free
             Software and one that we enthusiastically support.</para>
 
           <para>That code in our source tree which falls under the
             <ulink url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/copyright/COPYING">GNU
             General Public License (GPL)</ulink> or <ulink
             url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/copyright/COPYING.LIB">GNU
             Library General Public License (LGPL)</ulink> comes with
             slightly more strings attached, though at least on the
             side of enforced access rather than the usual opposite.
             Due to the additional complexities that can evolve in the
             commercial use of GPL software, we do, however, endeavor
             to replace such software with submissions under the more
             relaxed <ulink
             url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/copyright/freebsd-license.html">
             FreeBSD license</ulink> whenever possible.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="bsd-license-restrictions">
           <para>Does the FreeBSD license have any restrictions?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes.  Those restrictions do not control how you use
             the code, merely how you treat the FreeBSD Project itself.
             If you have serious license concerns, read the actual
             <ulink
             url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/copyright/freebsd-license.html">
             license</ulink>.  For the simply curious, the license can
             be summarized like this.</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>Do not claim that you wrote this.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Do not sue us if it breaks.</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="replace-current-OS">
           <para>Can FreeBSD replace my current operating system?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>For most people, yes.  But this question is not quite
             that cut-and-dried.</para>
 
           <para>Most people do not actually use an operating system.
             They use applications.  The applications are what really
             use the operating system.  FreeBSD is designed to provide
             a robust and full-featured environment for applications.
             It supports a wide variety of web browsers, office suites,
             email readers, graphics programs, programming
             environments, network servers, and just about everything
             else you might want.  Most of these applications can be
             managed through the <ulink
             url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/">Ports
             Collection</ulink>.</para>
 
           <para>If you need to use an application that is only
             available on one operating system, you simply cannot
             replace that operating system.  Chances are there is a very
             similar application on FreeBSD, however.  If you want a
             solid office or Internet server, a reliable workstation,
             or just the ability to do your job without interruptions,
             FreeBSD will almost certainly do everything you need.
             Many computer users across the world, including both
             novices and experienced &unix; administrators, use FreeBSD
             as their only desktop operating system.</para>
 
           <para>If you are migrating to FreeBSD from some other &unix;
             environment, you already know most of what you need to.
             If your background is in graphic-driven operating systems
             such as &windows; and older versions of &macos;, expect to
             invest additional time learning the &unix; way of doing
             things.  This FAQ and the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/index.html">FreeBSD Handbook</ulink> are
             excellent places to start.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="why-called-FreeBSD">
           <para>Why is it called FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>It may be used free of charge, even by commercial
                 users.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Full source for the operating system is freely
                 available, and the minimum possible restrictions have
                 been placed upon its use, distribution and incorporation
                 into other work (commercial or non-commercial).</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Anyone who has an improvement or bug fix is free
                 to submit their code and have it added to the source tree
                 (subject to one or two obvious provisions).</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>It is worth pointing out that the word
             <quote>free</quote> is being used in two ways here, one meaning
             <quote>at no cost</quote>, the other meaning <quote>you can do
             whatever you like</quote>.  Apart from one or two things you
             <emphasis>cannot</emphasis> do with the FreeBSD code, for
             example pretending you wrote it, you can really do whatever you
             like with it.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="differences-to-other-bsds">
 	  <para>What are the differences between FreeBSD and NetBSD, OpenBSD,
 	    and other open source BSD operating systems?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>James Howard wrote a good explanation of the history
 	    and differences between the various projects for <ulink
 	    url="http://www.daemonnews.org/">DaemonNews</ulink>,
 	    called <ulink
 	    url="http://ezine.daemonnews.org/200104/bsd_family.html">The
 	    BSD Family Tree</ulink> which goes a fair way to answering
 	    this question.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="latest-version">
           <para>What is the latest version of FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
 <!--
   This answer is a hack to deal with the fact that for now there are
   multiple "latest" versions of FreeBSD.
 -->
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>At this point in FreeBSD's development, there are two
 	    parallel development branches; releases are being made from
 	    both branches.  The 6.<replaceable>X</replaceable> series of releases
 	    is being made from the <emphasis>6-STABLE</emphasis> branch
 	    and the 7.<replaceable>X</replaceable> series of releases from <emphasis>7-STABLE</emphasis>.</para>
 
 	  <para>Up until the release of 7.0, the 6.<replaceable>X</replaceable> series was the
 	    one known as <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis>.  However,
 	    as of 7.0, the 6.<replaceable>X</replaceable> branch will be designated for
 	    an <quote>extended support</quote> status and receive
 	    only fixes for major problems, such as security-related
 	    fixes.  There will be more releases made from the
 	    <emphasis>6-STABLE</emphasis> branch, but it is considered
 	    a <quote>legacy</quote> branch and most current work will
 	    only become a part of <emphasis>7-STABLE</emphasis>.</para>
 
           <para>Version <ulink
             url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel.current;-RELEASE/">&rel.current;</ulink>
             is the latest release from the
             <emphasis>7-STABLE</emphasis> branch; it was released in
             &rel.current.date;.  Version <ulink
             url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel2.current;-RELEASE/">&rel2.current;</ulink>
             is the latest release from the
             <emphasis>6-STABLE</emphasis> branch; it was released in
             &rel2.current.date;.</para>
 
           <para>Briefly, <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis> is aimed at the
             ISP, corporate user, or any user who wants stability and a
             minimal number of changes compared to the new (and
             possibly unstable) features of the latest
             <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis> snapshot.  Releases can come
             from either branch, but <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis>
             should only be used if you are prepared for its increased
             volatility (relative to <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis>, that
             is).</para>
 
           <para>Releases are made <link linkend="release-freq">every
             few months</link>. While many people stay more up-to-date with
             the FreeBSD sources (see the questions on <link
             linkend="current">&os.current;</link> and <link
             linkend="stable">&os.stable;</link>) than that, doing so
             is more of a commitment, as the sources are a moving
             target.</para>
 
 	  <para>More information on FreeBSD releases can be found on
 	    the <ulink
 	    url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/releng/index.html">Release
 	    Engineering page</ulink> on the FreeBSD Web site.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="current">
           <para>What is <emphasis>FreeBSD-CURRENT</emphasis>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para><ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/cutting-edge.html#CURRENT">&os.current;</ulink>
             is the development version of the operating system, which
             will in due course become the new &os.stable; branch.
             As such, it is
             really only of interest to developers working on the
             system and die-hard hobbyists.  See the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/cutting-edge.html#CURRENT">relevant
             section</ulink> in the <ulink
               url="&url.books.handbook;/index.html">Handbook</ulink> for details
             on running <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis>.</para>
 
           <para>If you are not familiar with the operating system or are
             not capable of identifying the difference between a real
             problem and a temporary problem, you should not use
             &os.current;.  This branch sometimes evolves quite quickly
             and can be un-buildable for a number of days at a time.
             People that use &os.current; are expected to be able to
             analyze any problems and only report them if they are deemed
             to be mistakes rather than <quote>glitches</quote>. Questions
             such as <quote>make world produces some error about
             groups</quote> on the &a.current; may be
             treated with contempt.</para>
 
           <para>Every month, <ulink
               url="&url.base;/snapshots/">snapshot</ulink>
             releases are made based on the current state of the
             <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis> and <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis> branches.
             The goals
             behind each snapshot release are:</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>To test the latest version of the installation
                 software.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>To give people who would like to run <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis> or
                 <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis> but who do not have the time or bandwidth to
                 follow it on a day-to-day basis an easy way of
                 bootstrapping it onto their systems.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>To preserve a fixed reference point for the code in
                 question, just in case we break something really badly
                 later.  (Although CVS normally prevents anything horrible
                 like this happening.)</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>To ensure that all new features and fixes in need
                 of testing have the greatest possible number of
                 potential testers.</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>No claims are made that any <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis> snapshot can be
             considered <quote>production quality</quote> for any purpose.
             If you want to run a stable and fully tested system, you will
             have to stick to full releases, or use the <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis>
             snapshots.</para>
 
 	  <para>Snapshot releases are directly available from <ulink
 	    url="&url.base;/snapshots/">snapshot</ulink>.</para>
 
           <para>Official snapshots are generated each month on a regular basis for
             all actively developed branches.  There are also
             daily snapshot builds of the popular &arch.i386;
             and &arch.amd64 branches, hosted on
             <ulink url="http://snapshots.us.freebsd.org/"></ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="stable">
           <para>What is the <emphasis>FreeBSD-STABLE</emphasis> concept?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Back when FreeBSD 2.0.5 was released, FreeBSD
             development branched in two.  One branch was named <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/current-stable.html#STABLE">-STABLE</ulink>,
             one <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/current-stable.html#CURRENT">-CURRENT</ulink>.
             <emphasis>FreeBSD-STABLE</emphasis> is intended for Internet Service Providers
             and other commercial enterprises for whom sudden shifts or
             experimental features are quite undesirable.  It receives
             only well-tested bug fixes and other small incremental
             enhancements.  <emphasis>FreeBSD-CURRENT</emphasis>, on the other hand, has
             been one unbroken line since 2.0 was released, leading
             towards &rel.current;-RELEASE and beyond. For more detailed information on branches
             see <quote><ulink
               url="&url.articles.releng;/release-proc.html#REL-BRANCH">FreeBSD Release Engineering: Creating the Release Branch</ulink></quote>,
             the status of the branches and the upcoming release schedule can be found on the <ulink
               url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/releng">Release Engineering Information</ulink> page.</para>
 
           <para>The 2.2-STABLE branch was retired with the release of 2.2.8.
             The 3-STABLE branch has ended with the release of 3.5.1, the
 	    final 3.<replaceable>X</replaceable> release.  The 4-STABLE branch has ended with the release
 	    of 4.11, the final 4.<replaceable>X</replaceable> release.  The only changes made to either
 	    of these branches will be, for the most part, security-related bug
        fixes.  Support for the 5-STABLE branches has ended with the
 	    release of 5.5, the final 5.<replaceable>X</replaceable> release.
 	    Support for the 6-STABLE branches will continue for some time but
 	    focus primarily on security-related bug fixes and other serious
 	    issues.</para>
 
           <para>&rel.current;-STABLE is the actively developed <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis> branch.
             The latest release on the &rel.current;-STABLE branch is
             &rel.current;-RELEASE, which was released in
             &rel.current.date;.</para>
 
           <para>The 8-CURRENT branch is the actively developed
             <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis> branch toward the next generation of &os;.
 	    See <link linkend="current">What is &os;-CURRENT?</link> for more
             information on this branch.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="release-freq">
           <para>When are FreeBSD releases made?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>The &a.re; releases a new major version of &os; about every
 	    18 months and a new minor version about every
 	    8 months, on average. Release dates are announced well in
 	    advance, so that the people working on the system know
 	    when their projects need to be finished and tested.  
 	    A testing period precedes each release, in order to ensure
 	    that the addition of new features does not compromise the
 	    stability of the release.
 	    Many users regard this caution as one of the best things about
 	    FreeBSD, even though waiting for all the latest goodies to reach
 	    <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis> can be a little frustrating.</para>
 
 	  <para>More information on the release engineering process
 	    (including a schedule of upcoming releases) can be found
 	    on the <ulink
 	    url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/releng/index.html">release
 	    engineering</ulink> pages on the FreeBSD Web site.</para>
 
           <para>For people who need or want a little more excitement,
             binary snapshots are made daily as discussed above.</para>
          </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="responsible">
           <para>Who is responsible for FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The key decisions concerning the FreeBSD project, such
             as the overall direction of the project and who is allowed
             to add code to the source tree, are made by a <ulink
             url="&url.base;/administration.html#t-core">core
             team</ulink> of 9 people. There is a much larger team of
             more than 350 <ulink
             url="&url.articles.contributors;/article.html#STAFF-COMMITTERS">committers</ulink>
             who are authorized to make changes directly to the FreeBSD
             source tree.</para>
 
           <para>However, most non-trivial changes are discussed in advance
             in the <link linkend="mailing">mailing lists</link>, and there
             are no restrictions on who may take part in the
             discussion.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="where-get">
           <para>Where can I get FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Every significant release of FreeBSD is available via
             anonymous FTP from the <ulink
             url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">
             FreeBSD FTP site</ulink>:</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>The latest 7-STABLE release, &rel.current;-RELEASE can be
                 found in the <ulink
                 url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel.current;-RELEASE/">&rel.current;-RELEASE directory</ulink>.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para><ulink
 		url="&url.base;/snapshots/">
                 Snapshot</ulink> releases are made monthly for the
 		<link linkend="current">-CURRENT</link> and <link
 		linkend="stable">-STABLE</link> branch, these being
                 of service purely to bleeding-edge testers and
                 developers.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>The latest 6-STABLE release, &rel2.current;-RELEASE can be
                 found in the <ulink
                 url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/releases/i386/&rel2.current;-RELEASE/">&rel2.current;-RELEASE directory</ulink>.</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
 	  <para>Information about obtaining FreeBSD on CD, DVD, and other
 	    media can be found in <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/mirrors.html">the
 	      Handbook</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="access-pr">
           <para>How do I access the Problem Report database?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The Problem Report database of all user change requests
             may be queried by using our web-based PR
             <ulink
               url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/cgi/query-pr.cgi?query">query</ulink>
             interface.</para>
 
 	  <para>The &man.send-pr.1; command can be used to submit problem
 	    reports and change requests via electronic mail.  Alternatively,
 	    the <ulink url="http://www.freebsd.org/send-pr.html">web-based
 	    problem report submission interface</ulink> can be used to submit
 	    problem reports through a web browser.</para>
 
           <para>Before submitting a problem report, please read <ulink
             url="&url.articles.problem-reports;/article.html">Writing
             FreeBSD Problem Reports</ulink>, an article on how to write
             good problem reports.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="other-info-sources">
           <para>What other sources of information are there?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Please check the <ulink
             url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/docs.html">Documentation</ulink>
             list on the main <ulink
             url="http://www.FreeBSD.org">FreeBSD</ulink> web
             site.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="support">
     <title>Documentation and Support</title>
     
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="books">
 	  <para>What good books are there about FreeBSD?</para>
 	</question>
 	
 	<answer>
 	  <para>The project produces a wide range of documentation,
 	    available online from this link: <ulink
 	    url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/docs.html"></ulink>.  The same
 	    documents are available as packages, that you can easily
 	    install on your FreeBSD system.  More details on
 	    documentation packages can be found in the next
 	    paragraphs.</para>
 	    
 	    <para>In addition, <link
 	      linkend="bibliography">the Bibliography</link> at the end of this
 	    FAQ, and <ulink
 	      url="&url.books.handbook;/bibliography.html">the one in the Handbook</ulink>
 	    reference other
 	    recommended books.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
       
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="doc-formats">
           <para>Is the documentation available in other formats, such as plain
             text (ASCII), or &postscript;?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes.  The documentation is available in a number of
             different formats and compression schemes on the FreeBSD
             FTP site, in the <ulink
             url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/doc/">/pub/FreeBSD/doc/</ulink>
             directory.</para>
 
           <para>The documentation is categorized in a number of different
             ways.  These include:</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>The document's name, such as <literal>faq</literal>, or
                 <literal>handbook</literal>.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>The document's language and encoding.  These are
                 based on the locale names you will find under
                 <filename>/usr/share/locale</filename> on your FreeBSD
                 system.  The current languages and encodings that we
                 have for documentation are as follows:</para>
 
               <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
                 <tgroup cols="2">
                   <thead>
                     <row>
                       <entry>Name</entry>
 
                       <entry>Meaning</entry>
                     </row>
                   </thead>
 
                   <tbody>
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>en_US.ISO8859-1</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>US English</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>bn_BD.ISO10646-1</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Bengali (or Bangla)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>da_DK.ISO8859-1</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Danish (Denmark)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>de_DE.ISO8859-1</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>German</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>el_GR.ISO8859-7</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Greek (Greece)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>es_ES.ISO8859-1</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Spanish</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>fr_FR.ISO8859-1</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>French</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>hu_HU.ISO8859-2</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Hungarian</entry>
                     </row>
 
 		    <row>
 		      <entry><literal>it_IT.ISO8859-15</literal></entry>
 
 		      <entry>Italian</entry>
 		    </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>ja_JP.eucJP</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Japanese (EUC encoding)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>mn_MN.UTF-8</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Mongolian (UTF-8 encoding)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>nl_NL.ISO8859-1</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Dutch (Netherlands)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>no_NO.ISO8859-1</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Norwegian (Norway)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>pl_PL.ISO8859-2</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Polish (Poland)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>pt_BR.ISO8859-1</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Portuguese (Brazil)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>ru_RU.KOI8-R</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Russian (KOI8-R encoding)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>sr_YU.ISO8859-2</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Serbian (Serbia)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>tr_TR.ISO8859-9</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Turkish (Turkey)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>zh_CN.GB2312</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Simplified Chinese (GB2312 encoding)</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>zh_TW.Big5</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Traditional Chinese (Big5 encoding)</entry>
                     </row>
                   </tbody>
                 </tgroup>
               </informaltable>
 
               <note>
                 <para>Some documents may not be available in all
                   languages.</para>
               </note>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>The document's format.  We produce the documentation in a
                 number of different output formats.  Each format has its own
                 advantages and disadvantages.  Some formats are better suited
                 for online reading, while others are meant to be aesthetically
                 pleasing when printed on paper.  Having the documentation
                 available in any of these formats ensures that our readers
                 will be able to read the parts they are interested in, either
                 on their monitor, or on paper after printing the documents.
                 The currently available formats are:</para>
 
               <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
                 <tgroup cols="2">
                   <thead>
                     <row>
                       <entry>Format</entry>
 
                       <entry>Meaning</entry>
                     </row>
                   </thead>
 
                   <tbody>
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>html-split</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>A collection of small, linked, HTML
                         files.</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>html</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>One large HTML file containing the entire
                         document</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>pdb</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Palm Pilot database format, for use with the
                         <ulink url="http://www.iSilo.com/">iSilo</ulink>
                         reader.</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>pdf</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Adobe's Portable Document Format</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>ps</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>&postscript;</entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>rtf</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Microsoft's Rich Text Format<footnote>
                           <para>Page numbers are not automatically
                           updated when loading this format into Word.
                           Press <keycombo
                           action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>A</keycap></keycombo>,
                           <keycombo
                           action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>END</keycap></keycombo>,
                           <keycap>F9</keycap> after loading the
                           document, to update the page numbers.</para>
                         </footnote>
                       </entry>
                     </row>
 
                     <row>
                       <entry><literal>txt</literal></entry>
 
                       <entry>Plain text</entry>
                     </row>
                   </tbody>
                 </tgroup>
               </informaltable>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>The compression and packaging scheme.  There are three of
                 these currently in use.</para>
 
               <orderedlist>
                 <listitem>
                   <para>Where the format is
                     <literal>html-split</literal>, the files are
                     bundled up using &man.tar.1;.  The resulting
                     <filename>.tar</filename> file is then compressed
                     using the compression schemes detailed in the next
                     point.</para>
                 </listitem>
 
                 <listitem>
                   <para>All the other formats generate one file,
                     called
                     <filename><replaceable>type</replaceable>.<replaceable>format</replaceable></filename>
                     (i.e., <filename>article.pdf</filename>,
                     <filename>book.html</filename>, and so on).</para>
 
                   <para>These files are then compressed using two
                     compression schemes.</para>
 
                   <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
                     <tgroup cols="2">
                       <thead>
                         <row>
                           <entry>Scheme</entry>
 
                           <entry>Description</entry>
                         </row>
                       </thead>
 
                       <tbody>
                         <row>
                           <entry><literal>zip</literal></entry>
 
                           <entry>The Zip format.  If you want to
                             uncompress this on FreeBSD you will need
                             to install the <filename
                             role="package">archivers/unzip</filename>
                             port first.</entry>
                         </row>
 
                         <row>
                           <entry><literal>bz2</literal></entry>
 
                           <entry>The BZip2 format.  Less widespread
                             than Zip, but generally gives
                             smaller files.  Install the <filename
                             role="package">archivers/bzip2</filename>
                             port to uncompress these files.</entry>
                         </row>
                       </tbody>
                     </tgroup>
                   </informaltable>
 
                   <para>So the &postscript; version of the Handbook,
                     compressed using BZip2 will be stored in a file
                     called <filename>book.ps.bz2</filename> in the
                     <filename>handbook/</filename> directory.</para>
                 </listitem>
               </orderedlist>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>After choosing the format and compression mechanism that you
 	    want to download, you will have to
             download the compressed files yourself, uncompress them, and then
             copy the appropriate documents into place.</para>
 
           <para>For example, the split HTML version of the FAQ,
             compressed using &man.bzip2.1;, can be found in the
             <filename>doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.html-split.tar.bz2</filename>
             file.  To download and uncompress that file you would have
             to do this.</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>fetch ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/faq/book.html-split.tar.bz2</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>bzip2 -d book.html-split.tar.bz2</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>tar xvf book.html-split.tar</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>You will be left with a collection of
             <filename>.html</filename> files.  The main one is called
             <filename>index.html</filename>, which will contain the
             table of contents, introductory material, and links to the
             other parts of the document.  You can then copy or move
             these to their final location as necessary.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="mailing">
           <para>Where do I find info on the FreeBSD mailing lists?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You can find full information in the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/eresources.html#ERESOURCES-MAIL">Handbook
             entry on mailing-lists</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="newsgroups">
           <para>What FreeBSD news groups are available?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You can find full information in the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/eresources-news.html">Handbook entry on
             newsgroups</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="irc">
           <para>Are there FreeBSD IRC (Internet Relay Chat)
             channels?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes, most major IRC networks host a FreeBSD chat
             channel:</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>Channel <literal>#FreeBSD</literal> on
                 <ulink url="http://www.efnet.org/index.php">EFNet</ulink>
                 is a FreeBSD forum, but do not go there for tech
                 support or try to get folks there to help you avoid
                 the pain of reading manual pages or doing your own research.
                 It is a chat channel, first and foremost, and topics there
                 are just as likely to involve sex, sports or nuclear
                 weapons as they are FreeBSD.  You Have Been Warned!
                 Available at server <hostid>irc.chat.org</hostid>.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Channel <literal>#FreeBSDhelp</literal> on
                 <ulink url="http://www.efnet.org/index.php">EFNet</ulink>
                 is a channel dedicated to helping FreeBSD users. They
                 are much more sympathetic to questions than
                 <literal>#FreeBSD</literal> is.</para>
             </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
               <para>Channel <literal>##FreeBSD</literal> on
                 <ulink url="http://freenode.net/">Freenode</ulink>
 		is a general help channel with about 300 users at any time.
 		The conversations have been known to run off-topic for a while,
 		but priority is given to users with FreeBSD questions.  We are
 		good about helping you understand the basics, referring to the
 		Handbook whenever possible, and directing you where to learn
 		more about the topic you need help with.  We are a primarily
 		English speaking channel, though we have users from all over
 		the world.  If you would like to speak in your native language,
 		try to ask the question in English and then relocate to another
 		channel <literal>##freebsd-<replaceable>lang</replaceable></literal> as
 		appropriate.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Channel <literal>#FreeBSD</literal> on
                 <ulink url="http://www.dal.net/">DALNET</ulink>
                 is available at <hostid>irc.dal.net</hostid> in the
                 US and  <hostid>irc.eu.dal.net</hostid> in Europe.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Channel <literal>#FreeBSDHelp</literal> on
                 <ulink url="http://www.dal.net/">DALNET</ulink>
                 is available at <hostid>irc.dal.net</hostid> in the
                 US and <hostid>irc.eu.dal.net</hostid> in Europe.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Channel <literal>#FreeBSD</literal> on
                 <ulink url="http://www.undernet.org/">UNDERNET</ulink>
                 is available at <hostid>us.undernet.org</hostid>
                 in the US and  <hostid>eu.undernet.org</hostid> in Europe.
                 Since it is a help channel, be prepared to read the
                 documents you are referred to.</para>
             </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>Channel <literal>#FreeBSD</literal> on
 		<ulink url="http://www.rusnet.org.ru/">RUSNET</ulink>
 		is a russian-language oriented channel dedicated
 		to helping &os; users.  This is also good place
 		for non-technical discussions.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>Channel <literal>#bsdchat</literal> on
                 <ulink url="http://freenode.net/">Freenode</ulink>
 		is a Traditional-Chinese (UTF-8 encoding) language oriented channel dedicated
 		to helping &os; users.  This is also good place
 		for non-technical discussions.</para>
 	    </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>Each of these channels are distinct and are not
             connected to each other.  Their chat styles also differ,
             so you may need to try each to find one suited to your
             chat style.  As with <emphasis>all</emphasis> types of IRC
             traffic, if you are easily offended or cannot deal with
             lots of young people (and more than a few older ones)
             doing the verbal equivalent of jello wrestling, do not
             even bother with it.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="training">
 	  <para>Where can I get commercial FreeBSD training and support?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>DaemonNews provides commercial training and support for
 	    FreeBSD.  More information can be found at their 
 	    <ulink url="http://www.bsdmall.com/">BSD Mall</ulink> 
 	    site.</para>
 
           <para>The FreeBSD Mall provides commercial FreeBSD support.
             You can get more information at their <ulink
             url="http://www.freebsdmall.com/">web site</ulink>.</para>
 
 	  <para>Any other organizations providing training and support should
 	    contact the project in order to be listed here.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter
     id="install">
     <chapterinfo>
       <author>
 	<firstname>Nik</firstname>
 	<surname>Clayton</surname>
 	<affiliation>
 	  <address><email>nik@FreeBSD.org</email></address>
 	</affiliation>
       </author>
     </chapterinfo>
     
     <title>Installation</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="floppy-download">
           <para>Which file do I download to get FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You need three floppy images:
 	    <filename>floppies/boot.flp</filename>,
 	    <filename>floppies/kern1.flp</filename>, and
             <filename>floppies/kern2.flp</filename>. These images need to
             be copied onto floppies by tools like
 	    <command>fdimage</command> or &man.dd.1;.</para>
 
           <para>If you need to download the distributions yourself (for a
             DOS filesystem install, for instance), below are some
             recommendations for distributions to grab:</para>
 
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>base/</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>manpages/</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>compat*/</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>doc/</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>src/ssys.*</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
 
           <para>Full instructions on this procedure and a little bit more
             about installation issues in general can be found in the
             <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/install.html">Handbook entry on
             installing FreeBSD</ulink>.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="floppy-image-too-large">
           <para>What do I do if the floppy images does not fit on a single
             floppy?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>A 3.5&nbsp;inch (1.44&nbsp;MB) floppy can accommodate 1474560&nbsp;bytes
             of data.  The boot image is exactly 1474560&nbsp;bytes in size.</para>
 
           <para>Common mistakes when preparing the boot floppy are:</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>Not downloading the floppy image in
                 <emphasis>binary</emphasis> mode when using
                 <acronym>FTP</acronym>.</para>
 
 
               <para>Some FTP clients default their transfer mode to
                 <emphasis>ascii</emphasis> and attempt to change any
                 end-of-line characters received to match the conventions
                 used by the client's system. This will almost invariably
                 corrupt the boot image. Check the size of the downloaded
                 boot image: if it is not <emphasis>exactly</emphasis> that
                 on the server, then the download process is suspect.</para>
 
               <para>To workaround: type <emphasis>binary</emphasis> at the
                 FTP command prompt after getting connected to the server
                 and before starting the download of the image.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Using the DOS <command>copy</command> command (or
                 equivalent GUI tool) to transfer the boot image to
                 floppy.</para>
 
               <para>Programs like <command>copy</command> will not work as
                 the boot image has been created to be booted into directly.
                 The image has the complete content of the floppy, track for
                 track, and is not meant to be placed on the floppy as a
                 regular file. You have to transfer it to the floppy
                 <quote>raw</quote>, using the low-level tools (e.g.
                 <command>fdimage</command> or <command>rawrite</command>)
                 described in the <ulink
                 url="&url.books.handbook;/install.html">installation guide to
                 FreeBSD</ulink>.</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="install-instructions-location">
           <para>Where are the instructions for installing FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Installation instructions can be found in the
             <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/install.html">Handbook entry on installing FreeBSD</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="need-to-run">
           <para>What do I need in order to run FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>For &os; you will need a 486 or better
             PC, with 24&nbsp;MB or more of RAM and at least 150&nbsp;MB of hard disk
             space.</para>
 
 	  <para>All versions of &os; can run with a low
             end MDA graphics card but to run &xorg;, a VGA or better video
             card is needed.</para>
 
           <para>See also <xref linkend="hardware">.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="custom-boot-floppy">
           <para>How can I make my own custom install floppy?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Currently there is no way to <emphasis>just</emphasis>
             make a custom install floppy. You have to cut a whole new
             release, which will include your install floppy.</para>
 
           <para>To make a custom release, follow the instructions in the
             <ulink url="&url.articles.releng;/article.html">Release
             Engineering</ulink> article.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="multiboot">
           <para>Can I have more than one operating system on my PC?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Have a look at
             <ulink url="&url.articles.multi-os;/index.html">
             the multi-OS page</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="windows-coexist">
           <para>Can &windows; co-exist with FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Install &windows; first, then FreeBSD.
             FreeBSD's boot manager will then manage to boot &windows; and
             FreeBSD. If you install &windows; second, it will boorishly
             overwrite your boot manager without even asking. If that
             happens, see the next section.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="win95-damaged-boot-manager">
           <para>&windows; killed my boot manager!
             How do I get it back?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You can reinstall the boot manager FreeBSD comes with in
             one of three ways:</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>Running DOS, go into the <filename role="directory">tools</filename> directory of your
                 FreeBSD distribution and look for
                 <filename>bootinst.exe</filename>.  You run it like
                 so:</para>
 
               <screen><prompt>...\TOOLS&gt;</prompt> <userinput>bootinst.exe boot.bin</userinput></screen>
 
               <para>and the boot manager will be reinstalled.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Boot the FreeBSD boot floppy again and go to the
                  <guimenuitem>Custom</guimenuitem> menu item for custom installation.  Choose <guimenuitem>Partition</guimenuitem>.  Select the
                  drive which used to contain your boot manager (likely the
                  first one) and when you come to the partition editor for
                  it, as the very first thing (e.g. do not make any changes)
                  press <keycap>W</keycap>.  This will ask for confirmation, select &gui.yes;,
                  and when you get the Boot Manager selection prompt, be
                  sure to select the <application>FreeBSD Boot Manager</application>.  This will
                  re-write the boot manager to disk. Now quit out of the
                  installation menu and reboot off the hard disk as
                  normal.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Boot the FreeBSD boot floppy (or CDROM) and choose the
                 <guimenuitem>Fixit</guimenuitem> menu item.  Select either the Fixit
                 floppy or CDROM #2 (the <quote>live</quote> filesystem
                 option) as appropriate and enter the fixit shell. Then
                 execute the following command:</para>
 
               <screen><prompt>Fixit#</prompt> <userinput>fdisk -B -b /boot/boot0 <replaceable>bootdevice</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
               <para>substituting <replaceable>bootdevice</replaceable> for
                 your real
                 boot device such as <devicename>ad0</devicename> (first IDE
                 disk), <devicename>ad4</devicename> (first IDE disk on
                 auxiliary controller), <devicename>da0</devicename> (first
                 SCSI disk), etc.</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="boot-on-thinkpad">
           <para>My A, T, or X series IBM Thinkpad locks up when I first
             booted up my FreeBSD installation.  How can I solve this?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>A bug in early revisions of IBM's BIOS on these machines
             mistakenly identifies the FreeBSD partition as a potential FAT
             suspend-to-disk partition.  When the BIOS tries to parse the
             FreeBSD partition it hangs.</para>
 
           <para>According to IBM<footnote><para>In an e-mail from Keith
                 Frechette
                 <email>kfrechet@us.ibm.com</email>.</para></footnote>, the
             following model/BIOS release numbers incorporate the fix.</para>
 
           <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
             <tgroup cols="2">
               <thead>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Model</entry>
                   <entry>BIOS revision</entry>
                 </row>
               </thead>
 
               <tbody>
                 <row>
                   <entry>T20</entry>
                   <entry>IYET49WW or later</entry>
                 </row>
 
                 <row>
                   <entry>T21</entry>
                   <entry>KZET22WW or later</entry>
                 </row>
 
                 <row>
                   <entry>A20p</entry>
                   <entry>IVET62WW or later</entry>
                 </row>
 
                 <row>
                   <entry>A20m</entry>
                   <entry>IWET54WW or later</entry>
                 </row>
 
                 <row>
                   <entry>A21p</entry>
                   <entry>KYET27WW or later</entry>
                 </row>
 
                 <row>
                   <entry>A21m</entry>
                   <entry>KXET24WW or later</entry>
                 </row>
 
                 <row>
                   <entry>A21e</entry>
                   <entry>KUET30WW</entry>
                 </row>
               </tbody>
             </tgroup>
           </informaltable>
 
 	  <para>It has been reported that later IBM BIOS revisions may
 	    have reintroduced the bug.  <ulink
 	    url="http://docs.FreeBSD.org/cgi/mid.cgi?20010427133759.A71732">This
 	    message</ulink> from Jacques Vidrine to the &a.mobile;
 	    describes a procedure which may work if your newer IBM
 	    laptop does not boot FreeBSD properly, and you can upgrade
 	    or downgrade the BIOS.</para>
 	
           <para>If you have an earlier BIOS, and upgrading is not an option, a
             workaround is to install FreeBSD, change the partition ID FreeBSD
             uses, and install new boot blocks that can handle the different
             partition ID.</para>
 
           <para>First, you will need to restore the machine to a state where
             it can get through its self-test screen.  Doing this requires
             powering up the machine without letting it find a FreeBSD
             partition on its primary disk.  One way is to remove the hard disk
             and temporarily move it to an older ThinkPad (such as a ThinkPad
             600) or a desktop PC with an appropriate conversion cable.  Once
             it is there, you can delete the FreeBSD partition and move the hard
             disk back.  The ThinkPad should now be in a bootable state
             again.</para>
 
           <para>With the machine functional again, you can use the workaround
             procedure described here to get a working FreeBSD
             installation.</para>
 
           <procedure>
             <step>
               <para>Download <filename>boot1</filename> and
                 <filename>boot2</filename> from <ulink
                   url="http://people.FreeBSD.org/~bmah/ThinkPad/"></ulink>.
                 Put these files somewhere you will be able to retrieve them
                 later.</para>
             </step>
 
             <step>
               <para>Install FreeBSD as normal on to the ThinkPad.
                 <emphasis>Do not</emphasis> use <literal>Dangerously
                   Dedicated</literal> mode.  <emphasis>Do not</emphasis>
                 reboot when the install has finished.</para>
             </step>
 
             <step>
               <para>Either switch to the <quote>Emergency Holographic
                   Shell</quote> (<keycombo action="simul"><keycap>ALT</keycap>
                   <keycap>F4</keycap></keycombo>) or start a
                 <quote>fixit</quote> shell.</para>
             </step>
 
             <step>
               <para>Use &man.fdisk.8; to change the FreeBSD partition ID from
                 <literal>165</literal> to <literal>166</literal> (this is the
                   type used by OpenBSD).</para>
             </step>
 
             <step>
               <para>Bring the <filename>boot1</filename> and
                 <filename>boot2</filename> files to the local
                 filesystem.</para>
             </step>
 
             <step>
               <para>Use &man.disklabel.8; to write <filename>boot1</filename>
                 and <filename>boot2</filename> to your FreeBSD slice.</para>
 
               <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>disklabel -B -b boot1 -s boot2 ad0s<replaceable>n</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
               <para><replaceable>n</replaceable> is the number of the slice
                 where you installed FreeBSD.</para>
             </step>
 
             <step>
               <para>Reboot.  At the boot prompt you will be given the option
                 of booting <literal>OpenBSD</literal>.  This will actually
                 boot FreeBSD.</para>
             </step>
           </procedure>
 
           <para>Getting this to work in the case where you want to dual boot
           OpenBSD and FreeBSD on the same laptop is left as an exercise for
           the reader.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="install-bad-blocks">
           <para>Can I install on a disk with bad blocks?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You can, but it is a bad idea.</para>
 
 	  <para>If you are seeing bad block errors with a modern IDE
             drive, chances are the drive is going to die very soon (the
             drive's internal remapping functions are no longer sufficient
             to fix the bad blocks, which means the disk is heavily
             corrupted); we suggest you buy a new hard drive.</para>
 
           <para>If you have a SCSI drive with bad blocks, see
             <link linkend="awre">this answer</link>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="boot-floppy-strangeness">
           <para>Strange things happen when I boot the install floppy!
             What is happening?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you are seeing things like the machine grinding to a halt
             or spontaneously rebooting when you try to boot the install
             floppy, here are three questions to ask yourself:</para>
 
           <orderedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>Did you use a new, freshly-formatted, error-free floppy
                 (preferably a brand-new one straight out of the box, as
                 opposed to the magazine cover disk that has been lying under
                 the bed for the last three years)?</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Did you download the floppy image in binary (or image)
                 mode? (do not be embarrassed, even the best of us have
                 accidentally downloaded a binary file in ASCII mode at
                 least once!)</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>If you are using &windows;&nbsp;95 or &windows;&nbsp;98 did you run
                 <command>fdimage</command> or
                 <command>rawrite</command> in pure DOS mode? These
                 operating systems can interfere with programs that
                 write directly to hardware, which the disk creation
                 program does; even running it inside a DOS shell in
                 the GUI can cause this problem.</para>
             </listitem>
           </orderedlist>
 
           <para>There have also been reports of &netscape; causing problems
             when downloading the boot floppy, so it is probably best to use
             a different FTP client if you can.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="no-install-cdrom">
           <para>I booted from my ATAPI CDROM, but the install program
             says no CDROM is found.  Where did it go?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The usual cause of this problem is a mis-configured CDROM
             drive.  Many PCs now ship with the CDROM as the slave device on
             the secondary IDE controller, with no master device on that
             controller.  This is illegal according to the ATAPI specification,
             but &windows; plays fast and loose with the specification, and the
             BIOS ignores it when booting.  This is why the BIOS was able to
             see the  CDROM to boot from it, but why FreeBSD cannot see it to
             complete  the install.</para>
 
           <para>Reconfigure your system so that the CDROM is either the
             master device on the IDE controller it is attached to, or make
             sure that it is the slave on an IDE controller that also has a
             master device.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="install-PLIP">
           <para>Can I install on my laptop over PLIP (Parallel Line
             IP)?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes. Use a standard Laplink cable. If necessary, you
             can check out the <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/network-plip.html">PLIP
             section of the Handbook</ulink> for details on parallel
             port networking.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="geometry">
           <para>Which geometry should I use for a disk drive?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
             <note>
               <para>By the <quote>geometry</quote> of a disk, we mean
               the number of cylinders, heads and sectors/track on a
               disk.  We will refer to this as C/H/S for
               convenience. This is how the PC's BIOS works out which
               area on a disk to read/write from.</para>
             </note>
 
           <para>This causes a lot of confusion among new system
             administrators.  First of all, the
             <emphasis>physical</emphasis> geometry of a SCSI drive is
             totally irrelevant, as FreeBSD works in term of disk
             blocks. In fact, there is no such thing as
             <quote>the</quote> physical geometry, as the sector
             density varies across the disk.  What manufacturers claim
             is the <quote>physical geometry</quote> is usually the
             geometry that they have determined wastes the least
             space. For IDE disks, FreeBSD does work in terms of C/H/S,
             but all modern drives internally convert this into block
             references.</para>
 
           <para>All that matters is the <emphasis>logical</emphasis>
             geometry.  This is the answer that the BIOS gets when it
             asks the drive <quote>what is your geometry?</quote> It
             then uses this geometry to access the disk. As FreeBSD
             uses the BIOS when booting, it is very important to get
             this right. In particular, if you have more than one
             operating system on a disk, they must all agree on the
             geometry.  Otherwise you will have serious problems
             booting!</para>
 
           <para>For SCSI disks, the geometry to use depends on whether
            extended translation support is turned on in your
            controller (this is often referred to as <quote>support for
            DOS disks &gt;1GB</quote> or something similar). If it is
            turned off, then use <replaceable>N</replaceable>
            cylinders, 64 heads and 32 sectors/track, where
            <replaceable>N</replaceable> is the capacity of the disk in
            MB. For example, a 2GB disk should pretend to have 2048
            cylinders, 64 heads and 32 sectors/track.</para>
 
           <para>If it <emphasis>is</emphasis> turned on (it is often
             supplied this way to get around certain limitations in
             &ms-dos;) and the disk capacity is more than 1&nbsp;GB, use <replaceable>M</replaceable>
             cylinders, 63 sectors per track (<emphasis>not</emphasis>
             64), and 255 heads, where <replaceable>M</replaceable> is the disk capacity in MB
             divided by 7.844238 (!). So our example 2&nbsp;GB drive would
             have 261 cylinders, 63 sectors per track and 255
             heads.</para>
 
           <para>If you are not sure about this, or FreeBSD fails to
             detect the geometry correctly during installation, the
             simplest way around this is usually to create a small DOS
             partition on the disk. The BIOS should then detect the
             correct geometry, and you can always remove the DOS
             partition in the partition editor if you do not want to
             keep it.  You might want to leave it around for
             programming network cards and the like, however.</para>
 
           <para>Alternatively, there is a freely available utility
             distributed with FreeBSD called
             <filename>pfdisk.exe</filename>.  You can find it in the
             <filename role="directory">tools</filename> subdirectory on the FreeBSD
             CDROM or on the various FreeBSD FTP sites.  This program
             can be used to work out what geometry the other operating
             systems on the disk are using. You can then enter this
             geometry in the partition editor.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="disk-divide-restrictions">
           <para>Are there any restrictions on how I divide the disk up?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes. You must make sure that your root partition is below 1024
             cylinders so the BIOS can boot the kernel from it.  (Note that
             this is a limitation in the PC's BIOS, not FreeBSD).</para>
 
           <para>For a SCSI drive, this will normally imply that the root
             partition will be in the first 1024&nbsp;MB (or in the first 4096&nbsp;MB
             if extended translation is turned on - see previous question).
             For IDE, the corresponding figure is 504&nbsp;MB.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="disk-manager">
           <para>Is &os; compatible with any disk managers?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>&os; recognizes the <application>Ontrack Disk Manager</application> and makes
             allowances for it. Other disk managers are not supported.</para>
 
           <para>If you just want to use the disk with &os; you do not
             need a disk manager. Just configure the disk for as much space
             as the BIOS can deal with (usually 504&nbsp;megabytes), and &os;
             should figure out how much space you really have. If you are
             using an old disk with an MFM controller, you may need to
             explicitly tell &os; how many cylinders to use.</para>
 
           <para>If you want to use the disk with &os; and another
             operating system, you may be able to do without a disk manager:
             just make sure the &os; boot partition and the slice for
             the other operating system are in the first 1024 cylinders. If
             you are reasonably careful, a 20&nbsp;megabyte boot partition should
             be plenty.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="missing-os">
           <para>When I boot FreeBSD for the first time after install I get <errorname>Missing Operating
             System</errorname>.  What is happening?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is classically a case of FreeBSD and DOS or some other
             OS conflicting over their ideas of disk <link
             linkend="geometry">geometry</link>. You will have to reinstall
             FreeBSD, but obeying the instructions given above will almost
             always get you going.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="stop-at-boot-manager">
           <para>Why can I not get past the boot manager's <prompt>F?</prompt>
             prompt?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is another symptom of the problem described in the
             preceding question. Your BIOS geometry and FreeBSD geometry
             settings do not agree! If your controller or BIOS supports
             cylinder translation (often marked as <quote>&gt;1GB drive
             support</quote>), try toggling its setting and reinstalling
             FreeBSD.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="need-complete-sources">
           <para>Do I need to install the complete sources?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>In general, no.  However, we would strongly recommend that
             you install, at a minimum, the <literal>base</literal> source
             kit, which includes several of the files mentioned here, and
             the <literal>sys</literal> (kernel) source kit, which includes
             sources for the kernel. There is nothing in the system which
             requires the presence of the sources to operate, however,
             except for the kernel-configuration program &man.config.8;.
             With the exception of the kernel sources, our build structure
             is set up so that you can read-only mount the sources from
             elsewhere via NFS and still be able to make new binaries
             (due to the kernel-source restriction, we recommend that
             you not mount this on <filename role="directory">/usr/src</filename> directly,
             but rather in some other location with appropriate symbolic
             links to duplicate the top-level structure of the source
             tree).</para>
 
           <para>Having the sources on-line and knowing how to build a
             system with them will make it much easier for you to upgrade
             to future releases of FreeBSD.</para>
 
           <para>To actually select a subset of the sources, use the <guimenuitem>Custom</guimenuitem>
             menu item when you are in the <guimenuitem>Distributions</guimenuitem> menu of the
             system installation tool.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="need-kernel">
           <para>Do I need to build a kernel?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Building a new kernel was originally pretty much a required
             step in a FreeBSD installation, but more recent releases have
             benefited from the introduction of much friendlier kernel
 	    configuration methods.  It is very easy
 	    to configure the kernel's configuration by much more flexible 
 	    <quote>hints</quote> which can be set at the loader prompt.</para>
 
           <para>It may still be worthwhile building a new
             kernel containing just the drivers that you need, just to save a
             bit of RAM, but it is no longer necessary for most
             systems.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="password-encryption">
           <para>Should I use DES, Blowfish, or MD5 passwords and how
             do I specify which form my users receive?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The default password format on FreeBSD is to use
             <emphasis>MD5</emphasis>-based passwords. These are
             believed to be more secure than the traditional &unix;
             password format, which used a scheme based on the
             <emphasis>DES</emphasis> algorithm.  DES passwords are
             still available if you need to share your password file
             with legacy operating systems which still use the less
             secure password format.  &os; also allows you to use the Blowfish password format,
             which is more secure.  Which password format to use for
             new passwords is controlled by the
             <literal>passwd_format</literal> login capability in
             <filename>/etc/login.conf</filename>, which takes values
             of <literal>des</literal>, <literal>blf</literal> (if these are
             available) or <literal>md5</literal>.  See the
             &man.login.conf.5; manual page for more information about
             login capabilities.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="boot-floppy-hangs">
           <para>Why does the boot floppy start, but hang at the
             <literal>Probing Devices...</literal> screen?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>If you have a IDE &iomegazip; or &jaz; drive installed, remove it
             and try again. The boot floppy can get confused by the drives.
             After the system is installed you can reconnect the drive.
             Hopefully this will be fixed in a later release.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="panic-on-install-reboot">
           <para>Why do I get a <errorname>panic: can't mount root</errorname>
             error when rebooting the system after installation?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This error comes from confusion between the boot
             block's and the kernel's understanding of the disk
             devices. The error usually manifests on two-disk IDE
             systems, with the hard disks arranged as the master or
             single device on separate IDE controllers, with FreeBSD
             installed on the secondary IDE controller. The boot blocks
             think the system is installed on <devicename>ad0</devicename> (the second BIOS
             disk) while the kernel assigns the first disk on the
             secondary controller device, <devicename>ad2</devicename>. After the device
             probing, the kernel tries to mount what the boot blocks
             think is the boot disk, <devicename>ad0</devicename>, while it is really <devicename>ad2</devicename>, and
             fails.</para>
 
           <para>To fix the problem, do one of the following:</para>
 
             <orderedlist>
               <listitem>
                 <para>Reboot the system and hit <keycap>Enter</keycap>
                   at the <literal>Booting kernel in 10 seconds; hit
                   [Enter] to interrupt</literal> prompt.  This will
                   drop you into the boot loader.</para>
 
                 <para>Then type
                   <userinput>
                   set
                   root_disk_unit="<replaceable>disk_number</replaceable>"
                   </userinput>. <replaceable>disk_number</replaceable>
                   will be <literal>0</literal> if FreeBSD is installed
                   on the master drive on the first IDE controller,
                   <literal>1</literal> if it is installed on the slave
                   on the first IDE controller, <literal>2</literal> if
                   it is installed on the master of the second IDE
                   controller, and <literal>3</literal> if it is
                   installed on the slave of the second IDE
                   controller.</para>
 
                 <para>Then type <userinput>boot</userinput>, and your
                   system should boot correctly.</para>
 
                 <para>To make this change permanent (i.e, so you do not
                   have to do this every time you reboot or turn on
                   your FreeBSD machine), put the line <userinput>
                   root_disk_unit="<replaceable>disk_number</replaceable>"</userinput>
                   in <filename>/boot/loader.conf.local
                   </filename>.</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Move the FreeBSD disk onto the primary IDE
                   controller, so the hard disks are
                   consecutive.</para>
               </listitem>
             </orderedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="memory-limits">
           <para>What are the limits for memory?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The limit is 4&nbsp;GB on a standard &i386; install,
             but more memory can be
             supported through &man.pae.4;.  This does require a kernel
             recompile, with an extra option to enable PAE:</para>
 
             <programlisting>options       PAE</programlisting>
 
           <para>&os;/pc98 has a limit of 4&nbsp;GB memory, and PAE can not
             be used with it.  Other architectures
             supported by &os; have much higher theoretical limits on
             maximum memory (many terabytes).</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ffs-limits">
           <para>What are the limits for FFS file systems?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>For FFS file systems, the maximum theoretical limit is 8&nbsp;TB
             (2&nbsp;G blocks), or 16&nbsp;TB for the default block size of
             8&nbsp;KB. In practice, there is a soft limit of 1&nbsp;TB, but with
             modifications file systems with 4&nbsp;TB are possible (and
             exist).</para>
 
           <para>The maximum size of a single FFS file is approximately 1&nbsp;G
             blocks, or 4&nbsp;TB with a block size of 4&nbsp;KB.</para>
 
           <table>
             <title>Maximum file sizes</title>
 
             <tgroup cols="3">
               <thead>
                 <row>
                   <entry>FS Block Size</entry>
 
                   <entry>Works</entry>
 
                   <entry>Should Work</entry>
                 </row>
               </thead>
 
               <tbody>
                 <row>
                   <entry>4&nbsp;KB</entry>
 
                   <entry>&gt;&nbsp;4&nbsp;GB</entry>
 
                   <entry>4&nbsp;TB&nbsp;-&nbsp;1</entry>
 
                 </row>
 
                 <row>
                   <entry>8&nbsp;KB</entry>
 
                   <entry>&gt;&nbsp;32&nbsp;GB</entry>
 
                   <entry>32&nbsp;TB&nbsp;-&nbsp;1</entry>
                 </row>
 
                 <row>
                   <entry>16&nbsp;KB</entry>
 
                   <entry>&gt;&nbsp;128&nbsp;GB</entry>
 
                   <entry>32&nbsp;TB&nbsp;-&nbsp;1</entry>
                 </row>
 
                 <row>
                   <entry>32&nbsp;KB</entry>
 
                   <entry>&gt;&nbsp;512&nbsp;GB</entry>
 
                   <entry>64&nbsp;TB&nbsp;-&nbsp;1</entry>
                 </row>
 
                 <row>
                   <entry>64&nbsp;KB</entry>
 
                   <entry>&gt;&nbsp;2048&nbsp;GB</entry>
 
                   <entry>128&nbsp;TB&nbsp;-&nbsp;1</entry>
                 </row>
               </tbody>
             </tgroup>
           </table>
 
           <para>When the FS block size is 4&nbsp;KB, triple indirect blocks work
             and everything should be limited by the maximum FS block number
             that can be represented using triple indirect blocks (approx.
             1024<superscript>3</superscript>&nbsp;+&nbsp;1024<superscript>2</superscript>&nbsp;+&nbsp;1024),
             but everything is limited by a (wrong) limit
             of 1&nbsp;G&nbsp;-&nbsp;1 on FS block numbers.  The limit on FS block numbers
             should be 2&nbsp;G&nbsp;-&nbsp;1.  There are some bugs for FS block numbers near
             2&nbsp;G&nbsp;-&nbsp;1, but such block numbers are unreachable when the FS block
             size is 4&nbsp;KB.</para>
 
           <para>For block sizes of 8&nbsp;KB and larger, everything should be
             limited by the 2&nbsp;G&nbsp;-&nbsp;1 limit on FS block numbers, but is
             actually limited by the 1&nbsp;G&nbsp;-&nbsp;1 limit on FS block numbers.
             Using the correct limit of 2&nbsp;G&nbsp;-&nbsp;1 blocks does cause
             problems.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="archsw-readin-failed-error">
           <para>Why do I get an error message,
             <errorname>archsw.readin.failed</errorname> after compiling
             and booting a new kernel?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Because your world and kernel are out of sync.  This
             is not supported.  Be sure you use <command>make <maketarget>buildworld</maketarget></command>
             and <command>make <maketarget>buildkernel</maketarget></command> to update your kernel.</para>
 
 	  <para>You can boot by specifying the kernel directly at the
             second stage, pressing any key when the <literal>|</literal> shows up before
             loader is started.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="boot-acpi">
 	  <para>Installation crashes while booting, what can I do?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>Try disabling ACPI support.  When the bootloader loads, press
 	    the <keycap>Space</keycap> key.  The system will display the following:</para>
 
 	  <screen>OK</screen>
 
 	  <para>Type:</para>
 
 	  <screen><userinput>unset acpi_load</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para>And then type:</para>
 
 	  <screen><userinput>boot</userinput></screen>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter
     id="hardware">
     <title>Hardware compatibility</title>
 
       <sect1 id="compatibility-general">
 	<title>General</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="which-hardware-to-get">
           <para>I want to get a piece of hardware for my FreeBSD
             system.  Which model/brand/type is best?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is discussed continually on the FreeBSD mailing
             lists.  Since hardware changes so quickly, however, we
             expect this.  We <emphasis>still</emphasis> strongly
             recommend that you read through the Hardware&nbsp;Notes for &os;
 	    <ulink url="&rel.current.hardware;">&rel.current;</ulink>
 	    or
 	    <ulink url="&rel2.current.hardware;">&rel2.current;</ulink>
 	    and search the mailing list
             <ulink url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/search/#mailinglists">
             archives</ulink> before asking about the latest and
             greatest hardware.  Chances are a discussion about the
             type of hardware you are looking for took place just last
             week.</para>
 
           <para>If you are looking for a laptop, check the
             &a.mobile; archives.  Otherwise, you
             probably want the archives for the &a.questions;, or
             possibly a specific mailing list for a particular hardware
             type.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
     </qandaset>
       </sect1>
 
       <sect1 id="compatibility-processors">
 	<title>Architectures and processors</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="architectures">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support architectures other than the x86?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>Yes.  FreeBSD currently runs on the Intel x86 and the AMD64
             architectures.  The Intel EM64T, IA-64, &arm;, &powerpc;, sun4v and
             &sparc64; architectures are also supported.  Upcoming platforms are
 	    &mips; and &s390;, join the &a.mips; for more information about
 	    ongoing work on the &mips; platform.  For general discussion on
 	    new architectures, join the &a.platforms;.</para>
 
           <para>If your machine has a different architecture and you
             need something right now, we suggest you look at <ulink
             url="http://www.netbsd.org/">NetBSD</ulink> or <ulink
             url="http://www.openbsd.org/">OpenBSD</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="smp-support">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support Symmetric Multiprocessing
             (SMP)?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>Symmetric multi-processor (SMP) systems are generally
 	    supported by &os;, although in some cases, BIOS or
 	    motherboard bugs may generate some problems.  Persuing
 	    the &a.smp; may yield some clues.</para>
 
 	  <para>&os; will take advantage of HyperThreading (HTT) support
 	    on Intel CPUs that support this feature.  A kernel with the
 	    <literal>options SMP</literal> feature enabled will
 	    automatically detect the additional logical processors.  The
 	    default &os; scheduler treats the logical processors the
 	    same as additional physical processors; in other words, no
 	    attempt is made to optimize scheduling decisions given the
 	    shared resources between logical processors within the same
 	    CPU.  Because this naive scheduling can result in suboptimal
 	    performance, under certain circumstances it may be useful to
 	    disable the logical processors with the
 	    <varname>machdep.hlt_logical_cpus</varname> sysctl variable.
 	    It is also possible to halt any CPU in the idle loop with
 	    the <varname>machdep.hlt_cpus</varname> sysctl variable.
 	    The &man.smp.4; manual page has more details.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
         </qandaset>
       </sect1>
 
       <sect1 id="compatibility-drives">
 	<title>Hard drives, tape drives, and CD and DVD drives</title>
 
 	<qandaset>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="supported-hard-drives">
           <para>What kind of hard drives does FreeBSD support?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>FreeBSD supports EIDE, SATA, SCSI, and SAS drives (with a 
 	    compatible controller; see the next section), and all drives using
 	    the original <quote>Western Digital</quote> interface (MFM, RLL,
             ESDI, and of course IDE). A few ESDI controllers that use
             proprietary interfaces may not work: stick to WD1002/3/6/7
             interfaces and clones.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="supported-scsi-controllers">
           <para>Which SCSI or SAS controllers are supported?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>See the complete list in the Hardware Notes for &os;
 	    <ulink url="&rel.current.hardware;">&rel.current;</ulink> or
 	    <ulink url="&rel2.current.hardware;">&rel2.current;</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="tape-support">
           <para>What types of tape drives are supported?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>FreeBSD supports SCSI and QIC-36 (with a QIC-02 interface).
             This includes 8-mm (aka Exabyte) and DAT drives.</para>
 
           <para>Some of the early 8-mm drives are not quite compatible
           with SCSI-2, and may not work well with FreeBSD.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="tape-changer-support">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support tape changers?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>FreeBSD supports SCSI changers using the &man.ch.4;
             device and the &man.chio.1; command. The details of how you
             actually control the changer can be found in the &man.chio.1;
             manual page.</para>
 
           <para>If you are not using <application>AMANDA</application>
             or some other product that already understands changers,
             remember that they only know how to move a tape from one
             point to another, so you need to keep track of which slot a
             tape is in, and which slot the tape currently in the drive
             needs to go back to.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="supported-cdrom-drives">
           <para>Which CDROM drives are supported by FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Any SCSI drive connected to a supported controller is
             supported.</para>
 
           <para>The following proprietary CDROM interfaces are also
             supported:</para>
 
             <itemizedlist>
               <listitem>
                 <para>Mitsumi LU002 (8bit), LU005 (16bit) and FX001D
                   (16bit 2x Speed).</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Sony CDU 31/33A</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Sound Blaster Non-SCSI CDROM</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Matsushita/Panasonic CDROM</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>ATAPI compatible IDE CDROMs</para>
               </listitem>
             </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>All non-SCSI cards are known to be extremely slow compared
             to SCSI drives, and some ATAPI CDROMs may not work.</para>
 
           <para>The official FreeBSD CDROM ISO, and CDROMs from Daemon
             News and FreeBSD Mall, support booting directly from the
             CD.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="supported-cdrw-drives">
           <para>Which CD-RW drives are supported by FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>FreeBSD supports any ATAPI-compatible IDE CD-R or CD-RW
 	    drive.  See &man.burncd.8; for details.</para>
 
 	  <para>FreeBSD also supports any SCSI CD-R or CD-RW drives.
 	    Install and use the <command>cdrecord</command> command from the
 	    ports or packages system, and make sure that you have the
 	    <devicename>pass</devicename> device compiled in your
 	    kernel.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="zip-support">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support &iomegazip; drives?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>FreeBSD supports SCSI and ATAPI (IDE) &iomegazip; drives out
             of the box. SCSI ZIP drives can only be set to
             run at SCSI target IDs 5 or 6, but if your SCSI host
             adapter's BIOS supports it you can even boot from it.  It
             is not clear which host adapters support booting from
             targets other than 0 or 1, so you will have to consult
             your adapter's documentation if you would like to use this
             feature.</para>
 
           <para>FreeBSD also supports Parallel Port Zip Drives.  Check
             that your kernel contains the
             <devicename>scbus0</devicename>,
             <devicename>da0</devicename>,
             <devicename>ppbus0</devicename>, and
             <devicename>vp0</devicename> drivers (the GENERIC kernel
             contains everything except
             <devicename>vp0</devicename>). With all these drivers
             present, the Parallel Port drive should be available as
             <devicename>/dev/da0s4</devicename>. Disks can be mounted
             using <command>mount /dev/da0s4 /mnt</command> OR (for dos
             disks) <command>mount_msdos /dev/da0s4 /mnt</command> as
             appropriate.</para>
 
           <para>Also check out <link linkend="media-change">the FAQ on
             removable drives</link> later in this chapter, and <link
             linkend="removable-drives">the note on
             <quote>formatting</quote></link>in the Administration
             chapter.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="jaz-zip-removable-support">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support &jaz;, EZ and other removable
             drives?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>They work.  Most of these are SCSI devices, so they
             look like SCSI disks to FreeBSD.  The IDE EZ looks like an
             IDE drive.</para>
 
 	  <para>Make sure that any external units are powered on when
             booting the system.</para>
 
           <para><anchor id="media-change">To change the media while
             running, check out &man.mount.8;, &man.umount.8;, and
             &man.camcontrol.8; (for SCSI devices) or
             &man.atacontrol.8; (for IDE devices), plus the <link
             linkend="removable-drives">discussion on using removable
             drives</link> later in the FAQ.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
 	</qandaset>
 
       </sect1>
 
       <sect1 id="compatibility-kbd-mice">
 	<title>Keyboards and mice</title>
 
 	<qandaset>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="usbkbd">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support my USB keyboard?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>FreeBSD supports USB keyboards
             out-of-the-box.  Once you have USB keyboard support enabled on your
             system, the AT keyboard becomes
             <devicename>/dev/kbd0</devicename> and the USB keyboard
             becomes <devicename>/dev/kbd1</devicename>, if both are
             connected to the system.  If there is the USB keyboard
             only, it will be
             <devicename>/dev/ukbd0</devicename>.</para>
 
           <para>If you want to use the USB keyboard in the console,
             you have to explicitly tell the console driver to use the
             existing USB keyboard. This can be done by running the
             following command as a part of system
             initialization.</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>kbdcontrol -k /dev/kbd1 &lt; /dev/console &gt; /dev/null</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Note that if the USB keyboard is the only keyboard, it
             is accessed as <devicename>/dev/ukbd0</devicename>, thus,
             the command should look like:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>kbdcontrol -k /dev/ukbd0 &lt; /dev/console &gt; /dev/null</userinput></screen>
 
           <note>
             <para>To make this change permanent across reboots, add
               <literal>keyboard="/dev/ukbd0"</literal> to
               <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
           </note>
 
           <para>Once this is done, the USB keyboard should work in the
             X environment as well without any special settings.</para>
 
           <para>If you want to switch back to the default keyboard,
             use this command:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>kbdcontrol -k /dev/kbd0 &gt; /dev/null</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>To allow using both the second USB keyboard and the
             first AT keyboard at the same time on a console via
             &man.kbdmux.4; driver type the following commands:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>kbdcontrol -K &lt; /dev/console &gt; /dev/null</userinput>
 <userinput>kbdcontrol -a atkbd0 &lt; /dev/kbdmux0 &gt; /dev/null</userinput>
 <userinput>kbdcontrol -a ukbd1 &lt; /dev/kbdmux0 &gt; /dev/null</userinput>
 <userinput>kbdcontrol -k /dev/kbdmux0 &lt; /dev/console &gt; /dev/null</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>See the &man.ukbd.4;, &man.kbdcontrol.1; and
             &man.kbdmux.4; manual pages for more information.</para>
 
           <note>
             <para>Hot-plugging and unplugging of the USB keyboard may
               not work quite right yet.  We recommend connecting the
               keyboard before starting the system and leaving it
               connected until the system is shutdown to avoid
               issues.</para>
           </note>
        </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="busmouse">
           <para>I have an unusual bus mouse. How do I set it
             up?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>FreeBSD supports the bus mouse and the InPort bus
             mouse from such manufacturers as Microsoft, Logitech and
             ATI. The GENERIC kernel does not include the device
             driver.  To build a custom kernel with the bus mouse
             driver, add the following line to the kernel config
             file:</para>
 
           <programlisting>device mse0 at isa? port 0x23c irq5</programlisting>
 
           <para>Bus mice usually come with dedicated interface cards.
             These cards may allow you to set the port address and the
             IRQ number other than shown above. Refer to the manual of
             your mouse and the &man.mse.4; manual page for more
             information.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ps2mouse">
           <para>How do I use my PS/2 (<quote>mouse port</quote> or
             <quote>keyboard</quote>) mouse?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The PS/2 mouse is supported out-of-the-box.  The
              necessary device driver, <devicename>psm</devicename>, is
              included in the kernel.</para>
 
           <para>If your custom kernel does not have this, add the
             following line to your kernel configuration and compile a
             new kernel.</para>
 
           <programlisting>device psm0 at atkbdc? irq 12</programlisting>
 
           <para>Once the kernel detects <devicename>psm0</devicename>
             correctly at boot time, a device node
             <devicename>psm0</devicename> will be created
             automatically.</para>
 
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="moused">
           <para>Is it possible to use a mouse in any way outside the X
             Window system?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you are using the default console driver,
             &man.syscons.4;, you can use a mouse pointer in text
             consoles to cut &amp; paste text. Run the mouse daemon,
             &man.moused.8;, and turn on the mouse pointer in the
             virtual console:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>moused -p /dev/<replaceable>xxxx</replaceable> -t <replaceable>yyyy</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>vidcontrol -m on</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Where <replaceable>xxxx</replaceable> is the mouse
             device name and <replaceable>yyyy</replaceable> is a
             protocol type for the mouse.  The mouse daemon can
             automatically determine the protocol type of most
             mice, except old serial mice. Specify the
             <literal>auto</literal> protocol to invoke automatic
             detection.  If automatic detection does not work, see the
             &man.moused.8; manual page for a list of supported
             protocol types.</para>
 
           <para>If you have a PS/2 mouse, just add
             <literal>moused_enable="YES"</literal> to
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> to start the mouse
             daemon at boot-time.  Additionally, if you would like to
             use the mouse daemon on all virtual terminals instead of
             just the console, add <literal>allscreens_flags="-m
             on"</literal> to <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
 
           <para>When the mouse daemon is running, access to the mouse
             must be coordinated between the mouse daemon and other
             programs such as X Windows. Refer to the FAQ <link
             linkend="x-and-moused">Why does my mouse not work with
             X?</link> for more details on this issue.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="text-mode-cut-paste">
           <para>How do I cut and paste text with a mouse in the text
             console?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Once you get the mouse daemon running (see the <link
             linkend="moused">previous section</link>), hold down the
             button 1 (left button) and move the mouse to select a
             region of text. Then, press the button 2 (middle button)
             to paste it at the text cursor.  Pressing button 3 (right
             button) will <quote>extend</quote> the selected region of
             text.</para>
 
 	  <para>If your mouse does not have a middle button, you may
             wish to emulate one or remap buttons using mouse daemon
             options. See the &man.moused.8; manual page for
             details.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="mouse-wheel-buttons">
           <para>My mouse has a fancy wheel and buttons.  Can I use them in
             FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The answer is, unfortunately, <quote>It depends</quote>.
             These mice with additional features require specialized driver
             in most cases. Unless the mouse device driver or the user
             program has specific support for the mouse, it will act just
             like a standard two, or three button mouse.</para>
 
           <para>For the possible usage of wheels in the X Window
             environment, refer to <link linkend="x-and-wheel">that
             section</link>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="laptop-mouse-trackball">
           <para>How do I use the mouse/trackball/touchpad on my laptop?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Please refer to <link linkend="ps2mouse">the answer to
             the previous question</link>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="keyboard-delete-key">
           <para>How do I use my delete key in <command>sh</command> and
             <command>csh</command>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>For the <application>Bourne Shell</application>, add the
 	    following lines to your <filename>.shrc</filename>.  See &man.sh.1;
 	    and &man.editrc.5;.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>bind ^? ed-delete-next-char # for console
 bind ^[[3~ ed-delete-next-char # for xterm</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>For the <application>C Shell</application>, add the following
 	    lines to your <filename>.cshrc</filename>.  See &man.csh.1;.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>bindkey ^? delete-char # for console
 bindkey ^[[3~ delete-char # for xterm</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>For more information, see <ulink
 	      url="http://www.ibb.net/~anne/keyboard.html">this page</ulink>.
           </para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
 	</qandaset>
 
       </sect1>
 
       <sect1 id="compatibility-networking">
 	<title>Networking and serial devices</title>
 
 	<qandaset>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="network-cards">
           <para>Which network cards does FreeBSD support?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>See the Hardware Notes supplied with each release of
             FreeBSD for a more
             complete list.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="support-winmodem">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support software modems, such as Winmodems?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>FreeBSD supports many software modems via add-on
             software.  For example, the <filename role="package">comms/ltmdm</filename> port adds
             support for modems based on the very popular Lucent LT
             chipsets.</para>
 
           <para>You cannot install FreeBSD via a software modem; this
             software must be installed after the OS is
             installed.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="support-broadcom">
 	  <para>Is there a native driver for the Broadcom 43xx cards?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>No, and there is not likely to be.</para>
 
 	  <para>Broadcom refuses to publically release programming
 	    information for their wireless chipsets, most likely because
 	    they use software controlled radios.  In order to get FCC type
 	    acceptance for their parts, they have to ensure that users
 	    cannot arbitrarily set things like operating frequencies,
 	    modulation parameters and power output.  But without knowing
 	    how to program the chipsets, it is nearly impossible to write
 	    a driver.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="multiport-serial-support">
           <para>Which multi-port serial cards are supported by
             FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>There is a list of these in the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/serial.html">Serial Communications
             </ulink> chapter of the handbook.</para>
 
           <para>Some unnamed clone cards have also been known to work,
             especially those that claim to be AST compatible.</para>
 
           <para>Check the &man.sio.4; manual page to get more
             information on configuring such cards.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="serial-console-prompt">
           <para>How do I get the boot: prompt to show on the serial
             console?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>See <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/serialconsole-setup.html">this
             section of the handbook</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
 	</qandaset>
 
       </sect1>
 
       <sect1 id="compatibility-sound">
 	<title>Sound devices</title>
 
 	<qandaset>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="sound-card-support">
           <para>Which sound cards are supported by FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>&os; supports various sound cards (for more details,
             see <ulink url="&url.base;/releases/">&os; Release Information</ulink>
             and the &man.snd.4; manual page).
             There is also limited support for
             MPU-401 and compatible MIDI cards. Cards conforming to the
             &microsoft; Sound System specification are also supported.</para>
 
             <note>
               <para>This is only for sound!  This driver does not support
                 CDROMs, SCSI or joysticks on these cards, except for the
                 &soundblaster;. The &soundblaster; SCSI interface and some
                 non-SCSI CDROMs are supported, but you cannot boot off this
                 device.</para>
              </note>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="es1370-silent-pcm">
           <para>Workarounds for no sound from my &man.pcm.4; sound
             card?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Some sound cards set their output
             volume to 0 at every boot.  Run the following command
             every time the machine boots:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mixer pcm 100 vol 100 cd 100</userinput></screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
 	</qandaset>
 
       </sect1>
 
       <sect1 id="compatibility-other">
 	<title>Other hardware</title>
 
 	<qandaset>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="power-management-support">
           <para>Does &os; support power management on my
             laptop?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>&os; supports <acronym>APM</acronym>
             on certain machines.  Further information can be found in
             &man.apm.4;.</para>
 
 	  <para>&os; also supports the
 	    <acronym>ACPI</acronym> features found in most modern
 	    hardware.  Further information can be found in
 	    &man.acpi.4;.  If a system supports both
 	    <acronym>APM</acronym> and <acronym>ACPI</acronym>, either
 	    can be used.  We suggest you try both and choose the one
 	    that best fits your needs.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="disable-acpi">
 	  <para>How do I disable ACPI?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>Add following line <screen>hint.acpi.0.disabled="1"</screen>
 	    into your <filename>/boot/device.hints</filename> file.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="micron-hang-boot">
           <para>Why does my Micron system hang at boot time?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Certain Micron motherboards have a non-conforming PCI BIOS
             implementation that causes grief when FreeBSD boots because PCI
             devices do not get configured at their reported addresses.</para>
 
           <para>Disable the <quote>Plug and Play Operating System</quote>
             flag in the BIOS to work around this problem.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="asusk7v-boot-failure">
           <para>The boot floppy hangs on a system with an ASUS K7V
             motherboard.  How do I fix this?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Go into the BIOS setup and disable the <quote>boot virus
             protection</quote>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="micron-3comnic-failure">
           <para>Why does my &tm.3com; PCI network card not work with my Micron
             computer?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>See <link linkend="micron-hang-boot">the previous answer</link>.</para>
        </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
     </qandaset>
 
       </sect1>
 
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="troubleshoot">
     <title>Troubleshooting</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="pae">
           <para>Why is &os; finding the wrong amount of memory?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>The reason is the difference between physical memory addresses
 	    and virtual addresses.</para>
 
 	  <para>The convention for most PC hardware is to use the memory area
 	    between 3.5&nbsp;GB and 4&nbsp;GB for a special purpose (usually for PCI).  This
 	    address space is used to access PCI hardware.  As a result real,
 	    physical memory can not appear in that address space.</para>
 
 	  <para>What happens to the memory that should appear in that location
 	    is dependent on your hardware.  Unfortunately, some hardware does
 	    nothing and the ability to use that last 500&nbsp;MB of RAM is entirely
 	    lost.</para>
 
 	  <para>Luckily, most hardware remaps the memory to a higher location
 	    so that it can still be used.  However, this can cause some
 	    confusion if you watch the boot messages.</para>
 
 	  <para>On a 32&nbsp;bit version of &os;, the memory appears lost, since it
 	    will be remapped above 4&nbsp;GB, which a 32&nbsp;bit kernel is unable to
 	    access.  In this case, the solution is to build a PAE enabled
 	    kernel.  See <link linkend="memory-limits">this FAQ entry</link>
 	    for more information.</para>
 
 	  <para>On a 64&nbsp;bit version of &os;, or when running a PAE-enabled
 	    kernel, &os; will correctly detect and remap the memory so it is
 	    usable.  During boot, however, it may seem as if &os; is detecting
 	    more memory than the system really has.  This is normal and the
 	    available memory will be corrected as the boot process
 	    completes.<para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="awre">
           <para>What do I do when I have bad blocks on my hard drive?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>With SCSI drives, the drive should be capable of re-mapping
             these automatically.  However, many drives ship with
             this feature disabled.</para>
 
           <para>To enable bad block remapping edit the first device page
             mode, which can be done by giving the command
             (as <username>root</username>)</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>camcontrol modepage sd0 -m 1 -e -P 3</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>and changing the values of AWRE and ARRE from 0 to 1:</para>
 
           <programlisting>AWRE (Auto Write Reallocation Enbld):  1
 ARRE (Auto Read Reallocation Enbld):  1</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>Modern IDE drives also have bad block remapping
 	    features in the controller, and they ship with this
 	    feature turned on.</para>
 
 	  <para>If you see warnings about bad blocks (on either type
 	    of drive), it is time to consider replacing the drive.
 	    You might be able to use the drive manufacturer's
 	    diagnostic program to lock out those bad blocks, but at
 	    best this will buy you some time.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="hpnetserver-scsi-failure">
           <para>Why does FreeBSD not detect my HP Netserver's SCSI
             controller?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is basically a known problem.  The EISA on-board SCSI
             controller in the HP Netserver machines occupies EISA slot
             number 11, so all the <quote>true</quote> EISA slots are in
             front of it. Alas, the address space for EISA slots &gt;= 10
             collides with the address space assigned to PCI, and FreeBSD's
             auto-configuration currently cannot handle this situation very
             well.</para>
 
           <para>So now, the best you can do is to pretend there is no
             address range clash :), by bumping the kernel option
             <literal>EISA_SLOTS</literal> to a value of 12. Configure and
             compile a kernel, as described in the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/kernelconfig.html">Handbook entry on
             configuring the kernel</ulink>.</para>
 
           <para>Of course, this does present you with a chicken-and-egg
             problem when installing on such a machine. In order to work
             around this problem, a special hack is available inside
             <emphasis>UserConfig</emphasis>. Do not use the
             <quote>visual</quote> interface, but the plain command-line
             interface there. Simply type</para>
 
           <programlisting>eisa 12
 quit</programlisting>
 
           <para>at the prompt, and install your system as usual.  While
             it is recommended you compile and install a custom kernel
             anyway.</para>
 
           <para>Hopefully, future versions will have a proper fix for
             this problem.</para>
 
             <note>
               <para>You cannot use a
                 <literal>dangerously dedicated</literal> disk
                 with an HP Netserver. See <link linkend="dedicate">this
                 note</link> for more info.</para>
             </note>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ed1-timeout">
           <para>I keep seeing messages like
             <errorname>ed1: timeout</errorname>.  What do these messages
             mean?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is usually caused by an interrupt conflict (e.g.,
             two boards using the same IRQ).  Boot with the
             <option>-c</option> option and change the <devicename>ed0</devicename>/<devicename>de0</devicename>/... entry to match your
             board.</para>
 
           <para>If you are using the BNC connector on your network card,
             you may also see device timeouts because of bad termination. To
             check this, attach a terminator directly to the NIC (with no
             cable) and see if the error messages go away.</para>
 
           <para>Some NE2000 compatible cards will give this error if there
             is no link on the UTP port or if the cable is disconnected.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="bad-3c509">
           <para>Why did my &tm.3com; 3C509 card stop working for no
             apparent reason?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This card has a bad habit of losing its configuration
             information.  Refresh your card's settings with the DOS
             utility <command>3c5x9.exe</command>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="printer-slow">
           <para>My parallel printer is ridiculously slow. What can I do?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If the only problem is that the printer is terribly
             slow, try changing your <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/printing-intro-setup.html#PRINTING-PARALLEL-PORT-MODE">printer
             port mode</ulink> as discussed in the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/printing-intro-setup.html">Printer
             Setup</ulink> section of the Handbook.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="signal11">
           <para>Why do my programs occasionally die with
             <errorname>Signal 11</errorname> errors?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Signal 11 errors are caused when your process has attempted
             to access memory which the operating system has not granted it
             access to. If something like this is happening at seemingly
             random intervals then you need to start investigating things
             very carefully.</para>
 
           <para>These problems can usually be attributed to either:</para>
 
           <orderedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>If the problem is occurring only in a specific
                 application that you are developing yourself it is probably
                 a bug in your code.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>If it is a problem with part of the base FreeBSD system,
                 it may also be buggy code, but more often than not these
                 problems are found and fixed long before us general FAQ
                 readers get to use these bits of code (that is what -current
                 is for).</para>
             </listitem>
           </orderedlist>
 
           <para>In particular, a dead giveaway that this is
             <emphasis>not</emphasis> a FreeBSD bug is if you see the
             problem when you are compiling a program, but the activity
             that the compiler is carrying out changes each
             time.</para>
 
           <para>For example, suppose you are running <command>make
             <maketarget>buildworld</maketarget></command>, and the compile fails while trying to
             compile <filename>ls.c</filename> into
             <filename>ls.o</filename>. If you then run <command>make
             <maketarget>buildworld</maketarget></command> again, and the compile fails in the same
             place then this is a broken build &mdash; try updating your sources
             and try again. If the compile fails elsewhere then this is
             almost certainly hardware.</para>
 
           <para>What you should do:</para>
 
           <para>In the first case you can use a debugger e.g. &man.gdb.1; to find
             the point in the program which is attempting to access a bogus
             address and then fix it.</para>
 
           <para>In the second case you need to verify that it is not your
             hardware at fault.</para>
 
           <para>Common causes of this include:</para>
 
           <orderedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>Your hard disks might be overheating: Check the fans in
                 your case are still working, as your disk (and perhaps
                 other hardware might be overheating).</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>The processor running is overheating: This might be
                 because the processor has been overclocked, or the fan on
                 the processor might have died. In either case you need to
                 ensure that you have hardware running at what it is
                 specified to run at, at least while trying to solve this
                 problem. i.e. Clock it back to the default settings.</para>
 
               <para>If you are overclocking then note that it is far cheaper
                 to have a slow system than a fried system that needs
                 replacing! Also the wider community is not often
                 sympathetic to problems on overclocked systems, whether you
                 believe it is safe or not.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Dodgy memory: If you have multiple memory SIMMS/DIMMS
                 installed then pull them all out and try running the
                 machine with each SIMM or DIMM individually and narrow the
                 problem down to either the problematic DIMM/SIMM or perhaps
                 even a combination.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Over-optimistic Motherboard settings: In your BIOS
                 settings, and some motherboard jumpers you have options to
                 set various timings, mostly the defaults will be
                 sufficient, but sometimes, setting the wait states on RAM
                 too low, or setting the <quote>RAM Speed: Turbo</quote> option, or
                 similar in the BIOS will cause strange behavior. A
                 possible idea is to set to BIOS defaults, but it might be
                 worth noting down your settings first!</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Unclean or insufficient power to the motherboard. If you
                 have any unused I/O boards, hard disks, or CDROMs in your
                 system, try temporarily removing them or disconnecting the
                 power cable from them, to see if your power supply can
                 manage a smaller load. Or try another power supply,
                 preferably one with a little more power (for instance, if
                 your current power supply is rated at 250&nbsp;Watts try one
                 rated at 300&nbsp;Watts).</para>
             </listitem>
 
           </orderedlist>
 
           <para>You should also read the SIG11 FAQ (listed below) which has
             excellent explanations of all these problems, albeit from a
             &linux; viewpoint. It also discusses how memory testing software
             or hardware can still pass faulty memory.</para>
 
           <para>Finally, if none of this has helped it is possible that
             you have just found a bug in FreeBSD, and you should follow the
             instructions to send a problem report.</para>
 
           <para>There is an extensive FAQ on this at <ulink
             url="http://www.bitwizard.nl/sig11/">
             the SIG11 problem FAQ</ulink></para>
           </answer>
         </qandaentry>
 
         <qandaentry>
           <question id="trap-12-panic">
             <para>My system crashes with either <errorname>Fatal
               trap 12: page fault in kernel mode</errorname>, or
               <errorname>panic:</errorname>, and spits out a
               bunch of information.  What should I do?</para>
           </question>
 
           <answer>
             <para>The FreeBSD developers are very interested in these
               errors, but need some more information than just the
               error you see.  Copy your full crash message.  Then
               consult the FAQ section on <link linkend=
               "KERNEL-PANIC-TROUBLESHOOTING">kernel panics</link>,
               build a debugging kernel, and get a backtrace.  This
               might sound difficult, but you do not need any
               programming skills; you just have to follow the
               instructions.</para>
           </answer>
         </qandaentry>
 
         <qandaentry>
           <question id="screen-loses-sync">
             <para>Why does the screen go black and lose sync when I
               boot?</para>
           </question>
 
           <answer>
             <para>This is a known problem with the ATI&nbsp;Mach64 video card.
               The problem is that this card uses address
               <literal>2e8</literal>, and the fourth serial port does too.
               Due to a bug (feature?) in the &man.sio.4;
               driver it will touch this port even if you do not have the
               fourth serial port, and <emphasis>even</emphasis> if
               you disable <devicename>sio3</devicename> (the fourth port) which normally uses this
               address.</para>
 
             <para>Until the bug has been fixed, you can use this
               workaround:</para>
 
               <orderedlist>
                 <listitem>
                   <para>Enter <option>-c</option> at the boot prompt.
                     (This will put the kernel into configuration mode).</para>
                 </listitem>
 
                 <listitem>
                   <para>Disable <devicename>sio0</devicename>,
                     <devicename>sio1</devicename>,
                     <devicename>sio2</devicename> and
                     <devicename>sio3</devicename> (all of them).  This way
                     the &man.sio.4; driver does not get activated &mdash; no
                     problems.</para>
                 </listitem>
 
                 <listitem>
                   <para>Type exit to continue booting.</para>
                 </listitem>
               </orderedlist>
 
           <para>If you want to be able to use your serial ports, you will
             have to build a new kernel with the following modification: in
             <filename>/usr/src/sys/dev/sio/sio.c</filename> (or in <filename>/usr/src/sys/pc98/cbus/sio.c</filename> for pc98) find the one
             occurrence of the string <literal>0x2e8</literal> and remove
             that string and the preceding comma (keep the trailing comma).
             Now follow the normal procedure of building a new
             kernel.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="reallybigram">
           <para>Why does FreeBSD only use 64&nbsp;MB of RAM when my system has
             128&nbsp;MB of RAM installed?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Due to the manner in which FreeBSD gets the memory size
             from the BIOS, it can only detect 16&nbsp;bits worth of Kbytes in
             size (65535&nbsp;Kbytes = 64&nbsp;MB) (or less... some BIOSes peg the
             memory size to 16&nbsp;MB).  If you have more than 64&nbsp;MB, FreeBSD will
             attempt to detect it; however, the attempt may fail.</para>
 
           <para>To work around this problem, you need to use the kernel
             option specified below. There is a way to get complete memory
             information from the BIOS, but we do not have room in the
             bootblocks to do it. Someday when lack of room in the
             bootblocks is fixed, we will use the extended BIOS functions to
             get the full memory information...but for now we are stuck with
             the kernel option.</para>
 
           <programlisting>options MAXMEM=<replaceable>n</replaceable></programlisting>
 
           <para>Where <replaceable>n</replaceable> is your memory in
             Kilobytes.  For a 128&nbsp;MB machine, you would want to use
             <literal>131072</literal>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="kmem-map-too-small">
 	  <para>My system has more than 1&nbsp;GB of RAM, and I'm getting panics
 	    with <errorname>kmem_map too small</errorname> messages. What is wrong?
 	    </para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>Normally, FreeBSD determines a number of kernel parameters,
 	    such as as the maximum number of files that can be open
 	    concurrently, from the  amount of memory installed in the
 	    system.  On systems with one gigabyte of RAM or more, this
 	    <quote>auto sizing</quote> mechanism may choose values that are
 	    too high: while starting up, the kernel allocates various tables
 	    and other structures that fill up most of the available kernel
 	    memory. Later on, while the system is running, the kernel has no
 	    more space left for dynamic memory allocations, and
 	    panics.</para>
 
 	  <para>Compile your own kernel, and add the
 	    <option>VM_KMEM_SIZE_MAX</option> to your kernel configuration
 	    file, increasing the maximum size to 400&nbsp;MB
 	    (<option>options VM_KMEM_SIZE_MAX=419430400</option>).
 	    400&nbsp;MB appears to be sufficient for machines with up to
 	    6&nbsp;GB of memory.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
       
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="panic-kmemmap-too-small">
 	  <para>My system does not have 1&nbsp;GB of RAM, and FreeBSD still
 	    panics with <errorname>kmem_map too small</errorname>!
 	    </para>
 	</question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The panic indicates that the system ran out of virtual
             memory for network buffers (specifically, mbuf clusters). You
             can increase the amount of VM available for mbuf clusters by
             following the instructions in the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/configtuning-kernel-limits.html#NMBCLUSTERS">Network
             Limits</ulink> section of the Handbook.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="proc-table-full">
           <para>Why do I get the error <errorname>kernel: proc: table
             is full</errorname>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The FreeBSD kernel will only allow a certain number of
             processes to exist at one time.  The number is based on
             the <varname>kern.maxusers</varname> &man.sysctl.8; variable.
             <varname>kern.maxusers</varname> also affects
             various other in-kernel limits, such as network buffers
             (see <link linkend="panic-kmemmap-too-small">this</link>
             earlier question).  If your machine is heavily loaded, you
             probably want to increase <varname>kern.maxusers</varname>.
             This will increase these other system limits in addition
             to the maximum number of processes.</para>
 
 	  <para>To adjust your <varname>kern.maxusers</varname> value, see
 	    the <ulink
 	    url="&url.books.handbook;/configtuning-kernel-limits.html#KERN-MAXFILES">File/Process
 	    Limits</ulink> section of the Handbook.  (While that
 	    section refers to open files, the same limits apply to
 	    processes.)</para>
 
           <para>If your machine is lightly loaded, and you are simply
             running a very large number of processes, you can adjust
             this with the <varname>kern.maxproc</varname> tunable.  If
             this tunable needs adjustion it needs to be defined in
             in <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename>.  The tunable
             will not get adjusted until the system is rebooted.  For
             more information about tuning tunables, you should see the
             &man.loader.conf.5; and &man.sysctl.conf.5; manual pages.
             If these processes are being run by a single user, you will
             also need to adjust <varname>kern.maxprocperuid</varname>
             to be one less than your new
             <varname>kern.maxproc</varname> value.  (It must be at
             least one less because one system program, &man.init.8;,
             must always be running.)</para>
 
 	  <para>To make a sysctl change permanent place the proper value
 	    in <filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename>.  More information
 	    about system tuning with &man.sysctl.8; can be found at
 	    the <ulink
 	      url="&url.books.handbook;/configtuning-sysctl.html">Tuning
 	      with sysctl</ulink> section of the Handbook.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="cmap-busy-panic">
           <para>Why do I get an error reading <errorname>CMAP
               busy</errorname> when rebooting with a new
             kernel?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The logic that attempts to detect an out of date
             <filename>/var/db/kvm_*.db</filename> files sometimes fails
             and using a mismatched file can sometimes lead to panics.</para>
 
           <para>If this happens, reboot single-user and do:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>rm /var/db/kvm_*.db</userinput></screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="brkadrint-illegal-host-access">
           <para>What does the message <errorname>ahc0: brkadrint,
               Illegal Host Access at seqaddr 0x0</errorname>
             mean?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is a conflict with an Ultrastor SCSI Host Adapter.</para>
 
           <para>During the boot process enter the kernel configuration
             menu and disable
             <devicename>uha0</devicename>,
             which is causing the problem.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="aci0-illegal-cable">
           <para>When I boot my system, I get the error
             <errorname>ahc0: illegal cable configuration</errorname>.
             My cabling is correct.  What is going on?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
            <para>Your motherboard lacks the external logic to support
              automatic termination.  Switch your SCSI BIOS to specify
              the correct termination for your configuration rather
              than automatic termination.  The &man.ahc.4; driver cannot
              determine if the external logic for cable detection (and
              thus auto-termination) is available.  The driver simply
              assumes that this support must exist if the configuration
              contained in the serial EEPROM is set to
              <quote>automatic termination</quote>.  Without the external
              cable detection logic
              the driver will often configure termination incorrectly,
              which can compromise the reliability of the SCSI
              bus.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="mail-loopback">
           <para>Why does Sendmail give me an error reading
             <errorname>mail loops back to
               myself</errorname>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You can find a detailed answer for this question
             in the <ulink
              url="&url.books.handbook;/mail-trouble.html#Q26.5.2.">Handbook</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="remote-fullscreen">
           <para>Why do full screen applications on remote machines
             misbehave?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The remote machine may be setting your terminal type
             to something other than the <literal>cons25</literal> terminal
             type required by the FreeBSD console.</para>
 
           <para>There are a number of possible work-arounds for this
             problem:</para>
             <itemizedlist>
               <listitem>
                 <para>After logging on to the remote machine, set your
                   <envar>TERM</envar> shell variable to <literal>ansi</literal> or
                   <literal>sco</literal> if the remote machine knows
                   about these terminal types.</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Use a VT100 emulator like
                   <application>screen</application> at the FreeBSD console.
                   <application>screen</application> offers you the ability
                   to run multiple concurrent sessions from one terminal,
                   and is a neat program in its own right. Each
                   <application>screen</application> window behaves like a
                   VT100 terminal, so the <envar>TERM</envar> variable at the remote end
                   should be set to <literal>vt100</literal>.</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Install the <literal>cons25</literal> terminal
                   database entry on the remote machine. The way to do this
                   depends on the operating system on the remote machine.
                   The system administration manuals for the remote system
                   should be able to help you here.</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Fire up an X server at the FreeBSD end and login to
                   the remote machine using an X based terminal emulator
                   such as <command>xterm</command> or
                   <command>rxvt</command>. The <envar>TERM</envar> variable at the remote
                   host should be set to <literal>xterm</literal> or
                   <literal>vt100</literal>.</para>
               </listitem>
             </itemizedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="pnp-not-found">
           <para>Why is my PnP card not found (or found as
             <literal>unknown</literal>)?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The reasons for this behavior are explained by the following
             e-mail, posted to the &a.questions; by &a.peter;,
             in answer to a question about an internal modem that was
             no longer found after an upgrade to FreeBSD 4.<replaceable>X</replaceable> (the comments
             in <literal>[]</literal> have been added to clarify the
             context).</para>
 
           <note>
             <para>The contents of this quotation has been updated from
              its original text.</para>
           </note>
 
           <blockquote>
             <para>The PNP bios preconfigured it [the modem] and left it
               laying around in port space, so [in 3.<replaceable>X</replaceable>] the old-style ISA
               probes <quote>found</quote> it there.</para>
 
             <para>Under 4.0, the ISA code is much more PnP-centric. It was
               possible [in 3.<replaceable>X</replaceable>] for an ISA probe to find a
               <quote>stray</quote> device and then for the PNP device ID to
               match and then fail due to resource conflicts.  So, it
               disables the programmable cards first so this double probing
               cannot happen.  It also means that it needs to know the PnP
               IDs for supported PnP hardware.  Making this more user
               tweakable is on the TODO list.</para>
           </blockquote>
 
           <para>To get the device working again requires finding its PnP ID
             and adding it to the list that the ISA probes use to identify
             PnP devices.  This is obtained using &man.pnpinfo.8; to probe the
             device, for example this is the output from &man.pnpinfo.8; for
             an internal modem:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>pnpinfo</userinput>
 Checking for Plug-n-Play devices...
 
 Card assigned CSN #1
 Vendor ID PMC2430 (0x3024a341), Serial Number 0xffffffff
 PnP Version 1.0, Vendor Version 0
 Device Description: Pace 56 Voice Internal Plug & Play Modem
 
 Logical Device ID: PMC2430 0x3024a341 #0
         Device supports I/O Range Check
 TAG Start DF
     I/O Range 0x3f8 .. 0x3f8, alignment 0x8, len 0x8
         [16-bit addr]
     IRQ: 4  - only one type (true/edge)</screen>
 
           <para>[more TAG lines elided]</para>
 
           <screen>TAG End DF
 End Tag
 
 Successfully got 31 resources, 1 logical fdevs
 -- card select # 0x0001
 
 CSN PMC2430 (0x3024a341), Serial Number 0xffffffff
 
 Logical device #0
 IO:  0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8 0x03e8
 IRQ 5 0
 DMA 4 0
 IO range check 0x00 activate 0x01</screen>
 
           <para>The information you require is in the
             <literal>Vendor ID</literal> line at the start of the output.  The
             hexadecimal number in parentheses (<literal>0x3024a341</literal> in this example)
             is the PnP ID and the string immediately before this (<literal>PMC2430</literal>)
             is a unique ASCII ID.</para>
 
           <para>Alternatively, if &man.pnpinfo.8; does not list the card in
             question, &man.pciconf.8; can be used instead.  This is part of
             the output from <command>pciconf -vl</command> for an onboard
             sound chip:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>pciconf -vl</userinput>
 chip1@pci0:31:5:        class=0x040100 card=0x00931028 chip=0x24158086 rev=0x02 hdr=0x00
     vendor   = 'Intel Corporation'
     device   = '82801AA 8xx Chipset AC'97 Audio Controller'
     class    = multimedia
     subclass = audio</screen>
 
           <para>Here, you would use the <varname>chip</varname> value,
             <literal>0x24158086</literal>.</para>
 
           <para>This information (<literal>Vendor ID</literal> or <varname>chip</varname> value) needs adding 
             to the file
             <filename>/usr/src/sys/dev/sio/sio_isa.c</filename>.</para>
 
           <para>You should first make a backup of <filename>sio_isa.c</filename>
             just in case things go wrong.  You will also need it to make the
             patch to submit with your PR (you are going to submit a PR,
             are you not?) then edit <filename>sio_isa.c</filename> and search
             for the line:</para>
 
           <programlisting>static struct isa_pnp_id sio_ids[] = {</programlisting>
 
           <para>Then scroll down to find the correct place to add the entry
             for your device.  The entries look like this, and are sorted on
             the ASCII Vendor ID string which should be included in the
             comment to the right of the line of code along with all (if it
             will fit) or part of the <emphasis>Device Description</emphasis>
             from the output of &man.pnpinfo.8;:</para>
 
           <programlisting>{0x0f804f3f, NULL},     /* OZO800f - Zoom 2812 (56k Modem) */
 {0x39804f3f, NULL},     /* OZO8039 - Zoom 56k flex */
 {0x3024a341, NULL},     /* PMC2430 - Pace 56 Voice Internal Modem */
 {0x1000eb49, NULL},     /* ROK0010 - Rockwell ? */
 {0x5002734a, NULL},     /* RSS0250 - 5614Jx3(G) Internal Modem */</programlisting>
 
           <para>Add the hexadecimal Vendor ID for your device in the
             correct place, save the file, rebuild your kernel, and reboot.
             Your device should now be found as an <devicename>sio</devicename>
             device.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="nlist-failed">
           <para>Why do I get the error <errorname>nlist failed</errorname> when
             running, for example, <command>top</command> or
             <command>systat</command>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The problem is that the application you are trying to run is
             looking for a specific kernel symbol, but, for whatever reason,
             cannot find it; this error stems from one of two problems:</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>Your kernel and userland are not synchronized (i.e., you
                 built a new kernel but did not do an
                 <maketarget>installworld</maketarget>, or vice versa), and
                 thus the symbol table is different from what the user
                 application thinks it is.  If this is the case, simply
                 complete the upgrade process (see
                 <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> for the correct
                 sequence).</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>You are not using <command>/boot/loader</command> to load
                 your kernel, but doing it directly from <filename>boot2</filename> (see
                 &man.boot.8;).  While there is nothing wrong with bypassing
                 <command>/boot/loader</command>, it generally does a better
                 job of making the kernel symbols available to user
                 applications.</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="connection-delay">
           <para>Why does it take so long to connect to my computer via
             <command>ssh</command> or <command>telnet</command>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The symptom: there is a long delay between the time the TCP
             connection is established and the time when the client software
             asks for a password (or, in &man.telnet.1;'s case, when a login
             prompt appears).</para>
 
           <para>The problem: more likely than not, the delay is caused by
             the server software trying to resolve the client's IP address
             into a hostname.  Many servers, including the
             <application>Telnet</application> and <application>SSH</application>
             servers that come with FreeBSD, do this in order to, among
             other things, store the hostname in a log file for future
             reference by the administrator.</para>
 
           <para>The remedy: if the problem occurs whenever you connect from
             your computer (the client) to any server, the problem is with
             the client; likewise, if the problem only occurs when someone
             connects to your computer (the server) the problem is with the
             server.</para>
 
           <para>If the problem is with the client, the only remedy is to
             fix the DNS so the server can resolve it.  If this is on a
             local network, consider it a server problem and keep reading;
             conversely, if this is on the global Internet, you will most
             likely need to contact your ISP and ask them to fix it for
             you.</para>
 
           <para>If the problem is with the server, and this is on a local
             network, you need to configure the server to be able to resolve
             address-to-hostname queries for your local address range.  See
             the &man.hosts.5; and &man.named.8; manual pages for more
             information.  If this is on the global Internet, the problem
             may be that your server's resolver is not functioning
             correctly.  To check, try to look up another host &mdash; say,
             <hostid>www.yahoo.com</hostid>.  If it does not work, that is
             your problem.</para>
 
 	  <para>Following a fresh install of &os;, it is also possible
 	    that domain and nameserver information is missing from
 	    <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename>.  This will often cause
 	    a delay in <application>SSH</application>, as the option
 	    <literal>UseDNS</literal> is set to <literal>yes</literal> by default
 	    in the <filename>sshd_config</filename> file in
 	    <filename>/etc/ssh</filename>.  If this is causing the
 	    problem, you will either need to fill in the missing information
 	    in <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> or set <literal>UseDNS</literal>
 	    to <literal>no</literal> in <filename>sshd_config</filename>
 	    as a temporary workaround.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="stray-irq">
           <para>What does <errorname>stray IRQ</errorname> mean?</para>
         </question>
 	<answer>
 	  <para>Stray IRQs are indications of hardware IRQ glitches,
             mostly from hardware that removes its interrupt request in
             the middle of the interrupt request acknowledge
             cycle.</para>
 	  <para>One has three options for dealing with this:</para>
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>Live with the warnings.  All except the first 5
                 per irq are suppressed anyway.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>Break the warnings by changing the value of
 	        <varname>MAX_STRAY_LOG</varname> from <literal>5</literal>
 	        to <literal>0</literal> in your platform's (e.g. &i386;)
 	        <filename>intr_machdep.c</filename> file and rebuild
 	        the new kernel and all the warnings will be suppressed.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>Break the warnings by installing parallel port
               hardware that uses IRQ&nbsp;7 and the PPP driver for it (this
               happens on most systems), and install an ide drive or
               other hardware that uses IRQ&nbsp;15 and a suitable driver
               for it.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="file-table-full">
           <para>Why does <errorname>file: table is full</errorname> show up
             repeatedly in &man.dmesg.8;?</para>
         </question>
         <answer>
           <para>
             This error message indicates you have exhausted the number
             of available file descriptors on your system.  Please see
             the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/configtuning-kernel-limits.html#KERN-MAXFILES">kern.maxfiles
             </ulink>section of the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/configtuning-kernel-limits.html">Tuning
             Kernel Limits</ulink> section of the Handbook for a
             discussion and solution.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="computer-clock-skew">
 	  <para>Why does the clock on my computer keep incorrect time?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>Your computer has two or more clocks, and FreeBSD has chosen to
 	    use the wrong one.</para>
 
 	  <para>Run &man.dmesg.8;, and check for lines that contain
 	    <literal>Timecounter</literal>.  The one with the highest
 	    quality value that FreeBSD chose.</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dmesg | grep Timecounter</userinput>
 Timecounter "i8254" frequency 1193182 Hz quality 0
 Timecounter "ACPI-fast" frequency 3579545 Hz quality 1000
 Timecounter "TSC" frequency 2998570050 Hz quality 800
 Timecounters tick every 1.000 msec</screen>
 
 	  <para>You can confirm this by checking the
 	    <varname>kern.timecounter.hardware</varname>
 	      &man.sysctl.3;.</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl kern.timecounter.hardware</userinput>
 kern.timecounter.hardware: ACPI-fast</screen>
 
 	  <para>It may be a broken ACPI timer.  The simplest
 	    solution is to disable the ACPI timer in
 	    <filename>/etc/loader.conf</filename>:
 
 	  <programlisting>debug.acpi.disabled="timer"</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>Or the BIOS may modify the TSC clock&mdash;perhaps to change the
 	    speed of the processor when running from batteries, or going into
 	    a power saving mode, but FreeBSD is unaware of these adjustments,
 	    and appears to gain or lose time.</para>
 
 	  <para>In this example, the <literal>i8254</literal> clock is also
 	    available, and can be selected by writing its name to the
 	    <varname>kern.timecounter.hardware</varname>
 	      &man.sysctl.3;.</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl -w kern.timecounter.hardware=i8254</userinput>
 kern.timecounter.hardware: TSC -&gt; i8254</screen>
 
 	  <para>Your computer should now start keeping more accurate
 	    time.</para>
 
 	  <para>To have this change automatically run at boot time, add the
 	    following line to <filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>kern.timecounter.hardware=i8254</programlisting>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="null-null">
 	  <para>Why did my laptop fail to correctly probe PC cards?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>This problem is common on laptops that boot more than
 	    one operating system.  Some non-BSD operating systems
 	    leave PC card hardware in an inconsistent state.
 	    &man.pccardd.8; will detect the card as
 	    <errorname>"(null)""(null)"</errorname> instead of its
 	    actual model.</para>
 
 	  <para>You must remove all power from the PC card slot to
 	    fully reset the hardware.  Completely power off the
 	    laptop.  (Do not suspend it, do not let it go into standby;
 	    the power needs to be completely off.)  Wait a few
 	    moments, and reboot.  Your PC card should work now.</para>
 
 	  <para>Some laptop hardware lies when it claims to be off.
 	    If the above does not work shut down, remove the battery,
 	    wait a moment, replace the battery, and reboot.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="boot-read-error">
           <para>Why does FreeBSD's boot loader display
             <errorname>Read error</errorname> and stop after the BIOS
             screen?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>FreeBSD's boot loader is incorrectly recognizing the hard 
             drive's geometry. This must be manually set within &man.fdisk.8; when
             creating or modifying FreeBSD's slice.
           </para>
 
           <para>The correct drive geometry values can be found within the
             machine's BIOS. Look for the number of cylinders, heads and
             sectors for the particular drive.
           </para>
 
           <para>Within &man.sysinstall.8;'s fdisk, hit
             <keycap>G</keycap> to set the drive geometry.</para>
 
           <para>A dialog will pop up requesting the number of
             cylinders, heads and sectors.  Type the numbers found from
             the BIOS separated by forward slashes.  For example, values
             of 5000 cylinders, 250 heads, and 60 sectors would be entered as
             <userinput>5000/250/60</userinput>.
           </para>
 
           <para>Press <keycap>Enter</keycap> to set the values, and hit
             <keycap>W</keycap> to write the new partition table to the
             drive.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="bootmanager-restore">
           <para>Another operating system destroyed my Boot Manager.  How do I 
             get it back?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Enter &man.sysinstall.8; and choose <guimenuitem>Configure</guimenuitem>,
             then <guimenuitem>Fdisk</guimenuitem>.  Select the disk the Boot Manager resided on
             with the <keycap>Space</keycap> key.  Press 
             <keycap>W</keycap> to write changes to the drive.  A prompt
             will appear asking which boot loader to install.  Select this,
             and it will be restored.
           </para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="indefinite-wait-buffer">
           <para>What does the error <errorname>swap_pager: indefinite
             wait buffer:</errorname> mean?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This means that a process is trying to page memory to
             disk, and the page attempt has hung trying to access the
             disk for more than 20 seconds.  It might be caused by bad
             blocks on the disk drive, disk wiring, cables, or any
             other disk I/O-related hardware.  If the drive itself is
             actually bad, you will also see disk errors in
             <filename>/var/log/messages</filename> and in the output
             of <command>dmesg</command>.  Otherwise, check your cables
             and connections.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="udma-icrc">
           <para>What are <errorname>UDMA ICRC</errorname> errors, and how do I
             fix them?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The &man.ata.4; driver reports <errorname>UDMA ICRC</errorname>
             errors when a DMA transfer to or from a drive is corrupted.
             The driver will retry the operation a few times.  Should
             the retries fail, it will switch from DMA to the slower PIO
             mode of communication with the device.</para>
 
           <para>The problem can be caused by many factors, although
             perhaps the most common cause is faulty or incorrect
             cabling.  Check that the ATA cables are undamaged and rated
             for the Ultra&nbsp;DMA mode in use.  If you are using removable
             drive trays, they must also be compatible.  Be sure that
             all connections are making good contact.  Problems have
             also been noticed when an old drive is installed on the
             same ATA channel as an Ultra&nbsp;DMA&nbsp;66 (or faster) drive.
             Lastly, these errors can indicate that the drive is
             failing.  Most drive vendors provide testing software for
             their drives, so test your drive, and, if necessary, back
             up your data and replace it.</para>
 
           <para>The &man.atacontrol.8; utility can be used to show and
             select the DMA or PIO modes used for each ATA device.  In
             particular, <command>atacontrol mode
             <replaceable>channel</replaceable></command> will show the
             modes in use on a particular ATA channel, where the primary
             channel is numbered 0, and so on.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="lock-order-reversal">
           <para>What is a <errorname>lock order reversal</errorname>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>An answer for this question can be found in the FreeBSD
             Glosssary, see <ulink
               url="&url.books.handbook;/freebsd-glossary.html#LOR-GLOSSARY">LOR</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="called-with-non-sleepable-locks-held">
           <para>What does <errorname>Called ... with the following
             non-sleepable locks held</errorname> mean?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This means that a function that may sleep was called while
               a mutex (or other unsleepable) lock was held.</para>
 
           <para>The reason this is an error is because mutexes are not
               intended to be held for long periods of time; they are
               supposed to only be held to maintain short periods of
               synchronization.  This programming contract allows device
               drivers to use mutexes to synchronize with the rest of the kernel
               during interrupts.  Interrupts (under FreeBSD) may not sleep.
               Hence it is imperative that no subsystem in the kernel
               block for an extended period while holding a mutex.</para>
 
           <para>To catch such errors, assertions may be added to the kernel
               that interact with the &man.witness.4; subsystem to emit a warning
               or fatal error (depending on the system configuration) when
               a potentially blocking call is made while holding a mutex.</para>
 
           <para>In summary, such warnings are non-fatal, however with
               unfortunate timing they could cause undesirable effects
               ranging from a minor blip in the system's responsiveness
               to a complete system lockup.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="touch-not-found">
 	  <para>Why does <maketarget>buildworld</maketarget>/<maketarget>installworld</maketarget> die with the message
 	    <errorname>touch: not found</errorname>?</para>
         </question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>This error does not mean that the &man.touch.1; utility is
 	      missing. The error is instead probably due to the dates of the
 	      files being set sometime in the future. If your CMOS-clock is
 	      set to local time you need to run the command
 	      <command>adjkerntz&nbsp;-i</command> to adjust the kernel clock
 	      when booting into single user mode.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="commercial">
     <title>Commercial Applications</title>
 
       <note>
         <para>This section is still very sparse, though we are hoping, of
           course, that companies will add to it! :) The FreeBSD group has
           no financial interest in any of the companies listed here but
           simply lists them as a public service (and feels that commercial
           interest in FreeBSD can have very positive effects on FreeBSD's
           long-term viability). We encourage commercial software vendors to
           send their entries here for inclusion. See <ulink
           url="&url.base;/commercial/index.html">the
           Vendors page</ulink> for a longer list.</para>
       </note>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="officesuite">
           <para>Where can I get an Office Suite for FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>The open-source <application><ulink
 	      url="http://www.openoffice.org">OpenOffice.org</ulink></application> office
 	    suite works natively on FreeBSD.  The &linux; version of
 	    <application><ulink
 	      url="http://www.sun.com/staroffice/">StarOffice</ulink></application>,
 	    the value-added closed-source version of OpenOffice.org, also
 	    works on FreeBSD.</para>
 
 	  <para>FreeBSD also includes a variety of text editors,
 	    spreadsheets, and drawing programs in the Ports
 	    Collection.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="motif">
           <para>Where can I get <application>&motif;</application> for FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>The Open Group has released the source code to <application>&motif;&nbsp;2.2.2</application>.
 	    You can install the <filename
 	      role="package">x11-toolkits/open-motif</filename> package, or
 	    compile it from ports.  Refer to
 	    <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/ports.html">the ports section of the
 	      Handbook</ulink> for more information on how to do this.</para>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para>The <application>Open&nbsp;&motif;</application> distribution only allows redistribution
 	      if it is running on an <ulink url="http://www.opensource.org/">
 	      open source</ulink> operating system.</para>
 	  </note>
 
           <para>In addition, there are commercial distributions of the <application>&motif;</application>
             software available.  These, however, are not for free, but their
             license allows them to be used in closed-source software.
 	    Contact <link linkend="apps2go">Apps2go</link> for the
             least expensive ELF <application>&motif;&nbsp;2.1.20</application> distribution for FreeBSD
             (&i386;).<anchor id="apps2go"></para>
 
           <para>There are two distributions, the <quote>development
             edition</quote> and the <quote>runtime edition</quote> (for
             much less).  These distributions includes:</para>
 
             <itemizedlist>
               <listitem>
                 <para><application>OSF/&motif; manager</application>, <application>xmbind</application>, <application>panner</application>, <application>wsm</application>.</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Development kit with uil, mrm, xm, xmcxx, include
                   and <application>Imake</application> files.</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Static and dynamic ELF libraries.</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Demonstration applets.</para>
               </listitem>
             </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>Be sure to specify that you want the FreeBSD version of
             <application>&motif;</application> when ordering (do not forget to mention the architecture
             you want too)! Versions for NetBSD and OpenBSD are also sold by
             <emphasis>Apps2go</emphasis>. This is currently a FTP only
             download.</para>
 
             <variablelist>
               <varlistentry>
                 <term>More info</term>
                 <listitem>
                   <para><ulink url="http://www.apps2go.com/">
                     Apps2go WWW page</ulink></para>
                 </listitem>
               </varlistentry>
 
               <varlistentry>
                 <term>or</term>
                   <listitem>
                     <para>
                       <email>sales@apps2go.com</email> or
                       <email>support@apps2go.com</email>
                       </para>
                   </listitem>
                 </varlistentry>
 
                 <varlistentry>
                   <term>or</term>
                   <listitem>
                     <para>phone (817)&nbsp;431&nbsp;8775  or +1&nbsp;817&nbsp;431-8775</para>
                   </listitem>
                 </varlistentry>
               </variablelist>
 
        </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="cde">
           <para>Where can I get <application>CDE</application> for FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para><link linkend="xig">Xi Graphics</link> used to sell <application>CDE</application>
             for FreeBSD, but no longer do.</para>
 
           <para><ulink url="http://www.kde.org/"><application>KDE</application></ulink> is an open
             source X11 desktop which is similar to <application>CDE</application> in many respects.
             You might also like the look and feel of <ulink
               url="http://www.xfce.org/"><application>xfce</application></ulink>.  <application>KDE</application> and <application>xfce</application> are both
             in the <ulink url="&url.base;/ports/index.html">ports
             system</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="commercial-xserver">
           <para>Are there any commercial high-performance X servers?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes, <ulink url="http://www.xig.com/">Xi Graphics</ulink>
             sells Accelerated-X products for FreeBSD and other Intel based
             systems.</para>
 
           <para>The <emphasis>Xi Graphics</emphasis> offering is a high performance X Server
             that offers easy configuration, support for multiple concurrent
             video boards and is distributed in binary form only, in a
             unified diskette distribution for FreeBSD and &linux;.  <emphasis>Xi
             Graphics</emphasis> also offers a high performance X Server tailored for
             laptop support.<anchor id="xig"></para>
 
           <para>There is a free <quote>compatibility demo</quote> of
             version 5.0 available.</para>
 
           <para><emphasis>Xi Graphics</emphasis> also sells <application>&motif;</application> and <application>CDE</application> for FreeBSD (see
             above).</para>
 
             <variablelist>
               <varlistentry>
                 <term>More info</term>
                 <listitem>
                   <para><ulink url="http://www.xig.com/">
                     Xi Graphics WWW page</ulink></para>
                 </listitem>
               </varlistentry>
 
               <varlistentry>
                 <term>or</term>
                   <listitem>
                     <para><email>sales@xig.com</email>
                       or <email>support@xig.com</email>
                       </para>
                   </listitem>
                 </varlistentry>
 
                 <varlistentry>
                   <term>or</term>
                   <listitem>
                     <para>phone (800)&nbsp;946&nbsp;7433  or +1&nbsp;303&nbsp;298-7478.</para>
                   </listitem>
                 </varlistentry>
               </variablelist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="database-systems">
           <para>Are there any Database systems for FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes! See the <ulink
             url="&url.base;/commercial/software_bycat.html#CATEGORY_DATABASE">
             Commercial Vendors</ulink> section of FreeBSD's Web site.</para>
 
           <para>Also see the <ulink
             url="&url.base;/ports/databases.html">
             Databases</ulink> section of the Ports collection.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="oracle-support">
           <para>Can I run <application>&oracle;</application> on FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes. The following pages tell you exactly how to set up
             &linux; <application>&oracle;</application> on FreeBSD:</para>
 
             <itemizedlist>
               <listitem>
                 <para><ulink
 		  url="http://www.unixcities.com/oracle/index.html">
 		  http://www.unixcities.com/oracle/index.html</ulink></para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para><ulink
 		  url="http://www.shadowcom.net/freebsd-oracle9i/">
 		  http://www.shadowcom.net/freebsd-oracle9i/</ulink></para>
 
               </listitem>
             </itemizedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="applications">
     <title>User Applications</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="user-apps">
           <para>So, where are all the user applications?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Please take a look at <ulink
             url="&url.base;/ports/index.html">the ports page</ulink>
             for info on software packages ported to FreeBSD.  The list
             currently tops &os.numports; and is growing daily, so come
             back to check often or subscribe to the
             &a.announce;
             for periodic updates
             on new entries.</para>
 
           <para>Most ports should work on the
 	  6.<replaceable>X</replaceable>, 7.<replaceable>X</replaceable> and 8.<replaceable>X</replaceable> branches.
             Each time a FreeBSD release is made, a snapshot of the
             ports tree at the time of release in also included in the
             <filename>ports/</filename> directory.</para>
 
           <para>We also support the concept of a
             <quote>package</quote>, essentially no more than a compressed
             binary distribution with a little extra intelligence
             embedded in it for doing whatever custom installation work
             is required. A package can be installed and uninstalled
             again easily without having to know the gory details of
             which files it includes.</para>
 
           <para>Use the <guimenuitem>Packages</guimenuitem> package installation menu in
             &man.sysinstall.8; (under the
             <guimenuitem>Configure</guimenuitem> menu item) or invoke the
             &man.pkg.add.1; command on the specific package files you
             are interested in installing. Package files can usually be
             identified by their <filename>.tbz</filename> suffix and
             CDROM distribution people will have a
             <filename>packages/All</filename> directory on their CD
             which contains such files. They can also be downloaded
             over the net for various versions of FreeBSD at the
             following locations:</para>
 
             <variablelist>
               <varlistentry>
 		<term>for 6.<replaceable>X</replaceable>-RELEASE/6-STABLE</term>
                 <listitem>
                   <para><ulink
                     url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-6-stable/">
                       ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-6-stable</ulink></para>
                 </listitem>
               </varlistentry>
 
               <varlistentry>
                 <term>for 7.<replaceable>X</replaceable>-RELEASE/7-STABLE</term>
                 <listitem>
                   <para><ulink
                     url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-7-stable/">
                       ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-7-stable</ulink></para>
                 </listitem>
               </varlistentry>
 
 	            <varlistentry>
                 <term>for 8-CURRENT</term>
                 <listitem>
                   <para><ulink
                     url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-8-current/">
                       ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-8-current</ulink></para>
                 </listitem>
               </varlistentry>
             </variablelist>
 
           <para>or your nearest local mirror site.</para>
 
           <para>Note that all ports may not be available as packages since
             new ones are constantly being added. It is always a good idea
             to check back periodically to see which packages are available
             at the <ulink
               url="ftp://ftp.FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD/">ftp.FreeBSD.org</ulink>
             master site.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="configure-inn">
           <para>How do I configure INN (Internet News) for my machine?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>After installing the <filename
             role="package">news/inn</filename> package or port, an
             excellent place to start is <ulink
             url="http://www.visi.com/~barr/INN.html">Dave
             Barr's INN Page</ulink> where you will find the INN
             FAQ.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="java">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support &java;?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes. Please see <ulink
             url="&url.base;/java/index.html">
             http://www.FreeBSD.org/java/</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ports-4x">
           <para>Why can I not build this port on my 6.<replaceable>X</replaceable> or 7.<replaceable>X</replaceable>-STABLE machine?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you are running a FreeBSD version that lags
             significantly behind <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis> or <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis>, you may need to
             update your Ports Collection; see the <ulink
 	    url="&url.books.porters-handbook;/keeping-up.html">
 	    Keeping Up</ulink> section of the Porter's Handbook for further
 	    information on how to do this.
             If you are up to date,
             then someone might have committed a change to the port which
             works for <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis> but which broke the port for <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis>.  Please
             submit a bug report on this with the
             &man.send-pr.1; command, since the Ports
             Collection is supposed to work for both the <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis> and
             <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis> branches.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="make-index">
 	  <para>I just tried to build <filename>INDEX</filename>
 	    using <command>make <maketarget>index</maketarget></command>, and it failed.
 	    Why?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>First, always make sure that you have a completely
 	    up-to-date Ports Collection.  Errors that affect building
 	    <filename>INDEX</filename> from an up-to-date copy of the
 	    Ports Collection are high-visibility and are thus almost
 	    always fixed immediately.</para>
 
 	  <para>However, if you are up-to-date, perhaps you are seeing
 	    another problem.  <command>make <maketarget>index</maketarget></command> has a
 	    known bug in dealing with incomplete copies of the Ports
 	    Collection.  It assumes that you have a local copy of every
 	    single port that every other port that you have a local copy
 	    of depends on.  To explain, if you have a copy of
 	    <filename>foo/bar</filename> on your disk, and
 	    <filename>foo/bar</filename> depends on
 	    <filename>baz/quux</filename>, then you must also have
 	    a copy of <filename>baz/quux</filename> on your disk, and
 	    the ports <filename>baz/quux</filename> depends on, and
 	    so on.  Otherwise, <command>make <maketarget>index</maketarget></command> has
 	    insufficient information to create its dependency tree.</para>
 
 	  <para>This is particularly a problem for &os; users who
 	    utilize &man.cvsup.1; (or &man.csup.1;) to track the Ports Collection but
 	    choose not to install certain categories by specifying
 	    them in <filename>refuse</filename>.  In theory, one
 	    should be able to refuse categories, but in practice
 	    there are too many ports that depend on ports in other
 	    categories.  Until someone comes up with a solution for
 	    this problem, the general rule is is that if you want to
 	    build <filename>INDEX</filename>, you must have a complete
 	    copy of the Ports Collection.</para>
 
 	  <para>There are rare cases where <filename>INDEX</filename>
 	    will not build due to odd cases involving
 	    <makevar>WITH_<replaceable>*</replaceable></makevar> or
 	    <makevar>WITHOUT_<replaceable>*</replaceable></makevar>
 	    variables being set in <filename>make.conf</filename>.  If
 	    you suspect that this is the case, please try to make
 	    <filename>INDEX</filename> with those make variables turned off
 	    before reporting it to &a.ports;.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="cvsup-in-base">
 	  <para>Why is <application>CVSup</application> not integrated in the main FreeBSD tree?
 	  </para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>The FreeBSD base system is designed as self-hosting &mdash; it
 	    should be possible to build the whole operating system starting
 	    with a very limited set of tools.  Thus, the actual build tools
 	    needed to compile the FreeBSD sources are bundled with the
 	    sources themselves.  This includes a C compiler (&man.gcc.1;),
 	    &man.make.1;, &man.awk.1;, and similar tools.</para>
 
 	  <para>Since <application>CVSup</application> is written in Modula-3, adding it to the FreeBSD
 	    base system would also require adding and maintaining a Modula-3
 	    compiler.  This would lead to both an increase in the disk space
 	    consumed by the FreeBSD sources and additional maintenance work.
 	    Thus, it is much easier for both the developers and users to
 	    keep <application>CVSup</application> as a separate port, which can be easily installed as
 	    a package bundled on the FreeBSD installation CDs.</para>
 
 	  <para>However, &os; users are not without an integrated
 	    <application>CVSup</application> compatible client anymore
 	    since FreeBSD&nbsp;6.2-RELEASE.  Thanks to &a.mux;,
 	    <application>CVSup</application> was rewritten in C as
 	    &man.csup.1; and it is the part of the base system by now.
 	    Although it does not implement all the features of
 	    <application>CVSup</application> at the moment, it is good
 	    enough (and really fast!) to keep your sources synchronized.
 	    For systems earlier than 6.2, it can be installed as a port
 	    or package (see <filename role="package">net/csup</filename>).</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ports-update">
            <para>I updated the sources, now how do I update my installed
              ports?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>FreeBSD does not include a port upgrading tool, but it
             does have some tools to make the upgrade process somewhat
             easier.  You can also install additional tools to simplify
             port handling, see the
             <ulink
               url="&url.books.handbook;/ports-using.html">Upgrading Ports</ulink>
             section in the FreeBSD Handbook.</para>
        </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="minimal-sh">
           <para>Why is <command>/bin/sh</command> so minimal?  Why does
             FreeBSD not use <command>bash</command> or another shell?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Because &posix; says that there shall be such a shell.</para>
 
           <para>The more complicated answer: many people need to write shell
             scripts which will be portable across many systems. That is why
             &posix; specifies the shell and utility commands in great detail.
             Most scripts are written in Bourne shell, and because several
             important programming interfaces (&man.make.1;, &man.system.3;,
             &man.popen.3;, and analogues in higher-level scripting
             languages like Perl and Tcl) are specified to use the Bourne
             shell to interpret commands. Because the Bourne shell is so
             often and widely used, it is important for it to be quick to
             start, be deterministic in its behavior, and have a small
             memory footprint.</para>
 
           <para>The existing implementation is our best effort at meeting as
             many of these requirements simultaneously as we can. In order to
             keep <command>/bin/sh</command> small, we have not provided many
             of the convenience features that other shells have. That is why the
             Ports Collection includes more featureful shells like <command>bash</command>, <command>scsh</command>,
             <command>tcsh</command>, and <command>zsh</command>.  (You can compare for yourself the memory
             utilization of all these shells by looking at the
             <quote>VSZ</quote> and <quote>RSS</quote> columns in a
             <command>ps <option>-u</option></command> listing.)</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="netscape-slow-startup">
           <para>Why do <application>&netscape;</application> and <application>Opera</application> take so long to
             start?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The usual answer is that DNS on your system is
             misconfigured.  Both <application>&netscape;</application> and <application>Opera</application> perform DNS checks
             when starting up.  The browser will not appear on your
             desktop until the program either gets a response or
             determines that the system has no network
             connection.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="ports-base-update">
 	  <para>I updated parts of the Ports Collection using <application>CVSup</application>, and
 	    now many ports fail to build with mysterious error messages!
 	    What happened?  Is the Ports Collection broken in some major
 	    way?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>If you only update parts of the Ports Collection, using
 	    one of its <application>CVSup</application> subcollections and not the
 	    <literal>ports-all</literal> <application>CVSup</application> collection, you should
 	    <emphasis>always</emphasis> update the
 	    <literal>ports-base</literal> subcollection too!  The reasons
 	    are described <ulink
 	    url="&url.books.handbook;/cvsup.html#CVSUP-COLLEC-PBASE-WARN">in the
 	    Handbook</ulink>.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="midi-sound-files">
 	  <para>How do I create audio CDs from my MIDI files?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer><para>To create audio CDs from MIDI files, first
           install <filename role="package">audio/timidity++</filename>
           from ports then install manually the GUS patches set by Eric
           A. Welsh, available at <ulink
           url="http://alleg.sourceforge.net/digmid.html"></ulink>.
           After <application>TiMidity++</application> has been installed properly, MIDI files may
           be converted to WAV files with the following command
           line:</para>
 
         <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>timidity -Ow -s 44100 -o <replaceable>/tmp/juke/01.wav</replaceable> <replaceable>01.mid</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
           <para>The WAV files can then be converted to other formats
             or burned onto audio CDs, as described in the <ulink
               url="&url.books.handbook;/creating-cds.html">FreeBSD Handbook</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="kernelconfig">
     <title>Kernel Configuration</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="make-kernel">
           <para>I would like to customize my kernel. Is it difficult?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Not at all! Check out the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/kernelconfig.html">
             kernel config section of the Handbook</ulink>.</para>
 
             <note>
 	      <para>The new <filename>kernel</filename> will be installed
 	        to the <filename>/boot/kernel</filename> directory along
 	        with its modules, while the old kernel and its modules
 	        will be moved to the <filename>/boot/kernel.old</filename>
 	        directory, so if you make a mistake the next time you
 	        play with your configuration you can boot the previous
 	        version of your kernel.</para>
             </note>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="missing-hw-float">
           <para>My kernel compiles fail because
             <literal>_hw_float</literal> is missing.  How do I solve
             this problem?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You probably removed <devicename>npx0</devicename>
             (see &man.npx.4;) from your kernel configuration file
             because you do not have a math co-processor.  The
             <devicename>npx0</devicename> device is
             <emphasis>MANDATORY</emphasis>.  Somewhere inside your
             hardware lies a device that provides hardware
             floating-point support, even if it is no longer a separate
             device as used in the good old 386 days.  You
             <emphasis>must</emphasis> include the
             <devicename>npx0</devicename> device.  Even if you manage
             to build a kernel without <devicename>npx0</devicename>
             support, it will not boot anyway. </para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="why-kernel-big">
           <para>Why is my kernel so big (over 10&nbsp;MB)?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Chances are, you compiled your kernel in
             <emphasis>debug mode</emphasis>.  Kernels built in debug
             mode contain many symbols that are used for debugging,
             thus greatly increasing the size of the kernel.  Note that
             there will be little or no performance decrease from
             running a debug kernel, and it is useful to keep one
             around in case of a system panic.</para>
 
           <para>However, if you are running low on disk space, or
             you simply do not want to run a debug kernel, make sure
             that both of the following are true:</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>You do not have a line in your kernel
                 configuration file that reads:</para>
 
               <programlisting>makeoptions DEBUG=-g</programlisting>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>You are not running &man.config.8; with
                 the <option>-g</option> option.</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>Either of the above settings will cause your kernel to
             be built in debug mode.  As long as you make sure you
             follow the steps above, you can build your kernel
             normally, and you should notice a fairly large size
             decrease; most kernels tend to be around 1.5&nbsp;MB to
             2&nbsp;MB.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="multiport-serial-interrupts">
           <para>Why do I get interrupt conflicts with multi-port serial
             code?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>When I compile a kernel
             with multi-port serial code, it tells me that only the first
             port is probed and the rest skipped due to interrupt conflicts.
             How do I fix this?</para>
 
           <para>The problem here is that
             FreeBSD has code built-in to keep the kernel from getting
             trashed due to hardware or software conflicts. The way to fix
             this is to leave out the IRQ settings on all but one port. Here
             is an example:</para>
 
           <programlisting>#
 # Multiport high-speed serial line - 16550 UARTS
 #
 device sio2 at isa? port 0x2a0 tty irq 5 flags 0x501 vector siointr
 device sio3 at isa? port 0x2a8 tty flags 0x501 vector siointr
 device sio4 at isa? port 0x2b0 tty flags 0x501 vector siointr
 device sio5 at isa? port 0x2b8 tty flags 0x501 vector siointr</programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="generic-kernel-build-failure">
           <para>Why does every kernel I try to build fail to compile, even
             GENERIC?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>There are a number of possible causes for this problem.
             They are, in no particular order:</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>You are not using the <command>make <maketarget>buildkernel</maketarget></command>
                 and <command>make <maketarget>installkernel</maketarget></command> targets, and your source tree is
                 different from the one used to build the currently running
                 system (e.g., you are compiling &rel.current;-RELEASE on a &rel2.current;-RELEASE
                 system).  If you are attempting an upgrade, please read the
                 <filename>/usr/src/UPDATING</filename> file, paying
                 particular attention to the <quote>COMMON ITEMS</quote>
                 section at the end.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>You are using the <command>make <maketarget>buildkernel</maketarget></command>
                 and <command>make <maketarget>installkernel</maketarget></command> targets, but you failed to assert
                 the completion of the <command>make <maketarget>buildworld</maketarget></command>
                 target.  The <command>make <maketarget>buildkernel</maketarget></command> target
                 relies on files generated by the <command>make <maketarget>buildworld</maketarget></command>
                 target to complete its job correctly.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Even if you are trying to build <link
                 linkend="stable">FreeBSD-STABLE</link>, it is possible that
                 you fetched the source tree at a time when it was either
                 being modified, or broken for other reasons; only releases
                 are absolutely guaranteed to be buildable, although <link
                 linkend="stable">FreeBSD-STABLE</link> builds fine the
                 majority of the time.  If you have not already done so, try
                 re-fetching the source tree and see if the problem goes
                 away.  Try using a different server in case the one you are
                 using is having problems.</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="scheduler-in-use">
           <para>How can I verify which scheduler is in use on a
             running system?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>Check for
 	    the existence of the <varname>kern.sched.quantum</varname> sysctl.
 	    If you have it, you should see something like this:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.user; sysctl <replaceable>kern.sched.quantum</replaceable>
 kern.sched.quantum: 99960</screen>
 
 	  <para>If the <varname>kern.sched.quantum</varname> sysctl exists, you are
 	    using the 4BSD scheduler (&man.sched.4bsd.4;).  If not, you will get an error printed
 	    by &man.sysctl.8; (which you can safely ignore):</para>
 
 	    <screen>&prompt.user; sysctl <replaceable>kern.sched.quantum</replaceable>
 sysctl: unknown oid 'kern.sched.quantum'</screen>
 
 	  <para>The name of the
 	    scheduler currently being used is directly available as the value
 	    of the <varname>kern.sched.name</varname> sysctl:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.user; sysctl <replaceable>kern.sched.name</replaceable>
 kern.sched.name: 4BSD</screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="scheduler-kern-quantum">
           <para>What is <varname>kern.sched.quantum</varname>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para><varname>kern.sched.quantum</varname> is the maximum number of
             ticks a process can run without being preempted.  It is
             specific to the 4BSD scheduler, so you can use its
             presence or absence to determine which scheduler is in
             use.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="disks">
     <title>Disks, Filesystems, and Boot Loaders</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="adding-disks">
           <para>How can I add my new hard disk to my FreeBSD system?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>See the <ulink
               url="&url.books.handbook;/add-disks.html">Adding Disks</ulink>
              section in the FreeBSD Handbook.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="new-huge-disk">
           <para>How do I move my system over to my huge new disk?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The best way is to reinstall the OS on the new
             disk, then move the user data over.  This is highly
             recommended if you have been tracking <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis> for more
             than one release, or have updated a release instead of
             installing a new one.  You can install booteasy on both
             disks with &man.boot0cfg.8;, and dual boot them until
             you are happy with the new configuration.  Skip the
             next paragraph to find out how to move the data after
             doing this.</para>
 
           <para>Should you decide not to do a fresh install, you
             need to partition and label the new disk with either
             &man.sysinstall.8;, or &man.fdisk.8;
             and &man.disklabel.8;.  You should also install booteasy
             on both disks with &man.boot0cfg.8;, so that you can
             dual boot to the old or new system after the copying
             is done.  See the <ulink
             url="&url.articles.formatting-media;/index.html">
             formatting-media article</ulink> for details on this
             process.</para>
 
           <para>Now you have the new disk set up, and are ready
             to move the data.  Unfortunately, you cannot just blindly
             copy the data.  Things like device files (in
 	    <filename>/dev</filename>), flags, and links tend to
             screw that up.  You need to use tools that understand
             these things, which means &man.dump.8;.
             Although it is suggested that you move the data in single user
             mode, it is not required.</para>
 
           <para>You should never use anything but &man.dump.8; and
             &man.restore.8; to move the root filesystem.  The
             &man.tar.1; command may work &mdash; then again, it may not.
             You should also use &man.dump.8; and &man.restore.8;
             if you are moving a single partition to another empty
             partition.  The sequence of steps to use <command>dump</command> to move
             a partitions data to a new partition is:</para>
 
           <procedure>
             <step>
               <para><command>newfs</command> the new partition.</para>
             </step>
 
             <step>
               <para><command>mount</command> it on a temporary mount point.</para>
             </step>
 
             <step>
               <para><command>cd</command> to that directory.</para>
             </step>
 
             <step>
               <para><command>dump</command> the old partition, piping output to the
                 new one.</para>
             </step>
           </procedure>
 
           <para>For example, if you are going to move root to
             <devicename>/dev/<replaceable>ad1s1a</replaceable></devicename>, with
             <filename><replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></filename> as the temporary mount point,
             it is:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>newfs /dev/<replaceable>ad1s1a</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>mount /dev/<replaceable>ad1s1a</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cd <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>dump 0af - / | restore xf -</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Rearranging your partitions with <command>dump</command> takes a bit more
             work. To merge a partition like <filename>/var</filename>
             into its parent, create the new partition large enough
             for both, move the parent partition as described above,
             then move the child partition into the empty directory
             that the first move created:</para>
 	  
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>newfs /dev/<replaceable>ad1s1a</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>mount /dev/<replaceable>ad1s1a</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cd <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>dump 0af - / | restore xf -</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cd var</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>dump 0af - /var | restore xf -</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para>To split a directory from its parent, say putting
 	    <filename>/var</filename> on its own partition when it was not
 	    before, create both partitions, then mount the child partition
 	    on the appropriate directory in the temporary mount point, then
 	    move the old single partition:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>newfs /dev/<replaceable>ad1s1a</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>newfs /dev/<replaceable>ad1s1d</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>mount /dev/<replaceable>ad1s1a</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>mkdir <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable>/var</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>mount /dev/<replaceable>ad1s1d</replaceable> <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable>/var</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>cd <replaceable>/mnt</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>dump 0af - / | restore xf -</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>You might prefer &man.cpio.1;, &man.pax.1;,
             &man.tar.1; to &man.dump.8; for user data. At the time of
             this writing, these are known to lose file flag information,
             so use them with caution.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="dangerously-dedicated">
           <para>Will a <quote>dangerously dedicated</quote> disk endanger
             my health?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para><anchor id="dedicate">The installation procedure allows
             you to chose two different methods in partitioning your
             hard disk(s). The default way makes it compatible with other
             operating systems on the same machine, by using &man.fdisk.8; table
             entries (called <quote>slices</quote> in FreeBSD), with a
             FreeBSD slice that employs partitions of its own. Optionally,
             one can chose to install a boot-selector to switch between the
             possible operating systems on the disk(s). The alternative uses
             the entire disk for FreeBSD, and makes no attempt to be
             compatible with other operating systems.</para>
 
           <para>So why it is called <quote>dangerous</quote>?  A disk
             in this mode does not contain what normal PC utilities
             would consider a valid &man.fdisk.8; table. Depending on how well
             they have been designed, they might complain at you once
             they are getting in contact with such a disk, or even
             worse, they might damage the BSD bootstrap without even
             asking or notifying you. In addition, the
             <quote>dangerously dedicated</quote> disk's layout is
             known to confuse many BIOSes, including those from AWARD
             (e.g. as found in HP Netserver and Micronics systems as
             well as many others) and Symbios/NCR (for the popular
             53C8xx range of SCSI controllers). This is not a complete
             list, there are more. Symptoms of this confusion include
             the <errorname>read error</errorname> message printed by
             the FreeBSD bootstrap when it cannot find itself, as well
             as system lockups when booting.</para>
 
           <para>Why have this mode at all then?  It only saves a few kbytes
             of disk space, and it can cause real problems for a new
             installation. <quote>Dangerously dedicated</quote> mode's
             origins lie in a desire to avoid one of the most common
             problems plaguing new FreeBSD installers &mdash; matching the BIOS
             <quote>geometry</quote> numbers for a disk to the disk
             itself.</para>
 
           <para><quote>Geometry</quote> is an outdated concept, but one
             still at the heart of the PC's BIOS and its interaction with
             disks. When the FreeBSD installer creates slices, it has to
             record the location of these slices on the disk in a fashion
             that corresponds with the way the BIOS expects to find them. If
             it gets it wrong, you will not be able to boot.</para>
 
           <para><quote>Dangerously dedicated</quote> mode tries to work
             around this by making the problem simpler. In some cases, it
             gets it right. But it is meant to be used as a last-ditch
             alternative &mdash; there are better ways to solve the problem 99
             times out of 100.</para>
 
           <para>So, how do you avoid the need for <quote>DD</quote> mode
             when you are installing? Start by making a note of the geometry
             that your BIOS claims to be using for your disks. You can
             arrange to have the kernel print this as it boots by specifying
             <option>-v</option> at the <literal>boot:</literal> prompt, or
             using <command>boot -v</command> in the loader. Just before the
             installer starts, the kernel will print a list of BIOS
             geometries. Do not panic &mdash; wait for the installer to start and
             then use scrollback to read the numbers. Typically the BIOS
             disk units will be in the same order that FreeBSD lists your
             disks, first IDE, then SCSI.</para>
 
           <para>When you are slicing up your disk, check that the disk
             geometry displayed in the FDISK screen is correct (ie. it
             matches the BIOS numbers); if it is wrong, use the
             <keycap>G</keycap> key to fix it. You may have to do this if
             there is absolutely nothing on the disk, or if the disk has been
             moved from another system. Note that this is only an issue with
             the disk that you are going to boot from; FreeBSD will sort
             itself out just fine with any other disks you may have.</para>
 
           <para>Once you have got the BIOS and FreeBSD agreeing about the
             geometry of the disk, your problems are almost guaranteed to be
             over, and with no need for <quote>DD</quote> mode at all. If,
             however, you are still greeted with the dreaded <errorname>read
             error</errorname> message when you try to boot, it is time to cross
             your fingers and go for it - there is nothing left to
             lose.</para>
 
           <para>To return a <quote>dangerously dedicated</quote> disk
             for normal PC use, there are basically two options. The first
             is, you write enough NULL bytes over the MBR to make any
             subsequent installation believe this to be a blank disk. You
             can do this for example with</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/<replaceable>rda0</replaceable> count=15</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Alternatively, the undocumented DOS
             <quote>feature</quote></para>
 
           <screen><prompt>C:\&gt;</prompt> <userinput>fdisk /mbr</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>will to install a new master boot record as well, thus
             clobbering the BSD bootstrap.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="safe-softupdates">
           <para>Which partitions can safely use Soft Updates?  I have
             heard that Soft Updates on <filename>/</filename> can cause
             problems.</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Short answer: you can usually use Soft Updates safely
             on all partitions.</para>
 
           <para>Long answer: There used to be some concern over using
             Soft Updates on the root partition.  Soft Updates has two
             characteristics that caused this.  First, a Soft Updates
             partition has a small chance of losing data during a
             system crash.  (The partition will not be corrupted; the
             data will simply be lost.)  Also, Soft Updates can cause
             temporary space shortages.</para>
 
           <para>When using Soft Updates, the kernel can take up to
             thirty seconds to actually write changes to the physical
             disk.  If you delete a large file, the file still resides
             on disk until the kernel actually performs the deletion.
             This can cause a very simple race condition.  Suppose you
             delete one large file and immediately create another large
             file.  The first large file is not yet actually removed
             from the physical disk, so the disk might not have enough
             room for the second large file.  You get an error that the
             partition does not have enough space, although you know
             perfectly well that you just released a large chunk of
             space!  When you try again mere seconds later, the file
             creation works as you expect.  This has left more than one
             user scratching his head and doubting his sanity, the
             FreeBSD filesystem, or both.</para>
 
           <para>If a system should crash after the kernel accepts a
             chunk of data for writing to disk, but before that data is
             actually written out, data could be lost or corrupted.
             This risk is extremely small, but generally manageable.
             Use of IDE write caching greatly increases this risk; it
             is strongly recommended that you disable IDE write caching
             when using Soft Updates.</para>
 
           <para>These issues affect all partitions using Soft Updates.
             So, what does this mean for the root partition?</para>
 
           <para>Vital information on the root partition changes very
             rarely.  Files such as <filename>/boot/kernel/kernel</filename> and
             the contents of <filename>/etc</filename> only change
             during system maintenance, or when users change their
             passwords.  If the system crashed during the
             thirty-second window after such a change is made, it is
             possible that data could be lost.  This risk is negligible
             for most applications, but you should be aware that it
             exists.  If your system cannot tolerate this much risk,
             do not use Soft Updates on the root filesystem!</para>
 
           <para><filename>/</filename> is traditionally one of the
             smallest partitions.  If you put the
             <filename>/tmp</filename> directory on
             <filename>/</filename> and you have a busy
             <filename>/tmp</filename>, you might see intermittent
             space problems.  Symlinking <filename>/tmp</filename> to
             <filename>/var/tmp</filename> will solve this
             problem.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="inappropriate-ccd">
           <para>What is inappropriate about my &man.ccd.4;?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The symptom of this is:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ccdconfig -C</userinput>
 ccdconfig: ioctl (CCDIOCSET): /dev/<replaceable>ccd0c</replaceable>: Inappropriate file type or format</screen>
 
           <para>This usually happens when you are trying to concatenate
             the <literal>c</literal> partitions, which default to type
             <literal>unused</literal>. The &man.ccd.4; driver requires the
             underlying partition type to be <literal>FS_BSDFFS</literal>. Edit the disklabel
             of the disks you are trying to concatenate and change the types
             of partitions to <literal>4.2BSD</literal>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ccd-disklabel">
           <para>Why can I not edit the disklabel on my &man.ccd.4;?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The symptom of this is:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>disklabel <replaceable>ccd0</replaceable></userinput>
 (it prints something sensible here, so let us try to edit it)
 &prompt.root; <userinput>disklabel -e <replaceable>ccd0</replaceable></userinput>
 (edit, save, quit)
 disklabel: ioctl DIOCWDINFO: No disk label on disk;
 use "disklabel -r" to install initial label</screen>
 
           <para>This is because the disklabel returned by &man.ccd.4; is actually
             a <quote>fake</quote> one that is not really on the disk.
             You can solve this problem by writing it back explicitly,
             as in:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>disklabel <replaceable>ccd0</replaceable> &gt; <replaceable>/tmp/disklabel.tmp</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>disklabel -Rr <replaceable>ccd0</replaceable> <replaceable>/tmp/disklabel.tmp</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>disklabel -e <replaceable>ccd0</replaceable></userinput>
 (this will work now)</screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="mount-foreign-fs">
           <para>Can I mount other foreign filesystems under FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>FreeBSD supports a variety of other
 	    filesystems.</para>
 
           <variablelist>
             <varlistentry>
               <term>UFS</term>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>UFS CDROMs can be mounted directly on FreeBSD.
                   Mounting disk partitions from Digital UNIX and other
                   systems that support UFS may be more complex, depending
                   on the details of the disk partitioning for the operating
                   system in question.</para>
               </listitem>
             </varlistentry>
 
             <varlistentry>
               <term>ext2/ext3</term>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>FreeBSD supports <literal>ext2fs</literal> and <literal>ext3fs</literal>
                   partitions.  See &man.mount.ext2fs.8; for more
                   information.</para>
               </listitem>
             </varlistentry>
 
             <varlistentry>
               <term>NTFS</term>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>FreeBSD includes a read-only NTFS driver.  For
                   more information, see &man.mount.ntfs.8;.  A port of <ulink
                    url="http://www.ntfs-3g.org"><application>ntfs-3g</application></ulink>
                   supports write operations on NTFS (see <filename
                     role="package">sysutils/fusefs-ntfs</filename>).</para>
               </listitem>
             </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term>FAT</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para>FreeBSD includes a read-write FAT driver.  For
                   more information, see &man.mount.msdosfs.8;.</para>
   	      </listitem>
   	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term>ReiserFS</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para>FreeBSD includes a read-only ReiserFS driver.  For
 		  more information, see &man.mount.reiserfs.8;.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
 
 	    <varlistentry>
 	      <term>ZFS</term>
 
 	      <listitem>
 		<para>As of this writing, FreeBSD includes a
 		  port of &sun;'s ZFS driver.  The current recommendation
 		  is to use it only on &arch.amd64; platforms with sufficient
 		  memory.  For more information, see &man.zfs.8;.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 	    </varlistentry>
           </variablelist>
 
           <para>FreeBSD also supports network filesystems such as NFS
             (see &man.mount.nfs.8;), NetWare (see &man.mount.nwfs.8;),
             and Microsoft-style SMB filesystems (see
             &man.mount.smbfs.8;).  You can find ports based on FUSE (<filename
               role="package">sysutils/fusefs-kmod</filename>) for many other
             filesystems.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="mount-dos">
           <para>How do I mount a secondary DOS partition?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
         <para>The secondary DOS partitions are found after <emphasis>all</emphasis> the
           primary partitions. For example, if you have an
           <quote>E</quote> partition as the second DOS partition on
           the second SCSI drive, there will be a device file
           for <quote>slice 5</quote> in <filename>/dev</filename>,
           so simply mount it:</para>
 
         <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -t msdos /dev/da1s5 /dos/e</userinput></screen>
 
        </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="crypto-filesystem">
           <para>Is there a cryptographic filesystem for &os;?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>Yes.  You can use either &man.gbde.8; or &man.geli.8;,
             see the <ulink
               url="&url.books.handbook;/disks-encrypting.html">Encrypting Disk Partitions</ulink>
             section of the FreeBSD Handbook.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="nt-bootloader">
           <para>How can I use the &windowsnt; loader to boot FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The general idea is that you copy the first sector of your
             native root FreeBSD partition into a file in the DOS/&windowsnt;
             partition. Assuming you name that file something like
             <filename>c:\bootsect.bsd</filename> (inspired by
             <filename>c:\bootsect.dos</filename>), you can then edit the
             <filename>c:\boot.ini</filename> file to come up with something
             like this:</para>
 
           <programlisting>[boot loader]
 timeout=30
 default=multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINDOWS
 [operating systems]
 multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINDOWS="Windows NT"
 C:\BOOTSECT.BSD="FreeBSD"
 C:\="DOS"</programlisting>
 
           <para>If FreeBSD is installed on the same disk as the &windowsnt; boot
             partition simply copy <filename>/boot/boot1</filename> to
             <filename>C:\BOOTSECT.BSD</filename>. However, if FreeBSD is
             installed on a different disk <filename>/boot/boot1</filename>
             will not work, <filename>/boot/boot0</filename> is needed.</para>
 
           <para><filename>/boot/boot0</filename> needs to be installed
             using &man.sysinstall.8; by selecting the FreeBSD boot manager on
             the screen which asks if you wish to use a boot
             manager. This is because <filename>/boot/boot0</filename>
             has the partition table area filled with NULL characters
             but &man.sysinstall.8; copies the partition table before copying
             <filename>/boot/boot0</filename> to the MBR.</para>
 
             <warning>
               <para><emphasis>Do not simply copy <filename>/boot/boot0</filename>
                 instead of <filename>/boot/boot1</filename>; you will
                 overwrite your partition table and render your computer
                 un-bootable!</emphasis></para>
             </warning>
 
           <para>When the FreeBSD boot manager runs it records the last
             OS booted by setting the active flag on the partition table
             entry for that OS and then writes the whole 512-bytes of itself
             back to the MBR so if you just copy
             <filename>/boot/boot0</filename> to
             <filename>C:\BOOTSECT.BSD</filename> then it writes an empty
             partition table, with the active flag set on one entry, to the
             MBR.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="lilo-bootloader">
           <para>How do I boot FreeBSD and &linux; from LILO?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you have FreeBSD and &linux; on the same disk, just follow
             LILO's installation instructions for booting a non-&linux;
             operating system.  Very briefly, these are:</para>
 
           <para>Boot &linux;, and add the following lines to
             <filename>/etc/lilo.conf</filename>:</para>
 
             <programlisting>other=/dev/hda2
         table=/dev/hda
         label=FreeBSD</programlisting>
 
           <para>(the above assumes that your FreeBSD slice is known to
             &linux; as <devicename>/dev/hda2</devicename>; tailor to
             suit your setup).  Then, run <command>lilo</command> as
             <username>root</username> and you should be done.</para>
 
           <para>If FreeBSD resides on another disk, you need to add
             <literal>loader=/boot/chain.b</literal> to the LILO entry.
             For example:</para>
 
           <programlisting>other=/dev/dab4
         table=/dev/dab
         loader=/boot/chain.b
         label=FreeBSD</programlisting>
 
           <para>In some cases you may need to specify the BIOS drive number
             to the FreeBSD boot loader to successfully boot off the second
             disk.  For example, if your FreeBSD SCSI disk is probed by BIOS
             as BIOS disk 1, at the FreeBSD boot loader prompt you need to
             specify:</para>
 
           <screen>Boot: <userinput>1:da(0,a)/boot/kernel/kernel</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>You can configure
             &man.boot.8;
             to automatically do this for you at boot time.</para>
 
           <para>The <ulink
             url="http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Linux+FreeBSD.html">
             &linux;+FreeBSD mini-HOWTO</ulink> is a good reference for
 	    FreeBSD and &linux; interoperability issues.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="grub-loader">
 	  <para>How do I boot &os; and &linux; using GRUB?</para>
         </question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>Booting &os; using GRUB is very simple.  Just
 	    add the following to your configuration file
 	    <filename>/boot/grub/menu.lst</filename> (or
 	    <filename>/boot/grub/grub.conf</filename> in some systems,
 	    e.g. Red Hat Linux and its derivatives).</para>
 	  
 	  <programlisting>title FreeBSD 6.1
 	root <replaceable>(hd0,a)</replaceable>
 	kernel /boot/loader
 	  </programlisting>
 
 	  <para>Where <replaceable>hd0,a</replaceable> points to your root partition
 	    on the first disk.  If you need to specify which slice number
 	    should be used, use something like this <replaceable>(hd0,2,a)</replaceable>.
 	    By default, if the slice number is omitted, GRUB searches the
 	    first slice which has <literal>a</literal> partition.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="booteasy-loader">
           <para>How do I boot FreeBSD and &linux; using <application>BootEasy?</application></para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Install LILO at the start of your &linux; boot partition
             instead of in the Master Boot Record.   You can then boot LILO
             from <application>BootEasy</application>.</para>
 
           <para>If you are running &windows; and &linux; this is recommended
             anyway, to make it simpler to get &linux; booting again if you
             should need to reinstall &windows; (which is a Jealous
             Operating System, and will bear no other Operating Systems in
             the Master Boot Record).</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="changing-bootprompt">
           <para>How do I change the boot prompt from <literal>???</literal> to
             something more meaningful?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You can not do that with the standard boot manager without
             rewriting it. There are a number of other boot managers
             in the <filename>sysutils</filename> ports category that
             provide this functionality.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="removable-drives">
           <para>I have a new removable drive, how do I use it?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>Whether it is a removable drive like a &iomegazip; or an EZ drive
             (or even a floppy, if you want to use it that way), or a new
             hard disk, once it is installed and recognized by the system,
             and you have your cartridge/floppy/whatever slotted in, things
             are pretty much the same for all devices.</para>
 
           <para>(this section is based on <ulink
             url="http://www.vmunix.com/mark/FreeBSD/ZIP-FAQ.html">
             Mark Mayo's ZIP FAQ</ulink>)</para>
 
           <para>If it is a ZIP drive or a floppy, you have already got a DOS
             filesystem on it, you can use a command like this:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -t msdos /dev/fd0c /floppy</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>if it is a floppy, or this:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -t msdos /dev/da2s4 /zip</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>for a ZIP disk with the factory configuration.</para>
 
           <para>For other disks, see how they are laid out using
             &man.fdisk.8; or
             &man.sysinstall.8;.</para>
 
           <para>The rest of the examples will be for a ZIP drive on <devicename>da2</devicename>,
             the third SCSI disk.</para>
 
           <para>Unless it is a floppy, or a removable you plan on sharing
             with other people, it is probably a better idea to stick a BSD
             filesystem on it. You will get long filename support, at least a
             2X improvement in performance, and a lot more stability. First,
             you need to redo the DOS-level partitions/filesystems. You can
             either use &man.fdisk.8; or
             &man.sysinstall.8;, or for a small drive
             that you do not want to bother with multiple operating system
             support on, just blow away the whole FAT partition table
             (slices) and just use the BSD partitioning:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/rda2 count=2</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>disklabel -Brw da2 auto</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>You can use &man.disklabel.8; or
             &man.sysinstall.8; to create multiple BSD
             partitions. You will certainly want to do this if you are adding
             swap space on a fixed disk, but it is probably irrelevant on a
             removable drive like a ZIP.</para>
 
           <para>Finally, create a new filesystem, this one is on our ZIP
             drive using the whole disk:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>newfs /dev/rda2c</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>and mount it:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount /dev/da2c /zip</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>and it is probably a good idea to add a line like this
             to <filename>/etc/fstab</filename> (see &man.fstab.5;) so
             you can just type <command>mount /zip</command> in the
             future:</para>
 
           <programlisting>/dev/da2c /zip ffs rw,noauto 0 0</programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="mount-cd-superblock">
           <para>Why do I get <errorname>Incorrect super block</errorname> when
             mounting a CDROM?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You have to tell &man.mount.8; the type of the device
             that you want to mount.  This is described in the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/creating-cds.html"> Handbook section on
             optical media</ulink>, specifically the section <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/creating-cds.html#MOUNTING-CD">Using Data
             CDs</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="cdrom-not-configured">
           <para>Why do I get <errorname>Device not
             configured</errorname> when mounting a CDROM?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This generally means that there is no CDROM in the
             CDROM drive, or the drive is not visible on the
             bus. Please see the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/creating-cds.html#MOUNTING-CD">Using Data
             CDs</ulink> section of the Handbook for a detailed
             discussion of this issue.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="cdrom-unicode-filenames">
           <para>Why do all non-English characters in filenames show up as
             <quote>?</quote> on my CDs when mounted in FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Your CDROM probably uses the <quote>Joliet</quote>
             extension for storing information about files and
             directories.  This is discussed in the Handbook chapter on
             <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/creating-cds.html">creating and
             using CDROMs</ulink>, specifically the section on <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/creating-cds.html#MOUNTING-CD">Using Data
             CDROMs</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="burncd-isofs">
           <para>I burned a CD under FreeBSD and now I can not read it
             under any other operating system. Why?</para>
         </question>
   
         <answer>
           <para>You most likely burned a raw file to your CD, rather
             than creating an ISO&nbsp;9660 filesystem.  Take a look at the
             <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/creating-cds.html">Handbook
             chapter on creating CDROMs</ulink>, particularly the
             section on <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/creating-cds.html#RAWDATA-CD">burning raw
             data CDs</ulink>.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="copy-cd">
           <para>How can I create an image of a data CD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is discussed in the Handbook section on <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/creating-cds.html#IMAGING-CD">duplicating
             data CDs</ulink>. For more on working with CDROMs, see the
             <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/creating-cds.html">Creating CDs
             Section</ulink> in the Storage chapter in the
             Handbook.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="mount-audio-CD">
           <para>Why can I not <command>mount</command> an audio
           CD?</para>
          </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you try to mount an audio CD, you will get an error
             like <errorname>cd9660: /dev/acd0c: Invalid
             argument</errorname>.  This is because
             <command>mount</command> only works on filesystems.  Audio
             CDs do not have filesystems; they just have data.  You
             need a program that reads audio CDs, such as the
             <filename role="package">audio/xmcd</filename> port.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="multi-session-CD">
           <para>How do I <command>mount</command> a multi-session CD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>By default, &man.mount.8; will attempt to mount the
             last data track (session) of a CD.  If you would like to
             load an earlier session, you must use the
             <option>-s</option> command line argument.  Please see
             &man.mount.cd9660.8; for specific examples.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="user-floppymount">
           <para>How do I let ordinary users mount floppies, CDROMs and
             other removable media?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Ordinary users can be permitted to mount devices. Here is
             how:</para>
 
           <procedure>
             <step>
               <para>As <username>root</username> set the sysctl variable
                 <varname>vfs.usermount</varname> to
                 <literal>1</literal>.</para>
 
               <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl -w vfs.usermount=1</userinput></screen>
             </step>
 
             <step>
               <para>As <username>root</username> assign the appropriate
                 permissions to the block device associated with the
                 removable media.</para>
 
               <para>For example, to allow users to mount the first floppy
                 drive, use:</para>
 
               <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>chmod 666 /dev/fd0</userinput></screen>
 
               <para>To allow users in the group
                 <groupname>operator</groupname> to mount the CDROM drive,
                 use:</para>
 
               <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>chgrp operator /dev/acd0c</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>chmod 640 /dev/acd0c</userinput></screen>
             </step>
 
 	    <step>
 	      <para>You will need to alter 
 		<filename>/etc/devfs.conf</filename> to make these changes
 		permanent across reboots.</para>
 
 	      <para>As <username>root</username>, add the necessary lines to
 		<filename>/etc/devfs.conf</filename>.  For example, to allow
 		  users to mount the first floppy drive add:</para>
 
 	      <programlisting># Allow all users to mount the floppy disk.
 own       /dev/fd0	  root:operator
 perm	  /dev/fd0	  0666</programlisting>
 
 	      <para>To allow users in the group <groupname>operator</groupname>
 		to mount the CD-ROM drive add:</para>
 
 	      <programlisting># Allow members of the group operator to mount CD-ROMs.
 own       /dev/acd0	  root:operator
 perm	  /dev/acd0	  0660</programlisting>
 	    </step>
 
             <step>
               <para>Finally, add the line
                 <literal><varname>vfs.usermount</varname>=1</literal>
                 to the file <filename>/etc/sysctl.conf</filename> so
                 that it is reset at system boot time.</para>
             </step>
           </procedure>
 
           <para>All users can now mount the floppy
             <devicename>/dev/fd0</devicename> onto a directory that they
             own:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>mkdir <replaceable>~/my-mount-point</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.user; <userinput>mount -t msdos /dev/fd0 <replaceable>~/my-mount-point</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Users in group <groupname>operator</groupname> can now
             mount the CDROM <devicename>/dev/acd0c</devicename> onto a
             directory that they own:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>mkdir <replaceable>~/my-mount-point</replaceable></userinput>
 &prompt.user; <userinput>mount -t cd9660 /dev/acd0c <replaceable>~/my-mount-point</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Unmounting the device is simple:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>umount <replaceable>~/my-mount-point</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Enabling <varname>vfs.usermount</varname>, however,
             has negative security implications.  A better way to
             access &ms-dos; formatted media is to use the
             <filename role="package">emulators/mtools</filename>
             package in the Ports Collection.</para>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para>The device name used in the previous examples must be
 	      changed according to your configuration.</para>
 	  </note>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="du-vs-df">
           <para>The <command>du</command> and <command>df</command>
             commands show different amounts of disk space available.
             What is going on?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You need to understand what <command>du</command> and
             <command>df</command> really do.  <command>du</command>
             goes through the directory tree, measures how large each
             file is, and presents the totals.  <command>df</command>
             just asks the filesystem how much space it has left.  They
             seem to be the same thing, but a file without a directory
             entry will affect <command>df</command> but not
             <command>du</command>.</para>
 
           <para>When a program is using a file, and you delete the
             file, the file is not really removed from the filesystem
             until the program stops using it.  The file is immediately
             deleted from the directory listing, however.  You can see
             this easily enough with a program such as
             <command>more</command>.  Assume you have a file large
             enough that its presence affects the output of
             <command>du</command> and <command>df</command>.  (Since
             disks can be so large today, this might be a
             <emphasis>very</emphasis> large file!)  If you delete this
             file while using <command>more</command> on it,
             <command>more</command> does not immediately choke and
             complain that it cannot view the file.  The entry is
             simply removed from the directory so no other program or
             user can access it.  <command>du</command> shows that it
             is gone &mdash; it has walked the directory tree and the file
             is not listed.  <command>df</command> shows that it is
             still there, as the filesystem knows that
             <command>more</command> is still using that space.  Once
             you end the <command>more</command> session,
             <command>du</command> and <command>df</command> will
             agree.</para>
 
           <para>Note that Soft Updates can delay the freeing of disk
             space; you might need to wait up to 30 seconds for the
             change to be visible!</para>
 
           <para>This situation is common on web servers.  Many people
             set up a FreeBSD web server and forget to rotate the log
             files.  The access log fills up <filename>/var</filename>.
             The new administrator deletes the file, but the system
             still complains that the partition is full.  Stopping and
             restarting the web server program would free the file,
             allowing the system to release the disk space.  To prevent
             this from happening, set up &man.newsyslog.8;.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="add-swap-space">
           <para>How can I add more swap space?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>In the <ulink
           url="&url.books.handbook;/config-tuning.html">Configuration and
           Tuning</ulink> section of the Handbook, you will find a
           <ulink
           url="&url.books.handbook;/adding-swap-space.html">section</ulink>
           describing how to do this.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="manufacturer-disk-size">
           <para>Why does &os; see my disk as smaller than the
             manufacturer says it is?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
         <para>Disk manufacturers calculate gigabytes as a billion bytes
           each, whereas &os; calculates them as 1,073,741,824&nbsp;bytes
           each. This explains why, for example, &os;'s boot messages
           will report a disk that supposedly has 80&nbsp;GB as holding 
           76,319&nbsp;MB.</para>
         <para>Also note that &os; will (by default)
           <link linkend="disk-more-than-full">reserve</link> 8% of the disk
           space.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="disk-more-than-full">
           <para>How is it possible for a partition to be more than 100%
             full?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>A portion of each UFS partition (8%, by default) is
 	    reserved for use by the operating system and the
 	    <username>root</username> user.
 	    &man.df.1; does not count that space when
 	    calculating the <literal>Capacity</literal> column, so it can
 	    exceed 100%.  Also, you will notice that the
 	    <literal>Blocks</literal> column is always greater than the
 	    sum of the <literal>Used</literal> and
 	    <literal>Avail</literal> columns, usually by a factor of
 	    8%.</para>
 
 	  <para>For more details, look up the <option>-m</option> option
 	    in &man.tunefs.8;.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="admin">
     <title>System Administration</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="startup-config-files">
           <para>Where are the system start-up configuration files?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The primary configuration file is
             <filename>/etc/defaults/rc.conf</filename> (see
             &man.rc.conf.5;).  System startup scripts such as
             <filename>/etc/rc</filename> and
             <filename>/etc/rc.d</filename> (see &man.rc.8;) just
             include this file.  <emphasis>Do not edit this
             file!</emphasis> Instead, if there is any entry in
             <filename>/etc/defaults/rc.conf</filename> that you want
             to change, you should copy the line into
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and change it
             there.</para>
 
           <para>For example, if you wish to start &man.named.8;, the included
             DNS server, all you need to do is:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>echo named_enable="YES" &gt;&gt; /etc/rc.conf</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>To start up local services, place shell scripts in the
             <filename>/usr/local/etc/rc.d</filename> directory. These
             shell scripts should be set executable, the default file
             mode is <literal>555</literal>.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="adding-users">
           <para>How do I add a user easily?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Use the &man.adduser.8; command, or the &man.pw.8;
             command for more complicated situations.</para>
 
           <para>To remove the user, use the &man.rmuser.8; command or,
             if necessary, &man.pw.8;.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="root-not-found-cron-errors">
           <para>Why do I keep getting messages like <errorname>root: not
             found</errorname> after editing my <filename>crontab</filename> file?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is normally caused by editing the system crontab
             (<filename>/etc/crontab</filename>) and then using
             &man.crontab.1; to install it:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>crontab /etc/crontab</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>This is not the correct way to do things.  The system
             crontab has a different format to the per-user crontabs
             which &man.crontab.1; updates (the &man.crontab.5; manual
             page explains the differences in more detail).</para>
 
           <para>If this is what you did, the extra crontab is simply a
             copy of <filename>/etc/crontab</filename> in the wrong
             format it.  Delete it with the command:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>crontab -r</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Next time, when you edit
             <filename>/etc/crontab</filename>, you should not do
             anything to inform &man.cron.8; of the changes, since it
             will notice them automatically.</para>
 
           <para>If you want something to be run once per day, week, or
             month, it is probably better to add shell scripts
             <filename>/usr/local/etc/periodic</filename>, and let the
             &man.periodic.8; command run from the system <command>cron</command> schedule
             it with the other periodic system tasks.</para>
 
           <para>The actual reason for the error is that the system
             crontab has an extra field, specifying which user to run the
             command as.  In the default system crontab provided with
             FreeBSD, this is <username>root</username> for all entries.
             When this crontab is used as the <username>root</username>
             user's crontab (which is <emphasis>not</emphasis> the
             same as the system crontab), &man.cron.8; assumes the string
             <literal>root</literal> is the first word of the command to
             execute, but no such command exists.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="su-wheel-group">
 	  <para>Why do I get the error, <errorname>you are not in the correct
 	    group to su root</errorname> when I try to <command>su</command> to
 	    <username>root</username>?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>This is a security feature.  In order to <command>su</command> to
 	    <username>root</username> (or any other account with superuser
 	    privileges), you must be in the <groupname>wheel</groupname>
 	    group.  If this feature were not there, anybody with an account
 	    on a system who also found out <username>root</username>'s
 	    password would be able to gain superuser level access to the
 	    system.  With this feature, this is not strictly true;
 	    &man.su.1; will prevent them from even trying to enter the
 	    password if they are not in <groupname>wheel</groupname>.</para>
 
 	  <para>To allow someone to <command>su</command> to <username>root</username>, simply
 	    put them in the <groupname>wheel</groupname> group.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="rcconf-readonly">
           <para>I made a mistake in <filename>rc.conf</filename>,
             or another startup file, and
             now I cannot edit it because the filesystem is read-only.
             What should I do?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Restart the system using <userinput>boot -s</userinput>
             at the loader prompt to enter Single User mode.
             When prompted for a shell
             pathname, simply press <keycap>Enter</keycap>, and run
             <command>mount -urw /</command> to re-mount the root filesystem in
             read/write mode. You may also need to run <command>mount -a -t
             ufs</command> to mount the filesystem where your favorite
             editor is defined. If your favorite editor is on a network
             filesystem, you will need to either configure the network
             manually before you can mount network filesystems, or use an
             editor which resides on a local filesystem, such as
             &man.ed.1;.</para>
 
           <para>If you intend to use a full screen editor such
             as &man.vi.1; or &man.emacs.1;, you may also need to
             run <command>export TERM=cons25</command> so that these
             editors can load the correct data from the &man.termcap.5;
             database.</para>
 
           <para>Once you have performed these steps, you can edit
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> as you usually would
             to fix the syntax error.  The error message displayed
             immediately after the kernel boot messages should tell you
             the number of the line in the file which is at fault.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="printer-setup">
           <para>Why am I having trouble setting up my printer?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>See the <ulink
               url="&url.books.handbook;/printing.html">
             Handbook entry on printing</ulink>.  It should cover
             most of your problem.</para>
 
 	  <para>Some printers require a host-based driver to do any
 	    kind of printing.  These so-called
 	    <quote>WinPrinters</quote> are not natively supported by
 	    &os;.  If your printer does not work in DOS or &windows;,
 	    it is probably a WinPrinter.  Your only hope of
 	    getting one of these to work is to check if the <filename
 	    role="package">print/pnm2ppa</filename> port supports
 	    it.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="keyboard-mappings">
           <para>How can I correct the keyboard mappings for my system?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Please see the Handbook section on <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/using-localization.html">using
             localization</ulink>, specifically the section on <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/using-localization.html#SETTING-CONSOLE">console
             setup</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="pnp-resources">
           <para>Why do I get messages like: <errorname>unknown: &lt;PNP0303&gt;
             can't assign resources</errorname> on boot?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>The following is an excerpt from a post to the
 	    &a.current;.</para>
 
 	  <blockquote>
 	    <attribution>&a.wollman;, 24 April 2001</attribution>
 
 	    <para>The <quote>can't assign resources</quote> messages
 	      indicate that the devices are legacy ISA devices for which a
 	      non-PnP-aware driver is compiled into the kernel.  These
 	      include devices such as keyboard controllers, the
 	      programmable interrupt controller chip, and several other
 	      bits of standard infrastructure.  The resources cannot be
 	      assigned because there is already a driver using those
 	      addresses.</para>
 	  </blockquote>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="user-quotas">
           <para>Why can I not get user quotas to work properly?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
             <!-- XXX
               This may be the worst answer in the entire document.
             -->
             <orderedlist>
               <listitem>
                 <para>It is possible that your kernel is not configured to use
                   quotas.  If this is the case, you will need to add the following
                   line to your kernel configuration file and recompile:</para>
                   <programlisting>options QUOTA</programlisting>
 
 		<para>Please read the <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/quotas.html">Handbook
 		  entry on quotas</ulink> for full details.</para>
 	      </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Do not turn on quotas on <filename>/</filename>.</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para>Put the quota file on the filesystem that the quotas
                   are to be enforced on, i.e.:</para>
 
                 <informaltable frame="none" pgwide="1">
                   <tgroup cols="2">
                     <thead>
                       <row>
                         <entry>Filesystem</entry>
                         <entry>Quota file</entry>
                       </row>
                     </thead>
 
                     <tbody>
                       <row>
                         <entry><filename>/usr</filename></entry>
                         <entry><filename>/usr/admin/quotas</filename></entry>
                       </row>
 
                       <row>
                         <entry><filename>/home</filename></entry>
                         <entry><filename>/home/admin/quotas</filename></entry>
                       </row>
 
                       <row>
                         <entry>&hellip;</entry>
                         <entry>&hellip;</entry>
                       </row>
                     </tbody>
                   </tgroup>
                 </informaltable>
               </listitem>
             </orderedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="sysv-ipc">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support System V IPC primitives?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes, FreeBSD supports System V-style IPC, including
             shared memory, messages and semaphores, in the GENERIC
             kernel.  In a custom kernel, enable this support by adding
             the following lines to your kernel config.</para>
 
           <programlisting>options    SYSVSHM          # enable shared memory
 options    SYSVSEM          # enable for semaphores
 options    SYSVMSG          # enable for messaging</programlisting>
 
           <para>Recompile and install your kernel.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="sendmail-alternative">
           <para>What other mail-server software can I use instead of
             <application>sendmail</application>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para><ulink url="http://www.sendmail.org/"><application>Sendmail</application></ulink> is
             the default mail-server software for FreeBSD, but you can
             easily replace it with one of the other MTA (for instance,
             an MTA installed from the ports).</para>
 
           <para>There are various alternative MTAs in the ports tree
             already, with <filename
             role="package">mail/exim</filename>, <filename
             role="package">mail/postfix</filename>, <filename
             role="package">mail/qmail</filename>, and <filename
             role="package">mail/zmailer</filename> being some of the
             most popular choices.</para>
 
           <para>Diversity is nice, and the fact that you have many
             different mail-servers to chose from is considered a
             good thing; therefore try to avoid
             asking questions like <quote>Is <application>sendmail</application> better than
             <application>qmail</application>?</quote> in the mailing lists.  If you do feel like
             asking, first check the mailing list archives.  The
             advantages and disadvantages of each and every one of the
             available MTAs have already been discussed a few
             times.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="forgot-root-pw">
           <para>I have forgotten the <username>root</username> password!  What
 	    do I do?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para>Do not panic!  Restart the system, type
             <userinput>boot -s</userinput> at the <literal>Boot:</literal> prompt to
             enter Single User mode. At the question about the shell to
             use, hit <keycap>Enter</keycap>. You will be dropped to a &prompt.root;
             prompt. Enter <command>mount -urw /</command> to remount
             your root filesystem read/write, then run <command>mount
             -a</command> to remount all the filesystems. Run
             <command>passwd root</command> to change the
             <username>root</username> password then run &man.exit.1;
             to continue booting.</para>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para>If you are still prompted to give the
 	      <username>root</username> password when entering the Single
 	      User mode, it means that the console has been marked as
 	      <literal>insecure</literal> in
 	      <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>.  In this case it will be required to
 	      boot from an &os; installation disk,
 	      choose the <guimenuitem>Fixit</guimenuitem> shell from
 	      &man.sysinstall.8; and issue the commands mentioned
 	      above.</para>
 	  </note>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para>If you cannot mount your root partition from Single
 	      User mode, it is possible that the partitions are
 	      encrypted and it is impossible to mount them without the
 	      access keys.  Your chances are depending on the chosen
 	      implementation.  For more information see the section
 	      about encrypted disks in the &os; <ulink
 		url="&url.books.handbook;/disks-encrypting.html">Handbook</ulink>.</para>
 	  </note>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="CAD-reboot">
           <para>How do I keep <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>Control</keycap><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>Delete</keycap></keycombo>
             from rebooting the system?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you are using &man.syscons.4; (the default console driver)
             build and install a new kernel with the
             line in the configuration file:</para>
 
           <programlisting>options SC_DISABLE_REBOOT</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>This can also be done by setting the following
 	    &man.sysctl.8; which does not require a reboot or kernel
 	    recompile:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl hw.syscons.kbd_reboot=0</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para>If you use the &man.pcvt.4; console driver, use the
 	    following kernel configuration line instead and rebuild the
 	    kernel:</para>
 
           <programlisting>options PCVT_CTRL_ALT_DEL</programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="dos-to-unix-txt">
           <para>How do I reformat DOS text files to &unix; ones?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>Use this &man.perl.1; command:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>perl -i.bak -npe 's/\r\n/\n/g' <replaceable>file(s)</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
           <para>where <replaceable>file(s)</replaceable> is one or more files to process.  The modification is done
             in-place, with the original file stored with a <filename>.bak</filename>
             extension.</para>
 
           <para>Alternatively you can use the
             &man.tr.1;
             command:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>tr -d '\r' &lt; <replaceable>dos-text-file</replaceable> &gt; <replaceable>unix-file</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
           <para><replaceable>dos-text-file</replaceable> is the file
             containing DOS text while <replaceable>unix-file</replaceable>
             will contain the converted output.  This can be quite a bit
             faster than using <command>perl</command>.</para>
 
 	  <para>Yet another way to reformat DOS text files is to use the
 	    <filename role="package">converters/dosunix</filename> port
 	    from the Ports Collection.  Consult its documentation about
 	    the details.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="kill-by-name">
           <para>How do I kill processes by name?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para>Use &man.killall.1;.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="root-acl">
           <para>Why is &man.su.1; bugging me about not being in
             <username>root</username>'s ACL?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>The error comes from the <application>Kerberos</application> distributed
             authentication system.  The problem is not fatal but annoying.
             You can either run su with the <option>-K</option> option, or uninstall
             <application>Kerberos</application> as described in the next question.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="uninstall-kerberos">
           <para>How do I uninstall <application>Kerberos</application>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>To remove <application>Kerberos</application> from the system, reinstall the <literal>base</literal>
             distribution for the release you are running.  If you have
             the CDROM, you can mount the it (we will assume on <filename role="directory">/cdrom</filename>)
             and run</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cd /cdrom/base</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>./install.sh</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Alternately, you can include the
             <makevar>NO_KERBEROS</makevar> option in your
             <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> and rebuild
             world.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="where-is-makedev">
 	  <para>What happened to
 	    <filename>/dev/MAKEDEV</filename>?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>&os;&nbsp;5.<replaceable>X</replaceable> and beyond use the &man.devfs.8; device-on-demand
 	    system.  Device drivers automatically create new device
 	    nodes as they are needed, obsoleting
 	    <filename>/dev/MAKEDEV</filename>.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="add-pty">
           <para>How do I add pseudoterminals to the system?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>If you have lot of <command>telnet</command>, <command>ssh</command>, X, or <command>screen</command> users,
             you will probably run out of pseudoterminals.  Here is how to
             add more:</para>
 
             <procedure>
               <step>
                 <para>Build and install a new kernel with the line in
                   the configuration file:</para>
 
                 <programlisting>device pty <replaceable>N</replaceable></programlisting>
 
                 <para>where <replaceable>N</replaceable> is the number
                   of requested pseudoterminals.</para>
               </step>
 
               <step>
                 <para>Edit <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> and add lines
                 for each of the <replaceable>N</replaceable> terminals.  They should match the form
                 of the existing entries, i.e. they look like this:</para>
 
                 <programlisting>ttyqc none network</programlisting>
 
                 <para>The order of the letter designations is
                   <literal>tty[pqrsPQRSlmnoLMNO][0123456789abcdefghijklmnopqrstuv]</literal>, using a
                   regular expression.</para>
               </step>
 
               <step>
                 <para>Reboot the system with the new kernel and you are
                   ready to go.</para>
               </step>
             </procedure>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para>Using more than 256 (up to 512) &man.pty.4; devices requires
 	      &os;&nbsp;6.3 or later.</para>
 	  </note>
        </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="reread-rc">
           <para>How do I re-read <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and
             re-start <filename>/etc/rc</filename> without a
             reboot?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>Go into single user mode and then back to multi user
             mode.</para>
 
           <para>On the console do:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>shutdown now</userinput>
 (Note: without -r or -h)
 
 &prompt.root; <userinput>return</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>exit</userinput></screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="release-candidate">
           <para>I tried to update my system to the latest <emphasis>-STABLE</emphasis>, but
             got <emphasis>-BETA<replaceable>x</replaceable></emphasis>, <emphasis>-RC</emphasis> or <emphasis>-PRERELEASE</emphasis>!  What is going on?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Short answer: it is just a name.  <emphasis>RC</emphasis> stands for
             <quote>Release Candidate</quote>.  It signifies that a
             release is imminent.  In FreeBSD, <emphasis>-PRERELEASE</emphasis> is typically
             synonymous with the code freeze before a release.  (For
             some releases, the <emphasis>-BETA</emphasis> label was used in the same way as
             <emphasis>-PRERELEASE</emphasis>.)</para>
 
           <para>Long answer: FreeBSD derives its releases from one of
             two places.  Major, dot-zero, releases, such as
             6.0-RELEASE and 7.0-RELEASE, are branched from the head of
             the development stream, commonly referred to as <link
             linkend="current">-CURRENT</link>.  Minor releases, such
             as 6.3-RELEASE or 5.2-RELEASE, have been snapshots of the
             active <link linkend="stable">-STABLE</link> branch.
             Starting with 4.3-RELEASE, each release also now has its
             own branch which can be tracked by people requiring an
             extremely conservative rate of development (typically only
             security advisories).</para>
 
           <para>When a release is about to be made, the branch from
             which it will be derived from has to undergo a certain
             process.  Part of this process is a code freeze.  When a
             code freeze is initiated, the name of the branch is
             changed to reflect that it is about to become a release.
             For example, if the branch used to be called 6.2-STABLE,
             its name will be changed to 6.3-PRERELEASE to signify the
             code freeze and signify that extra pre-release testing
             should be happening.  Bug fixes can still be committed to
             be part of the release.  When the source code is in shape
             for the release the name will be changed to 6.3-RC to
             signify that a release is about to be made from it.  Once
             in the RC stage, only the most critical bugs found can be
             fixed.  Once the release (6.3-RELEASE in this example) and
             release branch have been made, the branch will be renamed
             to 6.3-STABLE.</para>
 
           <para>For more information on version numbers and the
             various CVS branches, refer to the
             <ulink url="&url.articles.releng;/article.html">Release
             Engineering</ulink> article.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="kernel-chflag-failure">
           <para>I tried to install a new kernel, and the &man.chflags.1;
             failed.  How do I get around this?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Short answer: You are probably at security level
             greater than 0.  Reboot directly to Single User mode to
             install the kernel.</para>
 
           <para>Long answer: FreeBSD disallows changing system flags
             at security levels greater than 0.  You can check your
             security level with the command:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl kern.securelevel</userinput></screen>
 
            <para>You cannot lower the security level; you have to boot to
              Single Mode to install the kernel, or change the security
              level in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> then reboot. See
              the &man.init.8; manual page for details on <literal>securelevel</literal>, and see
              <filename>/etc/defaults/rc.conf</filename> and the
              &man.rc.conf.5; manual page for more information on
              <filename>rc.conf</filename>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="kernel-securelevel-time">
           <para>I cannot change the time on my system by more than one second!
                 How do I get around this?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Short answer: You are probably at security level
             greater than 1.  Reboot directly to Single User mode to
             change the date.</para>
 
           <para>Long answer: FreeBSD disallows changing the time by
               more that one second at security levels greater than 1.  You
               can check your security level with the command:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl kern.securelevel</userinput></screen>
 
            <para>You cannot lower the security level; you have to boot
              to Single User mode to change the date, or change the security
              level in <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> then
              reboot. See the &man.init.8; manual page for details on
              <literal>securelevel</literal>, and see
              <filename>/etc/defaults/rc.conf</filename> and the
              &man.rc.conf.5; manual page for more information on
              <filename>rc.conf</filename>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="statd-mem-leak">
           <para>Why is <command>rpc.statd</command> using 256&nbsp;MB of
             memory?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>No, there is no memory leak, and it is not using 256&nbsp;MB
             of memory.  For convenience, <command>rpc.statd</command> maps an
             obscene amount of memory into its address space.
             There is nothing terribly wrong with this from a technical
             standpoint; it just throws off things like &man.top.1; and
             &man.ps.1;.</para>
 
           <para>&man.rpc.statd.8; maps its status file (resident on
             <filename>/var</filename>) into its address space; to save
             worrying about remapping it later when it needs to grow, it maps
             it with a generous size.  This is very evident from the source
             code, where one can see that the length argument to &man.mmap.2;
             is <literal>0x10000000</literal>, or one sixteenth of the
             address space on an IA32, or exactly 256&nbsp;MB.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="unsetting-schg">
           <para>Why can I not unset the <literal>schg</literal> file
             flag?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You are running at an elevated (i.e., greater than 0)
             securelevel.  Lower the securelevel and try again.  For more
             information, see <link linkend="securelevel">the FAQ entry on
             securelevel</link> and the &man.init.8; manual page.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ssh-shosts">
-	  <para>Why does SSH authentication through
+	  <para>Why does <application>SSH</application> authentication through
 	    <filename>.shosts</filename> not work by default in recent
-	    versions of FreeBSD?</para>
+	    versions of &os;?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>The reason why <filename>.shosts</filename>
 	    authentication does not work by default in more recent
-	    versions of FreeBSD is because &man.ssh.1; 
+	    versions of &os; is because &man.ssh.1; 
 	    is not installed suid <username>root</username> by default.  To
 	    <quote>fix</quote> this, you can do one of the
 	    following:</para>
 
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>As a permanent fix, set
 		<makevar>ENABLE_SUID_SSH</makevar> to <literal>true</literal>
-		in <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> and rebuild ssh
-		(or run <command>make world</command>).</para>
+		in <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> then rebuild and install &man.ssh.1;
+		(or run <command>make <maketarget>world</maketarget></command>).</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>As a temporary fix, change the mode on
 		<filename>/usr/bin/ssh</filename> to <literal>4555</literal>
 		by running <command>chmod 4555 /usr/bin/ssh</command> as
 		<username>root</username>.  Then add
-		<makevar>ENABLE_SUID_SSH= true</makevar> to
+		<literal><makevar>ENABLE_SUID_SSH</makevar>= true</literal> to
 		<filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> so the change takes
-		effect the next time <command>make world</command> is
+		effect the next time <command>make <maketarget>world</maketarget></command> is
 		run.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="vnlru">
           <para>What is <literal>vnlru</literal>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para><literal>vnlru</literal> flushes and frees vnodes when
             the system hits the <varname>kern.maxvnodes</varname>
             limit.  This kernel thread sits mostly idle, and only
             activates if you have a huge amount of RAM and are
             accessing tens of thousands of tiny files.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="top-memory-states">
 	  <para>What do the various memory states displayed by
 	    <command>top</command> mean?</para>
         </question>
 <!-- Provided by John Dyson via Usenet -->
         <answer>
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem><para><literal>Active</literal>: pages recently
               statistically used.</para></listitem>
 
             <listitem><para><literal>Inactive</literal>: pages
               recently statistically unused.</para></listitem>
 
             <listitem><para><literal>Cache</literal>: (most often)
               pages that have percolated from inactive to a status
               where they maintain their data, but can often be
               immediately reused (either with their old association,
               or reused with a new association.)  There can be certain
               immediate transitions from <literal>active</literal> to <literal>cache</literal> state if the
               page is known to be clean (unmodified), but that
               transition is a matter of policy, depending upon the
               algorithm choice of the VM system
               maintainer.</para></listitem>
 
             <listitem><para><literal>Free</literal>: pages without
               data content, and can be immediately used in certain
               circumstances where cache pages might be ineligible.
               Free pages can be reused at interrupt or process
               state.</para></listitem>
 
             <listitem><para><literal>Wired</literal>: pages that are
               fixed into memory, usually for kernel purposes, but also
               sometimes for special use in
               processes.</para></listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>Pages are most often written to disk (sort of a VM
             sync) when they are in the inactive state, but active
             pages can also be synced (but requires the
             availability of certain CPU features.) This depends upon
             the CPU tracking of the modified bit being available,
             and in certain situations there can be an advantage for a
             block of VM pages to be synced, whether they are active or
             inactive.  In most common cases, it is best to think of
             the inactive queue to be a queue of relatively unused
             pages that might or might not be in the process of being
             written to disk.  Cached pages are already synced, not
             mapped, but available for immediate process use with their
             old association or with a new association.  Free pages are
             available at interrupt level, but cached or free pages can
             be used at process state for reuse.  Cache pages are not
             adequately locked to be available at interrupt
             level.</para>
 
           <para>There are some other flags (e.g., busy flag or busy
             count) that might modify some of the rules that I
             described.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="free-memory-amount">
 	  <para>How much free memory is available?</para>
         </question>
 <!-- Provided by John Dyson via Usenet -->
         <answer>
           <para>There are a couple of kinds of <quote>free
             memory</quote>.  One kind is the amount of memory
             immediately available without paging anything else out.
             That is approximately the size of cache queue + size of
             free queue (with a derating factor, depending upon system
             tuning.)  Another kind of <quote>free memory</quote> is
             the total amount of <acronym>VM</acronym> space.  That can
             be complex, but is dependent upon the amount of swap space
             and memory.  Other kinds of <quote>free memory</quote>
             descriptions are also possible, but it is relatively
             useless to define these, but rather it is important to
             make sure that the paging rate is kept low, and to avoid
             running out of swap space.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="var-empty">
 	  <para>What is <filename>/var/empty</filename>?  I can not
 	    delete it!</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para><filename>/var/empty</filename> is a directory that the
 	    &man.sshd.8; program uses when performing privilege separation.
 	    The <filename>/var/empty</filename> directory is empty, owned by
 	    <username>root</username> and has the <literal>schg</literal>
 	    flag set.</para>
 
 	  <para>Although it is not recommended to delete this directory, to
 	    do so you will need to unset the <literal>schg</literal> flag
 	    first.  See the &man.chflags.1; manual page for more information
 	    (and bear in mind the answer to <link linkend="unsetting-schg">
 	    the question on unsetting the schg flag</link>).
 	  </para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="x">
     <title>The X Window System and Virtual Consoles</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="whatis-X">
           <para>What is the X Window System?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
 	  <para>The X Window System (commonly <literal>X11</literal>) is the
 	    most widely available windowing system capable of running on
 	    &unix; or &unix;&nbsp;like systems, including
 	    &os;.  <ulink url= "http://www.x.org">The X.Org
 	    Foundation</ulink> administers the <ulink
 	    url="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System_core_protocol">
 	    X protocol standards</ulink>, with the current reference
 	    implementation, version 11 release &xorg.version;,
 	    so you will often see references shortened to
 	    <literal>X11</literal>.
 	  </para>
 
 	  <para>Many implementations are available for different
 	    architectures and operating systems.  An
 	    implementation of the server-side code is properly known
 	    as an <literal>X server</literal>.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="which-X">
           <para>Which X implementations are available for &os;?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
 	  <para>Historically, the default implementation of X on
 	    &os; has been
 	    &xfree86; which is maintained by
 	    <ulink url="http://www.xfree86.org">The XFree86 Project,
 	    Inc.</ulink>  This software was installed by default on
 	    &os; versions up until 4.10 and 5.2.  Although &xorg;
 	    itself maintained an implementation during that time
 	    period, it was basically only provided as a reference
 	    platform, as it had suffered greatly from bitrot over
 	    the years.</para>
 	    
 	  <para>However, early in 2004, some XFree86 developers left
 	    that project
 	    over issues including the pace of code changes, future
 	    directions, and interpersonal conflicts, and are now contributing
 	    code directly to &xorg; instead.  At that time, &xorg; updated its
 	    source tree to the last &xfree86; release before its subsequent
 	    licensing change (<application>XFree86 version 4.3.99.903</application>), incorporated
 	    many changes that had previously been maintained separately,
 	    and has released that software as <application>X11R6.7.0</application>.  A separate but
 	    related project, <ulink url="http://www.freedesktop.org">
 	    freedesktop.org</ulink> (or <literal>fd.o</literal> for short),
 	    is working on rearchitecting the original &xfree86; code to
 	    offload more work onto the graphics cards (with the goal of
 	    increased performance) and make it more modular
 	    (with the goal of increased maintainability, and thus faster
 	    releases as well as easier configuration).  &xorg; intends to
 	    incorporate the freedesktop.org changes in its future releases.</para>
 
 	  <para>As of July 2004, in &os.current;,
 	    &xfree86; has been replaced with &xorg; as the default
 	    implementation.  The &xfree86; ports
 	    (<filename role="package">x11/XFree86-4</filename> and
 	    subports) remain in the ports collection.  But &xorg; is
 	    the default X11 implementation for &os; 5.3 and later.</para>
 
 	  <para>For further information, read the <ulink
 	    url="&url.books.handbook;/x11.html">X11</ulink> section of the
 	    FreeBSD Handbook.</para>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para>The above describes the default X implementation installed.
 	      It is still possible to install either implementation by
 	      following the instructions in the entry for 20040723 in
 	      <filename>/usr/ports/UPDATING</filename>.</para>
 	  </note>
 
 	  <warning>
 	    <para>It is not currently
 	    possible to mix-and-match pieces of each implementation;
 	      one must choose one or the other.</para>
 	  </warning>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="xorg-compatibility">
           <para>Will my existing applications run with the &xorg; suite?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>The &xorg; software is written to the same X11R6 specification
 	    that &xfree86; is, so basic applications should work
 	    unchanged.  A few lesser-used protocols have been deprecated
 	    (<literal>XIE</literal>, <literal>PEX</literal>, and
 	    <literal>lbxproxy</literal>), but in the first two cases, the
 	    &os; port of &xfree86; did not support them either.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="xfree86-split">
           <para>Why did the X projects split, anyway?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>The answer to this question is outside the scope of
 	  this FAQ.  Note that there are voluminous postings in various
 	  mailing list archives on the Internet; please use your favorite
 	  search engine to investigate the history instead of asking this
 	  question on the &os; mailing lists.  It may even be the case
 	  that only the participants will ever know for certain.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="why-choose-xorg">
           <para>Why did &os; choose to go with the &xorg; ports by default?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>The &xorg; developers claim that their goal is to release
 	  more often and incorporate new features more quickly.  If they
 	  are able to do so, this will be very attractive.  Also, their
 	  software still uses the traditional X license, while &xfree86;
 	  is now using their modified one.</para>
 
 	  <note>
 	    <para>This decision is still controversial.  Only time will
 	      tell which implementation proves technically superior.  Each
 	      &os; user should decide which they prefer.</para>
 	  </note>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="running-X">
           <para>I want to run X, how do I go about it?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
 	  <para>If you would like to add X to an existing installation, you
 	    should use the <filename role="package">x11/xorg</filename>
 	    meta-port, which will build and install all the necessary
 	    components.</para>
 
           <para>Then read and follow the documentation on the
             &man.xorgconfig.1; tool, which assists you in
             configuring &xorg; for your particular graphics
             card/mouse/etc.  You may also wish to examine the
 	    &man.xorgcfg.1; tool, which provides a graphical interface
 	    to the X configuration process.</para>
 
 	  <para>For further information, read the <ulink
 	    url="&url.books.handbook;/x11.html">X11</ulink> section of the
 	    FreeBSD Handbook.</para>
 
           <para>You may also wish to investigate the Xaccel server.
             See the section on <link linkend="xig">Xi Graphics</link>
             for more details.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="running-X-securelevels">
           <para>I <emphasis>tried</emphasis> to run X, but I get an
             <errorname>KDENABIO failed (Operation not permitted)</errorname>
             error when I type <command>startx</command>. What do I do
             now?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Your system is probably running at a raised securelevel.
             It is not possible to start X at a raised securelevel because
             X requires write access to <devicename>/dev/io</devicename>.
             For more information, see at the &man.init.8; manual
             page.</para>
 
           <para>So the question is what else you should do instead,
             and you basically have two choices: set your securelevel
             back down to zero (usually from <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>),
             or run &man.xdm.1; at boot time (before the securelevel is
             raised).</para>
 
           <para>See <xref linkend="xdm-boot"> for more information about
             running &man.xdm.1; at boot time.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="x-and-moused">
           <para>Why does my mouse not work with X?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you are using syscons (the default console driver),
             you can configure FreeBSD to support a mouse pointer on each
             virtual screen. In order to avoid conflicting with X, syscons
             supports a virtual device called
             <devicename>/dev/sysmouse</devicename>.  All mouse events received
             from the real mouse device are written to the sysmouse device
             via moused. If you wish to use your mouse on one or more
             virtual consoles, <emphasis>and</emphasis> use X, see
             <xref linkend="moused" remap="another section"> and set up
             moused.</para>
 
 	  <para>Then edit <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename> and make
             sure you have the following lines:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>Section "InputDevice"
    Option          "Protocol" "SysMouse"
    Option          "Device" "/dev/sysmouse"
 .....</programlisting>
 
           <para>Some people prefer to use
             <devicename>/dev/mouse</devicename> under X.  To make this
             work, <devicename>/dev/mouse</devicename> should be linked
             to <devicename>/dev/sysmouse</devicename> (see
             &man.sysmouse.4;):</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cd /dev</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>rm -f mouse</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>ln -s sysmouse mouse</userinput></screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="x-and-wheel">
           <para>My mouse has a fancy wheel.  Can I use it in X?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes.</para>
 
           <para>You need to tell X that you have a 5 button mouse.
             To do this, simply add the lines
             <literal>Buttons 5</literal> and
             <literal>ZAxisMapping 4 5</literal> to the
             <quote>InputDevice</quote> section of
 	    <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>.  For example, you
             might have the following <quote>InputDevice</quote> section
 	    in <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename>.</para>
 
           <example>
             <title><quote>InputDevice</quote> Section for Wheeled Mouse
               in &xorg; configuration file</title>
 
             <programlisting>Section "InputDevice"
    Identifier      "Mouse1"
    Driver          "mouse"
    Option          "Protocol" "auto"
    Option          "Device" "/dev/sysmouse"
    Option          "Buttons" "5"
    Option          "ZAxisMapping" "4 5"
 EndSection</programlisting>
           </example>
 
           <example>
             <title><quote>.emacs</quote> example for naive page
               scrolling with Wheeled Mouse (optional)</title>
             <programlisting>;; wheel mouse
 (global-set-key [mouse-4] 'scroll-down)
 (global-set-key [mouse-5] 'scroll-up)</programlisting>
           </example>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="no-remote-x11">
           <para>How do I use remote X displays?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>For security reasons, the default setting is to not allow a
             machine to remotely open a window.</para>
 
           <para>To enable this feature, simply start
             <application>X</application> with the optional
             <option>-listen_tcp</option> argument:</para>
             <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>startx -listen_tcp</userinput>
 	    </screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="window-menu-weird">
           <para>Why do X Window menus and dialog boxes not work
             right?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Try turning off the <keycap>Num Lock</keycap> key.</para>
 
           <para>If your <keycap>Num Lock</keycap> key is on by default
             at boot-time, you may add the following line in the
             <literal>Keyboard</literal> section of the
 	    <filename>/etc/X11/xorg.conf</filename> file.</para>
 
           <programlisting># Let the server do the NumLock processing.  This should only be
 # required when using pre-R6 clients
     ServerNumLock</programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="virtual-console">
           <para>What is a virtual console and how do I make more?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Virtual consoles, put simply, enable you to have several
             simultaneous sessions on the same machine without doing anything
             complicated like setting up a network or running X.</para>
 
           <para>When the system starts, it will display a login prompt on
             the monitor after displaying all the boot messages. You can
             then type in your login name and password and start working (or
             playing!) on the first virtual console.</para>
 
           <para>At some point, you will probably wish to start another
             session, perhaps to look at documentation for a program
             you are running or to read your mail while waiting for an
             FTP transfer to finish. Just do <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F2</keycap></keycombo>
             (hold down the <keycap>Alt</keycap> key and press the
             <keycap>F2</keycap> key), and you will find a login prompt
             waiting for you on the second <quote>virtual
             console</quote>!  When you want to go back to the original
             session, do <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F1</keycap></keycombo>.</para>
 
           <para>The default FreeBSD installation has eight virtual
             consoles enabled.  <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F1</keycap></keycombo>,
             <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F2</keycap></keycombo>,
             <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>Alt</keycap><keycap>F3</keycap></keycombo>,
             and so on will switch between these virtual
             consoles.</para>
 
           <para>To enable more of them, edit
             <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> (see &man.ttys.5;)
             and add entries for <devicename>ttyv4</devicename>
             to <devicename>ttyvc</devicename> after the comment on
             <quote>Virtual terminals</quote>:</para>
 
           <programlisting># Edit the existing entry for ttyv3 in /etc/ttys and change
 # "off" to "on".
 ttyv3   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on secure
 ttyv4   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on secure
 ttyv5   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on secure
 ttyv6   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on secure
 ttyv7   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on secure
 ttyv8   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on secure
 ttyv9   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on secure
 ttyva   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on secure
 ttyvb   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on secure</programlisting>
 
           <para>Use as many or as few as you want.  The more virtual
             terminals you have, the more resources that are used; this
             can be important if you have 8MB RAM or less.  You may also
             want to change the <literal>secure</literal>
             to <literal>insecure</literal>.</para>
 
             <important>
               <para>If you want to run an X server you
                 <emphasis>must</emphasis> leave at least one virtual
                 terminal unused (or turned off) for it to use. That is to
                 say that if you want to have a login prompt pop up for all
                 twelve of your Alt-function keys, you are out of luck - you
                 can only do this for eleven of them if you also want to run
                 an X server on the same machine.</para>
             </important>
 
           <para>The easiest way to disable a console is by turning it off.
             For example, if you had the full 12 terminal allocation
             mentioned above and you wanted to run X, you would change
             settings for virtual terminal 12 from:</para>
 
           <programlisting>ttyvb   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  on  secure</programlisting>
 
           <para>to:</para>
 
           <programlisting>ttyvb   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  off secure</programlisting>
 
           <para>If your keyboard has only ten function keys, you would
             end up with:</para>
 
 <programlisting>ttyv9   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  off secure
 ttyva   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  off secure
 ttyvb   "/usr/libexec/getty Pc"         cons25  off secure</programlisting>
 
           <para>(You could also just delete these lines.)</para>
 
           <para>Next, the easiest (and cleanest) way to activate the
             virtual consoles is to reboot.  However, if you really do not
             want to reboot, you can just shut down the X Window system
             and execute (as <username>root</username>):</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>kill -HUP 1</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>It is imperative that you completely shut down X Window if
             it is running, before running this command.  If you do not,
             your system will probably appear to hang/lock up after
             executing the kill command.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="vty-from-x">
           <para>How do I access the virtual consoles from X?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Use <keycombo action="simul">
               <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
               <keycap>Alt</keycap>
               <keycap>F<replaceable>n</replaceable></keycap>
             </keycombo> to switch back to a virtual console.
             <keycombo action="simul">
               <keycap>Ctrl</keycap>
               <keycap>Alt</keycap>
               <keycap>F1</keycap>
             </keycombo> would return you to the first virtual console.</para>
 
           <para>Once you are back to a text console, you can then use
             <keycombo action="simul">
               <keycap>Alt</keycap>
               <keycap>F<replaceable>n</replaceable></keycap>
             </keycombo> as normal to move between them.</para>
 
           <para>To return to the X session, you must switch to the
             virtual console running X.  If you invoked X from the
             command line, (e.g., using <command>startx</command>) then
             the X session will attach to the next unused virtual
             console, not the text console from which it was invoked.
             If you have eight active virtual terminals then X will be
             running on the ninth, and you would use
             <keycombo action="simul">
               <keycap>Alt</keycap>
               <keycap>F9</keycap>
             </keycombo> to return.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="xdm-boot">
           <para>How do I start XDM on boot?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para>There are two schools of thought on how to start
             &man.xdm.1;. One school starts xdm from
             <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> (see &man.ttys.5;) using
             the supplied example, while the other simply runs xdm from
             <filename>rc.local</filename> (see &man.rc.8;) or from a
             <filename>X.sh</filename> script in
             <filename>/usr/local/etc/rc.d</filename>. Both are equally
             valid, and one may work in situations where the other does
             not.  In both cases the result is the same: X will pop up
             a graphical login: prompt.</para>
 
           <para>The ttys method has the advantage of documenting which
             vty X will start on and passing the responsibility of
             restarting the X server on logout to init.  The rc.local
             method makes it easy to kill xdm if there is a problem
             starting the X server.</para>
 
           <para>If loaded from rc.local, <command>xdm</command> should
             be started without any arguments (i.e., as a daemon). xdm must
             start AFTER getty runs, or else getty and xdm will conflict,
             locking out the console. The best way around this is to have
             the script sleep 10 seconds or so then launch xdm.</para>
 
           <para>If you are to start <command>xdm</command> from
             <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, there still is a chance of
             conflict between <command>xdm</command> and
             &man.getty.8;. One way to avoid this is to add the
             <literal>vt</literal> number in the
             <filename>/usr/local/lib/X11/xdm/Xservers</filename>
             file.</para>
 
           <programlisting>:0 local /usr/local/bin/X vt4</programlisting>
 
           <para>The above example will direct the X server to run in
             <devicename>/dev/ttyv3</devicename>. Note the number is offset by
             one. The X server counts the vty from one, whereas the FreeBSD
             kernel numbers the vty from zero.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="xconsole-failure">
           <para>Why do I get <errorname>Couldn't open console</errorname>
             when I run xconsole?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you start <application>X</application>
             with
             <command>startx</command>, the permissions on
             <devicename>/dev/console</devicename> will
             <emphasis>not</emphasis> get changed, resulting in
             things like
             <command>xterm -C</command> and
             <command>xconsole</command> not working.</para>
 
           <para>This is because of the way console permissions are set
             by default. On a multi-user system, one does not necessarily
             want just any user to be able to write on the system console.
             For users who are logging directly onto a machine with a VTY,
             the &man.fbtab.5;
             file exists to solve such problems.</para>
 
           <para>In a nutshell, make sure an uncommented line of the
             form</para>
 
           <programlisting>/dev/ttyv0 0600 /dev/console</programlisting>
 
           <para>is in <filename>/etc/fbtab</filename> (see
             &man.fbtab.5;) and it will ensure that whomever logs in on
             <devicename>/dev/ttyv0</devicename> will own the
             console.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="xfree86-root">
           <para>Before, I was able to run &xfree86; as a regular user.  Why does
             it now say that I must be <username>root</username>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>All X servers need to be run as
             <username>root</username> in order to get direct access to
             your video hardware.  Older versions of &xfree86; (&lt;=
             3.3.6) installed all bundled servers to be automatically
             run as <username>root</username> (setuid to
             <username>root</username>).  This is obviously a security
             hazard because X servers are large, complicated programs.
             Newer versions of &xfree86; do not install the servers
             setuid to <username>root</username> for just this
             reason.</para>
 
           <para>Obviously, running an X server as the
             <username>root</username> user is not acceptable, nor a
             good idea security-wise.  There are two ways to be able to
             use X as a regular user.  The first is to use
             <command>xdm</command> or another display manager (e.g.,
             <command>kdm</command>); the second is to use the
             <command>Xwrapper</command>.</para>
 
           <para><command>xdm</command> is a daemon that handles graphical
             logins.  It is usually started at boot time, and is responsible
             for authenticating users and starting their sessions; it is
             essentially the graphical counterpart of
             &man.getty.8; and &man.login.1;.  For
             more information on <command>xdm</command> see
             <ulink url="http://www.xfree86.org/sos/resources.html">the &xfree86;
             documentation</ulink>, and the <link linkend="xdm-boot">the FAQ
             entry</link> on it.</para>
 
           <para><command>Xwrapper</command> is the X server wrapper; it is
             a small utility to enable one to manually run an X server while
             maintaining reasonable safety.  It performs some sanity checks
             on the command line arguments given, and if they pass, runs the
             appropriate X server.  If you do not want to run a display
             manager for whatever reason, this is for you.  If you have
             installed the complete ports collection, you can find the port in
             <filename>/usr/ports/x11/wrapper</filename>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ps2-x">
           <para>Why does my PS/2 mouse misbehave under X?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Your mouse and the mouse driver may have somewhat become
             out of synchronization.</para>
 
           <para>
             In rare cases the driver may erroneously report
             synchronization problem and you may see the kernel
             message:</para>
 
           <programlisting>psmintr: out of sync (xxxx != yyyy)</programlisting>
 
           <para>and notice that your mouse does not work properly.</para>
 
           <para>If this happens, disable the synchronization check code
             by setting the driver flags for the PS/2 mouse driver to 0x100.
             Enter <emphasis>UserConfig</emphasis> by giving the
             <option>-c</option> option at the boot prompt:</para>
 
           <screen>boot: <userinput>-c</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Then, in the <emphasis>UserConfig</emphasis> command
             line, type:</para>
 
           <screen>UserConfig&gt; <userinput>flags psm0 0x100</userinput>
 UserConfig&gt; <userinput>quit</userinput></screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ps2-mousesystems">
           <para>Why does my PS/2 mouse from MouseSystems not
             work?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>There have been some reports that certain model of PS/2
             mouse from MouseSystems works only if it is put into the
             <quote>high resolution</quote> mode.  Otherwise, the mouse
             cursor may jump to the upper-left corner of the screen every
             so often.</para>
 
           <para>Specify the flags 0x04 to the PS/2 mouse driver to put
             the mouse into the high resolution mode.  Enter
             <emphasis>UserConfig</emphasis> by giving the
             <option>-c</option> option at the boot prompt:</para>
 
           <screen>boot: <userinput>-c</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Then, in the <emphasis>UserConfig</emphasis> command line,
             type:</para>
 
           <screen>UserConfig&gt; <userinput>flags psm0 0x04</userinput>
 UserConfig&gt; <userinput>quit</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>See the previous section for another possible cause of mouse
             problems.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="xfree86-version">
           <para>I want to install different X server.</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>&os; versions prior 5.3 will use the default
             <application>&xfree86;&nbsp;4.X</application>,
             while latter versions will default to
             <application>&xorg;</application>.
             If you want to run a different X11 implementation
             than the default one, add the following line to
             <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename>, (if you 
             do not have this file, create it):</para>
 
           <programlisting>X_WINDOW_SYSTEM=        xorg</programlisting>
 
           <para>This variable may be set to <literal>xorg</literal>,
             <literal>xfree86-4</literal>, or
             <literal>xfree86-3</literal>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="mouse-button-reverse">
           <para>How do I reverse the mouse buttons?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Run the command
             <command>xmodmap -e "pointer = 3 2 1"</command> from your
             <filename>.xinitrc</filename> or <filename>.xsession</filename>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="install-splash">
           <para>How do I install a splash screen and where do I find
             them?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>&os; have a feature to allow the display of
             <quote>splash</quote> screens during the boot
             messages. The splash screens currently must be a 256 color
             bitmap (<filename>*.BMP</filename>) or ZSoft PCX
             (<filename>*.PCX</filename>) file. In addition, they must
             have a resolution of 320x200 or less to work on standard
             VGA adapters. If you compile VESA support into your
             kernel, then you can use larger bitmaps up to 1024x768.
             The actual VESA support can either be compiled directly
             into the kernel with the <literal>VESA</literal> kernel
             config option or by loading the VESA kld module during
             bootup.</para>
 
           <para>To use a splash screen, you need to modify the startup
             files that control the boot process for &os;.</para>
 
           <para>You need to create
             a <filename>/boot/loader.rc</filename> file that contains
             the following lines:</para>
 
           <programlisting>include /boot/loader.4th
 start</programlisting>
 
           <para>and a <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> that
             contains the following:</para>
 
           <programlisting>splash_bmp_load="YES"
 bitmap_load="YES"</programlisting>
 
           <para>This assumes you are using
             <filename>/boot/splash.bmp</filename> for your splash
             screen.  If you would rather use a PCX file, copy it to
             <filename>/boot/splash.pcx</filename>, create a
             <filename>/boot/loader.rc</filename> as instructed above,
             and create a <filename>/boot/loader.conf</filename> that
             contains:</para>
 
           <programlisting>splash_pcx_load="YES"
 bitmap_load="YES"
 bitmap_name="/boot/splash.pcx"</programlisting>
 
           <para>Now all you need is a splash screen.  For that you can
             surf on over to the gallery at
 	    <ulink url="http://www.baldwin.cx/splash/"></ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="windows-keys">
           <para>Can I use the &windows;
 	    keys on my keyboard in X?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes. All you need to do is use &man.xmodmap.1; to define
             what function you wish them to perform.</para>
 
           <para>Assuming all <quote>&windows;</quote> keyboards
             are standard then the keycodes for the 3 keys are</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>115 - &windows; key, between
 		the left-hand Ctrl and Alt keys</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>116 - &windows; key, to the
 		right of the <keycap>AltGr</keycap> key</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>117 - <keycap>Menu</keycap> key, to the left of
               the right-hand <keycap>Ctrl</keycap> key</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>To have the left &windows; key print a comma,
 	    try this.</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>xmodmap -e "keycode 115 = comma"</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>You will probably have to re-start your window manager
             to see the result.</para>
 
           <para>To have the &windows;
 	    key-mappings enabled automatically every time you start X either
 	    put the <command>xmodmap</command> commands in your
 	    <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename> file or, preferably, create a file
 	    <filename>~/.xmodmaprc</filename> and include the
 	    <command>xmodmap</command> options, one per line, then add the
 	    line</para>
 
           <programlisting>xmodmap $HOME/.xmodmaprc</programlisting>
 
           <para>to your <filename>~/.xinitrc</filename>.</para>
 
 	  <para>For example, you could map the 3 keys to be
 	    <keycap>F13</keycap>, <keycap>F14</keycap>, and
 	    <keycap>F15</keycap>, respectively.  This would make it
 	    easy to map them to useful functions within applications
 	    or your window manager, as demonstrated further
 	    down.</para>
 
           <para>To do this put the following in
             <filename>~/.xmodmaprc</filename>.</para>
 
           <programlisting>keycode 115 = F13
 keycode 116 = F14
 keycode 117 = F15</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>If you use <command>fvwm2</command>, for example, you
 	    could map the keys so that <keycap>F13</keycap> iconifies
 	    (or de-iconifies) the window the cursor is in,
 	    <keycap>F14</keycap> brings the window the cursor is in to
 	    the front or, if it is already at the front, pushes it to
 	    the back, and <keycap>F15</keycap> pops up the main
 	    Workplace (application) menu even if the cursor is not on
 	    the desktop, which is useful if you do not have any part
 	    of the desktop visible (and the logo on the key matches
 	    its functionality).</para>
 
 	  <para>The following entries in
 	    <filename>~/.fvwmrc</filename> implement the
 	    aforementioned setup:</para>
 
           <programlisting>Key F13        FTIWS    A        Iconify
 Key F14        FTIWS    A        RaiseLower
 Key F15        A        A        Menu Workplace Nop</programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="x-3d-acceleration">
           <para>How can I get 3D hardware acceleration for
             &opengl;?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The availability of 3D acceleration depends on the
             version of &xfree86; or &xorg; that you are using and the type of video chip
             you have.  If you have an NVIDIA chip, you can use the binary
             drivers provided for FreeBSD on the
             <ulink url="http://www.nvidia.com/content/drivers/drivers.asp">
             Drivers</ulink> section of their website.  For other cards
             with &xfree86;-4 or &xorg;, including the Matrox G200/G400, ATI Rage
             128/Radeon, and 3dfx Voodoo 3, 4, 5, and Banshee,
             information on hardware acceleration is available on the
             <ulink
             url="http://people.FreeBSD.org/~anholt/dri/">XFree86-4
 	    Direct Rendering on FreeBSD</ulink> page.</para>
           </answer>
         </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="networking">
     <title>Networking</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="diskless-booting">
           <para>Where can I get information on
             <quote>diskless booting</quote>?</para>
           </question>
 
           <answer>
             <para><quote>Diskless booting</quote> means that the FreeBSD
               box is booted over a network, and reads the necessary files
               from a server instead of its hard disk. For full details,
               please read <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/network-diskless.html">the
               Handbook entry on diskless booting</ulink></para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="router">
           <para>Can a FreeBSD box be used as a dedicated network
             router?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes.  Please see the Handbook entry on <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/advanced-networking.html"> advanced
             networking</ulink>, specifically the section on <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/network-routing.html">routing
             and gateways</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="win95-connection">
           <para>Can I connect my &windows; box to the Internet via
             FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Typically, people who ask this question have two PCs
             at home, one with FreeBSD and one with some version of
             &windows; the idea is to use the FreeBSD box to connect to
             the Internet and then be able to access the Internet from
             the &windows; box through the FreeBSD box. This is really
             just a special case of the previous question and works
             perfectly well.</para>
 
 	  <para>If you are using dialup to connect to the Internet
             user-mode &man.ppp.8; contains a <option>-nat</option>
             option. If you run &man.ppp.8; with the
             <option>-nat</option> option, set
             <literal>gateway_enable</literal> to
             <emphasis>YES</emphasis> in
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, and configure your
             &windows; machine correctly, this should work fine. For more
             information, please see the &man.ppp.8; manual page or the
             <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/userppp.html">Handbook entry on
             user PPP</ulink>.</para>
 
           <para>If you are using kernel-mode PPP or have an Ethernet
             connection to the Internet, you need to use
             &man.natd.8;. Please look at the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/network-natd.html">natd</ulink> section
             of the Handbook for a tutorial.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="slip-ppp-support">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support SLIP and PPP?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes.  See the manual pages for &man.slattach.8;,
             &man.sliplogin.8;, &man.ppp.8;, and &man.pppd.8;.  &man.ppp.8;
             and &man.pppd.8; provide support for both incoming and outgoing
             connections, while &man.sliplogin.8; deals exclusively with
             incoming connections, and &man.slattach.8; deals exclusively
             with outgoing connections.</para>
 
           <para>For more information on how to use these, please see the
             <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/ppp-and-slip.html">Handbook chapter on
             PPP and SLIP</ulink>.</para>
 
           <para>If you only have access to the Internet through a
             <quote>shell account</quote>, you may want to have a look
             at the <filename role="package">net/slirp</filename>
             package.  It can provide you with (limited) access to
             services such as ftp and http direct from your local
             machine.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="natd">
           <para>Does FreeBSD support NAT or Masquerading?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>Yes.  If you want to use NAT over a user PPP
 	    connection, please see the <ulink
 	    url="&url.books.handbook;/userppp.html">Handbook entry on user
 	    PPP</ulink>.  If you want to use NAT over some other sort
 	    of network connection, please look at the <ulink
 	    url="&url.books.handbook;/network-natd.html">natd</ulink> section
 	    of the Handbook.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="parallel-connect">
           <para>How do I connect two FreeBSD systems over a parallel line
             using PLIP?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Please see the <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/network-plip.html">PLIP
           section</ulink> of the Handbook.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="create-dev-net">
           <para>Why can I not create a <devicename>/dev/ed0</devicename>
             device?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Because they are not necessary. In the Berkeley
             networking framework, network interfaces are only directly
             accessible by kernel code. Please see the
             <filename>/etc/rc.network</filename> file and the manual
             pages for the various network programs mentioned there for
             more information. If this leaves you totally confused,
             then you should pick up a book describing network
             administration on another BSD-related operating system;
             with few significant exceptions, administering networking
             on FreeBSD is basically the same as on &sunos; 4.0 or
             Ultrix.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ethernet-aliases">
           <para>How can I set up Ethernet aliases?</para>
         </question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>If the alias is on the same subnet as an address
 	    already configured on the interface, then add 
 	    <literal>netmask 0xffffffff</literal> to your
 	    &man.ifconfig.8; command-line, as in the following:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ifconfig ed0 alias 192.0.2.2 netmask 0xffffffff</userinput></screen>
 
 	  <para>Otherwise, just specify the network address and
 	    netmask as usual:</para>
 
 	  <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ifconfig ed0 alias 172.16.141.5 netmask 0xffffff00</userinput></screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="port-3c503">
           <para>How do I get my 3C503 to use the other network
             port?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you want to use the other ports, you will have to specify
             an additional parameter on the
             &man.ifconfig.8; command line. The default port is
             <literal>link0</literal>. To use the AUI port instead of the
             BNC one, use <literal>link2</literal>.  These flags should be
             specified using the ifconfig_* variables in
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> (see &man.rc.conf.5;).</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="nfs">
           <para>Why am I having trouble with NFS and FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Certain PC network cards are better than others (to put
             it mildly) and can sometimes cause problems with network
             intensive applications like NFS.</para>
 
           <para>See <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/network-nfs.html">
             the Handbook entry on NFS</ulink> for more information on
             this topic.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="nfs-linux">
           <para>Why can I not NFS-mount from a &linux; box?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Some versions of the &linux; NFS code only accept mount
             requests from a privileged port; try</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -o -P linuxbox:/blah /mnt</userinput></screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="nfs-sun">
           <para>Why can I not NFS-mount from a Sun box?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>&sun; workstations running &sunos; 4.X only accept mount
             requests from a privileged port; try</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>mount -o -P sunbox:/blah /mnt</userinput></screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="exports-errors">
           <para>Why does <command>mountd</command> keep telling me it
             <errorname>can't change attributes</errorname> and that I have a
             <errorname>bad exports list</errorname> on my FreeBSD NFS
             server?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The most frequent problem is not understanding the
             correct format of <filename>/etc/exports</filename>.
             Please review &man.exports.5; and the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/network-nfs.html">NFS</ulink> entry in the
             Handbook, especially the section on <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/network-nfs.html#CONFIGURING-NFS">configuring
             NFS</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-nextstep">
           <para>Why am I having problems talking PPP to NeXTStep
             machines?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>Try disabling the TCP extensions in
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> (see &man.rc.conf.5;) by
             changing the following variable to NO:</para>
 
           <programlisting>tcp_extensions=NO</programlisting>
 
           <para>Xylogic's Annex boxes are also broken in this regard
             and you must use the above change to connect through
             them.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ip-multicast">
           <para>How do I enable IP multicast support?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>FreeBSD supports multicast host operations by
             default. If you want your box to run as a multicast
             router, you need to recompile your kernel with the
             <literal>MROUTING</literal> option and run
             &man.mrouted.8;. FreeBSD will start &man.mrouted.8; at
             boot time if the flag <literal>mrouted_enable</literal> is
             set to <literal>"YES"</literal> in
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
 
           <para>MBONE tools are available in their own ports category,
             <ulink
             url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/ports/mbone.html">mbone</ulink>.
             If you are looking for the conference tools
             <command>vic</command> and <command>vat</command>, look
             there!</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="dec-pci-chipset">
           <para>Which network cards are based on the DEC PCI
              chipset?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para>Here is a list compiled by Glen Foster
              <email>gfoster@driver.nsta.org</email>,
              with some more modern additions:</para>
 
           <table>
             <title>Network cards based on the DEC PCI chipset</title>
 
             <tgroup cols=2>
               <thead>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Vendor</entry>
                   <entry>Model</entry>
                 </row>
               </thead>
 
               <tbody>
                 <row>
                   <entry>ASUS</entry>
                   <entry>PCI-L101-TB</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Accton</entry>
                   <entry>ENI1203</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Cogent</entry>
                   <entry>EM960PCI</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Compex</entry>
                   <entry>ENET32-PCI</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>D-Link</entry>
                   <entry>DE-530</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Dayna</entry>
                   <entry>DP1203, DP2100</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>DEC</entry>
                   <entry>DE435, DE450</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Danpex</entry>
                   <entry>EN-9400P3</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>JCIS</entry>
                   <entry>Condor JC1260</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Linksys</entry>
                   <entry>EtherPCI</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Mylex</entry>
                   <entry>LNP101</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>SMC</entry>
                   <entry>EtherPower 10/100 (Model 9332)</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>SMC</entry>
                   <entry>EtherPower (Model 8432)</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>TopWare</entry>
                   <entry>TE-3500P</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Znyx (2.2.x)</entry>
                   <entry>ZX312, ZX314, ZX342, ZX345, ZX346, ZX348</entry>
                 </row>
                 <row>
                   <entry>Znyx (3.x)</entry>
                   <entry>ZX345Q, ZX346Q, ZX348Q, ZX412Q, ZX414, ZX442, ZX444,
                     ZX474, ZX478, ZX212, ZX214 (10mbps/hd)</entry>
                 </row>
               </tbody>
             </tgroup>
           </table>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="fqdn-hosts">
           <para>Why do I have to use the FQDN for hosts on my
             site?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You will probably find that the host is actually in a
             different domain; for example, if you are in foo.example.org and
             you wish to reach a host called <hostid>mumble</hostid> in the
             <hostid role="domainname">example.org</hostid> domain, you will
             have to refer to it by the fully-qualified domain name, <hostid
             role="fqdn">mumble.example.org</hostid>, instead of just
             <hostid>mumble</hostid>.</para>
 
           <para>Traditionally, this was allowed by BSD BIND resolvers.
             However the current version of
             <application>bind</application> (see &man.named.8;)
             that ships with FreeBSD no longer provides default
             abbreviations for non-fully qualified domain names other than
             the domain you are in. So an unqualified host
             <hostid>mumble</hostid> must either be found as <hostid
             role="fqdn">mumble.foo.example.org</hostid>, or it will be searched
             for in the root domain.</para>
 
           <para>This is different from the previous behavior, where the
             search continued across
             <hostid role="domainname">mumble.example.org</hostid>, and
             <hostid role="domainname">mumble.edu</hostid>.  Have a look at
             RFC 1535 for why this was considered bad practice, or even a
             security hole.</para>
 
           <para>As a good workaround, you can place the line</para>
 
           <programlisting>search foo.example.org example.org</programlisting>
 
           <para>instead of the previous</para>
 
           <programlisting>domain foo.example.org</programlisting>
 
           <para>into your <filename>/etc/resolv.conf</filename> file
             (see &man.resolv.conf.5;).  However, make sure that the
             search order does not go beyond the <quote>boundary
             between local and public administration</quote>, as RFC
             1535 calls it.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="network-permission-denied">
           <para>Why do I get an error, <errorname>Permission
             denied</errorname>, for all networking operations?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you have compiled your kernel with the
             <literal>IPFIREWALL</literal> option, you need to be aware
             that the default policy is to deny all packets that are
             not explicitly allowed.</para>
 
           <para>If you had unintentionally misconfigured your system
             for firewalling, you can restore network operability by
             typing the following while logged in as
             <username>root</username>:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>ipfw add 65534 allow all from any to any</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>You can also set
             <literal>firewall_type="open"</literal> in
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>.</para>
 
           <para>For further information on configuring a FreeBSD
             firewall, see the <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/firewalls.html">
             Handbook chapter</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ipfw-overhead">
           <para>How much overhead does IPFW incur?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Please see the Handbook's <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/firewalls.html">Firewalls</ulink>
             section, specifically the section on <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/firewalls.html#IPFW-OVERHEAD">IPFW
             Overhead & Optimization</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ipfw-fwd">
           <para>Why is my <command>ipfw</command> <quote>fwd</quote> rule
             to redirect a service to another machine not working?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Possibly because you want to do network address translation
             (NAT) and not just forward packets.  A <quote>fwd</quote> rule
             does exactly what it says; it forwards packets.  It does not
             actually change the data inside the packet.  Say we have a rule
             like:</para>
 
           <screen>01000 fwd <replaceable>10.0.0.1</replaceable> from any to <replaceable>foo 21</replaceable></screen>
 
           <para>When a packet with a destination address of
             <replaceable>foo</replaceable> arrives at the machine with this
             rule, the packet is forwarded to
             <replaceable>10.0.0.1</replaceable>, but it still has the
             destination address of <replaceable>foo</replaceable>!  The
             destination address of the packet is <emphasis>not</emphasis>
             changed to <replaceable>10.0.0.1</replaceable>.  Most machines
             would probably drop a packet that they receive with a
             destination address that is not their own.  Therefore, using a
             <quote>fwd</quote> rule does not often work the way the user
             expects.  This behavior is a feature and not a bug.</para>
 
           <para>See the <link linkend="service-redirect">FAQ about
             redirecting services</link>, the &man.natd.8; manual, or one of
             the several port redirecting utilities in the <ulink
             url="&url.base;/ports/index.html">ports collection</ulink> for a correct way to do
             this.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="service-redirect">
           <para>How can I redirect service requests from one machine to
             another?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You can redirect FTP (and other service) request with
             the <literal>socket</literal> package, available in the ports
             tree in category <quote>sysutils</quote>. Simply replace the
             service's command line to call socket instead, like so:</para>
 
           <programlisting>ftp stream tcp nowait nobody /usr/local/bin/socket socket <replaceable>ftp.example.com</replaceable> <replaceable>ftp</replaceable></programlisting>
 
           <para>where <replaceable>ftp.example.com</replaceable> and
             <replaceable>ftp</replaceable> are the host and port to
             redirect to, respectively.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="bandwidth-mgr-tool">
           <para>Where can I get a bandwidth management tool?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>There are three bandwidth management tools available
 	    for FreeBSD.  &man.dummynet.4; is integrated into FreeBSD
 	    as part of &man.ipfw.4;. <ulink
 	    url="http://www.csl.sony.co.jp/person/kjc/programs.html">ALTQ</ulink>
 	    is available for free on FreeBSD 4.X and has been
 	    integrated into FreeBSD 5.X as part of &man.pf.4;.
 	    Bandwidth Manager from <ulink
 	    url="http://www.etinc.com/">Emerging Technologies</ulink>
 	    is a commercial product.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="bpf-not-configured">
           <para>Why do I get <errorname>/dev/bpf0: device not
             configured</errorname>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You are running a program that requires the Berkeley
             Packet Filter (&man.bpf.4;), but it is not in your kernel.
             Add this to your kernel config file and build a new
             kernel:</para>
 
           <programlisting>pseudo-device bpf        # Berkeley Packet Filter</programlisting>
 
           <para>On FreeBSD 4.X and earlier, you must also create the
             device node.  After rebooting, go to the
             <filename>/dev</filename> directory and run:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sh MAKEDEV bpf0</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Please see the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/kernelconfig-nodes.html"> Handbook entry
             on device nodes</ulink> for more information on managing
             devices.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="mount-smb-share">
           <para>How do I mount a disk from a &windows; machine that is on my
             network, like smbmount in &linux;?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Use the <application>SMBFS</application> toolset.  It
             includes a set of kernel modifications and a set of
             userland programs.  The programs and information are
             available as <filename role="package">net/smbfs</filename>
             in the ports collection, or in the base system as of
             4.5-RELEASE and later.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="icmp-response-bw-limit">
           <para>What are these messages about <quote>icmp-response
             bandwidth limit 300/200 pps</quote> in my log
             files?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is the kernel telling you that some activity is
             provoking it to send more ICMP or TCP reset (RST)
             responses than it thinks it should.  ICMP responses are
             often generated as a result of attempted connections to
             unused UDP ports.  TCP resets are generated as a result of
             attempted connections to unopened TCP ports.  Among
             others, these are the kinds of activities which may cause
             these messages:</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>Brute-force denial of service (DoS) attacks (as
                 opposed to single-packet attacks which exploit a
                 specific vulnerability).</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Port scans which attempt to connect to a large
                 number of ports (as opposed to only trying a few
                 well-known ports).</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>The first number in the message tells you how many
             packets the kernel would have sent if the limit was not in
             place, and the second number tells you the limit.  You can
             control the limit using the
             <varname>net.inet.icmp.icmplim</varname> sysctl variable
             like this, where <literal>300</literal> is the limit in
             packets per second:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl -w net.inet.icmp.icmplim=300</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>If you do not want to see messages about this in your
             log files, but you still want the kernel to do response
             limiting, you can use the
             <varname>net.inet.icmp.icmplim_output</varname> sysctl
             variable to disable the output like this:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl -w net.inet.icmp.icmplim_output=0</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Finally, if you want to disable response limiting, you
             can set the <varname>net.inet.icmp.icmplim</varname>
             sysctl variable (see above for an example) to
             <literal>0</literal>.  Disabling response limiting is
             discouraged for the reasons listed above.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="unknown-hw-addr-format">
           <para>What are these <errorname>arp: unknown hardware
             address format</errorname> error messages?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This means that some device on your local Ethernet is
             using a MAC address in a format that FreeBSD does not
             recognize.  This is probably caused by someone
             experimenting with an Ethernet card somewhere else on the
             network.  You will see this most commonly on cable modem
             networks.  It is harmless, and should not affect the
             performance of your FreeBSD machine.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="cvsup-missing-libs">
 	  <para>I have just installed CVSup but trying to execute it
             produces errors.  What is wrong?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>First, see if the error message you are receiving is
             like the one shown below.</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>/usr/libexec/ld-elf.so.1: Shared object "libXaw.so.6" not found</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>Errors like these are caused by installing the
             <filename role="package">net/cvsup</filename> port on a
             machine which does not have the
             <application>&xfree86;</application> suite. If you want to
             use the <acronym>GUI</acronym> included with
             <application>CVSup</application> you will need to install
             <application>&xfree86;</application> now. Alternatively if
             you just wish to use <application>CVSup</application> from
             a command line you should delete the package previously
             installed. Then install the <filename
             role="package">net/cvsup-without-gui</filename> port. This
             is covered in more detail in the <ulink
             url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/cvsup.html">CVSup
             section</ulink> of the Handbook.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="security">
     <title>Security</title>
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="sandbox">
           <para>What is a sandbox?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para><quote>Sandbox</quote> is a security term.  It can
             mean two things:</para>
 
             <itemizedlist>
               <listitem>
 
                 <para>A process which is placed inside a set of virtual
                   walls that are designed to prevent someone who breaks
                   into the process from being able to break into the wider
                   system.</para>
 
                 <para>The process is said to be able to
                   <quote>play</quote> inside the walls.  That is,
                   nothing the process does in regards to executing code is
                   supposed to be able to breech the walls so you do not
                   have to do a detailed audit of its code to be able to
                   say certain things about its security.</para>
 
                 <para>The walls might be a userid, for example.  This is
                   the definition used in the &man.security.7; and &man.named.8; man
                   pages.</para>
 
                 <para>Take the <literal>ntalk</literal> service, for
                   example (see /etc/inetd.conf). This service used to run
                   as userid <username>root</username>. Now it runs as userid
 		  <username>tty</username>. The <username>tty</username> user
                   is a sandbox designed to make it more difficult for
                   someone who has successfully hacked into the system via
                   ntalk from being able to hack beyond that user id.</para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
 
                 <para>A process which is placed inside a simulation of the
                   machine. This is more hard-core. Basically it means that
                   someone who is able to break into the process may believe
                   that he can break into the wider machine but is, in fact,
                   only breaking into a simulation of that machine and not
                   modifying any real data.</para>
 
                 <para>The most common way to accomplish this is to build a
                   simulated environment in a subdirectory and then run the
                   processes in that directory chroot'd (i.e.
                   <filename>/</filename> for that process is this
                   directory, not the real <filename>/</filename> of the
                   system).</para>
 
                 <para>Another common use is to mount an underlying
                   filesystem read-only and then create a filesystem layer
                   on top of it that gives a process a seemingly writeable
                   view into that filesystem. The process may believe it is
                   able to write to those files, but only the process sees
                   the effects - other processes in the system do not,
                   necessarily.</para>
 
                 <para>An attempt is made to make this sort of sandbox so
                   transparent that the user (or hacker) does not realize
                   that he is sitting in it.</para>
               </listitem>
             </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>&unix; implements two core sandboxes.  One is at the
             process level, and one is at the userid level.</para>
 
           <para>Every &unix; process is completely firewalled off from every
             other &unix; process.  One process cannot modify the address
             space of another.  This is unlike &windows; where a process
             can easily overwrite the address space of any other, leading
             to a crash.</para>
 
           <para>A &unix; process is owned by a particular userid.  If
             the userid is not the <username>root</username> user, it
             serves to firewall the process off from processes owned by
             other users.  The userid is also used to firewall off
             on-disk data.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="securelevel">
           <para>What is securelevel?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The securelevel is a security mechanism implemented in the
             kernel.  Basically, when the securelevel is positive, the
             kernel restricts certain tasks; not even the superuser (i.e.,
             <username>root</username>) is allowed to do them.  At the time
             of this writing, the securelevel mechanism is capable of, among
             other things, limiting the ability to,</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>unset certain file flags, such as
                 <literal>schg</literal> (the system immutable flag),</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>write to kernel memory via
                 <devicename>/dev/mem</devicename> and
                 <devicename>/dev/kmem</devicename>,</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>load kernel modules, and</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>alter firewall rules.</para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
 
           <para>To check the status of the securelevel on a running system,
             simply execute the following command:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>sysctl kern.securelevel</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>The output will contain the name of the &man.sysctl.8;
             variable (in this case, <varname>kern.securelevel</varname>)
             and a number.  The latter is the current value of the
             securelevel.  If it is positive (i.e., greater than 0), at
             least some of the securelevel's protections are enabled.</para>
 
           <para>You cannot lower the securelevel of a running system; being
             able to do that would defeat its purpose.  If you need to do a
             task that requires that the securelevel be non-positive (e.g.,
             an <maketarget>installworld</maketarget> or changing the date),
             you will have to change the securelevel setting in
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> (you want to look for the
             <varname>kern_securelevel</varname> and
             <varname>kern_securelevel_enable</varname> variables) and
             reboot.</para>
 
           <para>For more information on securelevel and the specific things
             all the levels do, please consult the &man.init.8; manual
             page.</para>
 
             <warning>
               <para>Securelevel is not a silver bullet; it has many known
                 deficiencies.  More often than not, it provides a false
                 sense of security.</para>
 
               <para>One of its biggest problems is that in order for it to
                 be at all effective, all files used in the boot process up
                 until the securelevel is set must be protected.  If an
                 attacker can get the system to execute their code prior to
                 the securelevel being set (which happens quite late in the
                 boot process since some things the system must do at
                 start-up cannot be done at an elevated securelevel), its
                 protections are invalidated.  While this task of protecting
                 all files used in the boot process is not technically
                 impossible, if it is achieved, system maintenance will
                 become a nightmare since one would have to take the system
                 down, at least to single-user mode, to modify a
                 configuration file.</para>
 
               <para>This point and others are often discussed on the
                 mailing lists, particularly the &a.security;. Please search
                 the archives <ulink
                 url="&url.base;/search/index.html">here</ulink> for an
                 extensive discussion.  Some people are hopeful that
                 securelevel will soon go away in favor of a more
                 fine-grained mechanism, but things are still hazy in this
                 respect.</para>
 
               <para>Consider yourself warned.</para>
             </warning>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="extra-named-port">
 	  <para>BIND (<command>named</command>) is listening on port 53 and
 	    some other high-numbered port.  What is going on?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>BIND uses a random high-numbered port for outgoing
 	    queries.  If you want to use port 53 for outgoing queries,
 	    either to get past a firewall or to make yourself feel
 	    better, you can try the following in
 	    <filename>/etc/namedb/named.conf</filename>:</para>
 
 	  <programlisting>options {
         query-source address * port 53;
 };</programlisting>
 
 	  <para>You can replace the <literal>*</literal> with a single IP
 	    address if you want to tighten things further.</para>
 
 	  <para>Congratulations, by the way.  It is good practice to read
 	    your &man.sockstat.1; output and notice odd
 	    things!</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="sendmail-port-587">
           <para><application>sendmail</application> is listening on port 587 as well as the
             standard port 25! What is going on?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Recent versions of <application>sendmail</application> support a
             mail submission feature that runs over port 587.  This is
             not yet widely supported, but is growing in
             popularity.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="toor-account">
           <para>What is this UID 0 <username>toor</username> account? Have I
             been compromised?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Do not worry. <username>toor</username> is an
             <quote>alternative</quote> superuser account (toor is root
             spelt backwards). Previously it was created when the
             &man.bash.1; shell was installed but now it is created by
             default. It is intended to be used with a non-standard shell so
             you do not have to change <username>root</username>'s default
             shell. This is important as shells which are not part of the
             base distribution (for example a shell installed from ports or
             packages) are likely to be installed in
             <filename>/usr/local/bin</filename> which, by default, resides
             on a different filesystem. If <username>root</username>'s shell
             is located in <filename>/usr/local/bin</filename> and
             <filename>/usr</filename> (or whatever filesystem contains
             <filename>/usr/local/bin</filename>) is not mounted for some
             reason, <username>root</username> will not be able to log in to
             fix a problem (although if you reboot into single user mode
             you will be prompted for the path to a shell).</para>
 
           <para>Some people use <username>toor</username> for
             day-to-day <username>root</username> tasks with a
             non-standard shell, leaving <username>root</username>,
             with a standard shell, for single user mode or
             emergencies. By default you cannot log in using
             <username>toor</username> as it does not have a password,
             so log in as <username>root</username> and set a password
             for <username>toor</username> if you want to use
             it.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="suidperl">
           <para>Why is <command>suidperl</command> not working
             properly?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>For security reasons, <command>suidperl</command> is
             installed without the suid bit by default.  The system
             administrator can enable suid behavior with the following
             command.</para>
 
 	    <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>chmod u+s /usr/bin/suidperl</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>If you want <command>suidperl</command> to be built
             suid during upgrades from source, edit
             <filename>/etc/make.conf</filename> and add
             <varname>ENABLE_SUIDPERL=true</varname> before you build
             <command>perl</command>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="ppp">
     <title>PPP</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="userppp">
           <para>I cannot make &man.ppp.8; work.  What am I doing wrong?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You should first read the &man.ppp.8; manual page and
             the <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/ppp-and-slip.html#USERPPP">
             PPP section of the handbook</ulink>.  Enable logging with
             the command</para>
 
           <programlisting>set log Phase Chat Connect Carrier lcp ipcp ccp command</programlisting>
 
           <para>This command may be typed at the &man.ppp.8; command
             prompt or it may be entered in the
             <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename> configuration file
             (the start of the <literal>default</literal> section is
             the best place to put it).  Make sure that
             <filename>/etc/syslog.conf</filename> (see
             &man.syslog.conf.5;) contains the lines</para>
 
           <programlisting>!ppp
 *.*        /var/log/ppp.log</programlisting>
 
           <para>and that the file <filename>/var/log/ppp.log</filename>
             exists.  You can now find out a lot about what is going on
             from the log file.  Do not worry if it does not all make sense.
             If you need to get help from someone, it may make sense to
             them.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-hangs">
           <para>Why does &man.ppp.8; hang when I run it?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is usually because your hostname will not resolve.
             The best way to fix this is to make sure that
             <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> is consulted by your
             resolver first by editing <filename>/etc/host.conf</filename>
             and putting the <literal>hosts</literal> line first.  Then,
             simply put an entry in <filename>/etc/hosts</filename> for
             your local machine.  If you have no local network, change your
             <hostid>localhost</hostid> line:</para>
 
           <programlisting>127.0.0.1        foo.example.com foo localhost</programlisting>
 
           <para>Otherwise, simply add another entry for your host.
             Consult the relevant manual pages for more details.</para>
 
           <para>You should be able to successfully <command>ping -c1
             `hostname`</command> when you are done.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-nodial-auto">
           <para>Why will &man.ppp.8; not dial in <literal>-auto</literal>
             mode?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>First, check that you have got a default route.  By
             running <command>netstat -rn</command> (see
             &man.netstat.1;), you should see two entries like
             this:</para>
 
           <programlisting>Destination        Gateway            Flags     Refs     Use     Netif Expire
 default            10.0.0.2           UGSc        0        0      tun0
 10.0.0.2           10.0.0.1           UH          0        0      tun0</programlisting>
 
           <para>This is assuming that you have used the addresses from the
             handbook, the manual page or from the ppp.conf.sample file.
             If you do not have a default route, it may be because you are
             running an old version of &man.ppp.8;
             that does not understand the word <literal>HISADDR</literal>
             in the ppp.conf file.</para>
 
           <para>Another reason for the default route line being
             missing is that you have mistakenly set up a default
             router in your <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> (see
             &man.rc.conf.5;) file
             and you have omitted the line saying</para>
 
           <programlisting>delete ALL</programlisting>
 
           <para>from <filename>ppp.conf</filename>.  If this is the
             case, go back to the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/ppp-and-slip.html#USERPPP-FINAL"> Final
             system configuration</ulink> section of the
             handbook.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="no-route-to-host">
           <para>What does <errorname>No route to host</errorname> mean?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This error is usually due to a missing</para>
 
           <programlisting>MYADDR:
   delete ALL
   add 0 0 HISADDR</programlisting>
 
           <para>section in your <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.linkup</filename>
             file.  This is only necessary if you have a dynamic IP address
             or do not know the address of your gateway.  If you are using
             interactive mode, you can type the following after entering
             <literal>packet mode</literal> (packet mode is
             indicated by the capitalized <acronym>PPP</acronym> in the
             prompt):</para>
 
          <programlisting>delete ALL
 add 0 0 HISADDR</programlisting>
 
           <para>Refer to the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/ppp-and-slip.html#USERPPP-DYNAMICIP">
             PPP and Dynamic IP addresses</ulink> section of the handbook
             for further details.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="connection-threeminutedrop">
           <para>Why does my connection drop after about 3 minutes?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The default PPP timeout is 3 minutes.  This can be
             adjusted with the line</para>
 
           <programlisting>set timeout <replaceable>NNN</replaceable></programlisting>
 
           <para>where <replaceable>NNN</replaceable> is the number of
             seconds of inactivity before the connection is closed.  If
             <replaceable>NNN</replaceable> is zero, the connection is never
             closed due to a timeout. It is possible to put this command in
             the <filename>ppp.conf</filename> file, or to type it at the
             prompt in interactive mode. It is also possible to adjust it on
             the fly while the line is active by connecting to
             <application>ppp</application>'s server socket using
             &man.telnet.1; or &man.pppctl.8;.
             Refer to the
             &man.ppp.8; man
             page for further details.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-drop-heavy-load">
           <para>Why does my connection drop under heavy load?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you have Link Quality Reporting (LQR) configured,
             it is possible that too many LQR packets are lost between
             your machine and the peer.  Ppp deduces that the line must
             therefore be bad, and disconnects.  Prior to FreeBSD version
             2.2.5, LQR was enabled by default.  It is now disabled by
             default. LQR can be disabled with the line</para>
 
           <programlisting>disable lqr</programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-drop-random">
           <para>Why does my connection drop after a random amount of
             time?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Sometimes, on a noisy phone line or even on a line with
             call waiting enabled, your modem may hang up because it
             thinks (incorrectly) that it lost carrier.</para>
 
           <para>There is a setting on most modems for determining how
             tolerant it should be to temporary losses of carrier.  On a
             USR &sportster; for example, this is measured by the S10
             register in tenths of a second.  To make your modem more
             forgiving, you could add the following send-expect sequence
             to your dial string:</para>
 
           <programlisting>set dial "...... ATS10=10 OK ......"</programlisting>
 
           <para>Refer to your modem manual for details.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-hangs-random">
           <para>Why does my connection hang after a random amount of
             time?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para>Many people experience hung connections with no apparent
             explanation.  The first thing to establish is which side of
             the link is hung.</para>
 
           <para>If you are using an external modem, you can simply try
             using &man.ping.8; to see if the <acronym>TD</acronym>
             light is flashing when you transmit data.  If it flashes
             (and the <acronym>RD</acronym> light does not), the
             problem is with the remote end. If <acronym>TD</acronym>
             does not flash, the problem is local. With an internal
             modem, you will need to use the <literal>set
             server</literal> command in your
             <filename>ppp.conf</filename> file. When the hang occurs,
             connect to &man.ppp.8; using &man.pppctl.8;. If your
             network connection suddenly revives (PPP was revived due
             to the activity on the diagnostic socket) or if you cannot
             connect (assuming the <literal>set socket</literal>
             command succeeded at startup time), the problem is
             local. If you can connect and things are still hung,
             enable local async logging with <literal>set log local
             async</literal> and use &man.ping.8; from another window
             or terminal to make use of the link. The async logging
             will show you the data being transmitted and received on
             the link. If data is going out and not coming back, the
             problem is remote.</para>
 
           <para>Having established whether the problem is local or remote,
             you now have two possibilities:</para>
 
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>If the problem is remote, read on entry <xref
 	          linkend="ppp-remote-not-responding">.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>If the problem is local, read on entry <xref
 	          linkend="ppp-hung">.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 	  </itemizedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-remote-not-responding">
           <para>The remote end is not responding.  What can I do?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>There is very little you can do about this.  Most ISPs
             will refuse to help if you are not running a Microsoft OS.
             You can <literal>enable lqr</literal> in your
             <filename>ppp.conf</filename> file, allowing &man.ppp.8; to detect
             the remote failure and hang up, but this detection is
             relatively slow and therefore not that useful.  You may want to
             avoid telling your ISP that you are running user-PPP...</para>
 
           <para>First, try disabling all local compression by adding the
             following to your configuration:</para>
 
           <programlisting>disable pred1 deflate deflate24 protocomp acfcomp shortseq vj
 deny pred1 deflate deflate24 protocomp acfcomp shortseq vj</programlisting>
 
           <para>Then reconnect to ensure that this makes no difference.
             If things improve or if the problem is solved completely,
             determine which setting makes the difference through trial
             and error.  This will provide good ammunition when you contact
             your ISP (although it may make it apparent that you are not
             running a Microsoft product).</para>
 
           <para>Before contacting your ISP, enable async logging
             locally and wait until the connection hangs again.  This
             may use up quite a bit of disk space.  The last data read
             from the port may be of interest.  It is usually ascii
             data, and may even describe the problem (<quote>Memory
             fault, core dumped</quote>?).</para>
 
           <para>If your ISP is helpful, they should be able to enable
             logging on their end, then when the next link drop occurs,
             they may be able to tell you why their side is having a
             problem.  Feel free to send the details to &a.brian;, or
             even to ask your ISP to contact me directly.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-hung">
           <para>&man.ppp.8; has hung.  What can I do?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Your best bet here is to rebuild &man.ppp.8; by adding
             <literal>CFLAGS+=-g</literal> and
             <literal>STRIP=</literal> to the end of the Makefile, then
             doing a <command>make clean &amp;&amp; make &amp;&amp;
             make install</command>.  When &man.ppp.8; hangs, find the
             &man.ppp.8; process id with <command>ps ajxww | fgrep
             ppp</command> and run <command>gdb ppp
             <replaceable>PID</replaceable></command>.  From the <command>gdb</command>
             prompt, you can then use <command>bt</command> to get a
             stack trace.</para>
 
           <para>Send the results to &a.brian;.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-loginok-thennothing">
           <para>Why does nothing happen after the <quote>Login OK!</quote>
             message?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Prior to FreeBSD version 2.2.5, once the link was
             established, &man.ppp.8; would wait for the peer to
             initiate the Line Control Protocol (LCP).  Many ISPs will
             not initiate negotiations and expect the client to do so.
             To force &man.ppp.8; to initiate the LCP, use the
             following line:</para>
 
           <programlisting>set openmode active</programlisting>
 
             <note>
               <para>It usually does no harm if both sides initiate
                 negotiation, so openmode is now active by default.
                 However, the next section explains when it
                 <emphasis>does</emphasis> do some harm.</para>
             </note>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-same-magic">
           <para>I keep seeing errors about magic being the same.  What does
             it mean?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Occasionally, just after connecting, you may see messages
             in the log that say <quote>magic is the same</quote>.
             Sometimes, these messages are harmless, and sometimes one side
             or the other exits.  Most PPP implementations cannot survive
             this problem, and even if the link seems to come up, you will see
             repeated configure requests and configure acknowledgments in
             the log file until &man.ppp.8; eventually gives up and closes the
             connection.</para>
 
           <para>This normally happens on server machines with slow
             disks that are spawning a getty on the port, and executing
             &man.ppp.8; from a login script or program after login.  I
             have also heard reports of it happening consistently when
             using slirp.  The reason is that in the time taken between
             &man.getty.8; exiting and &man.ppp.8; starting, the
             client-side &man.ppp.8; starts sending Line Control
             Protocol (LCP) packets.  Because ECHO is still switched on
             for the port on the server, the client &man.ppp.8; sees
             these packets <quote>reflect</quote> back.</para>
 
           <para>One part of the LCP negotiation is to establish a
             magic number for each side of the link so that
             <quote>reflections</quote> can be detected. The protocol
             says that when the peer tries to negotiate the same magic
             number, a NAK should be sent and a new magic number should
             be chosen.  During the period that the server port has
             ECHO turned on, the client &man.ppp.8; sends LCP packets,
             sees the same magic in the reflected packet and NAKs
             it. It also sees the NAK reflect (which also means
             &man.ppp.8; must change its magic). This produces a
             potentially enormous number of magic number changes, all
             of which are happily piling into the server's tty
             buffer. As soon as &man.ppp.8; starts on the server, it is
             flooded with magic number changes and almost immediately
             decides it has tried enough to negotiate LCP and gives
             up. Meanwhile, the client, who no longer sees the
             reflections, becomes happy just in time to see a hangup
             from the server.</para>
 
           <para>This can be avoided by allowing the peer to start
             negotiating with the following line in your ppp.conf
             file:</para>
 
           <programlisting>set openmode passive</programlisting>
 
           <para>This tells &man.ppp.8; to wait for the server to initiate LCP
             negotiations.  Some servers however may never initiate
             negotiations.  If this is the case, you can do something
             like:</para>
 
           <programlisting>set openmode active 3</programlisting>
 
           <para>This tells &man.ppp.8; to be passive for 3 seconds, and then to
             start sending LCP requests.  If the peer starts sending
             requests during this period, &man.ppp.8; will immediately respond
             rather than waiting for the full 3 second period.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-lcp-constant">
           <para>LCP negotiations continue until the connection is
             closed.  What is wrong?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>There is currently an implementation mis-feature in
             &man.ppp.8; where it does not associate
             LCP, CCP &amp; IPCP responses with their original requests. As
             a result, if one PPP
             implementation is more than 6 seconds slower than the other
             side, the other side will send two additional LCP configuration
             requests. This is fatal.</para>
 
           <para>Consider two implementations,
             <hostid>A</hostid> and
             <hostid>B</hostid>. <hostid>A</hostid> starts
             sending LCP requests immediately after connecting and
             <hostid>B</hostid> takes 7 seconds to start. When
             <hostid>B</hostid> starts, <hostid>A</hostid>
             has sent 3 LCP REQs. We are assuming the line has ECHO switched
             off, otherwise we would see magic number problems as described in
             the previous section. <hostid>B</hostid> sends a
             REQ, then an ACK to the first of
             <hostid>A</hostid>'s REQs. This results in
             <hostid>A</hostid> entering the <acronym>OPENED</acronym>
             state and sending and ACK (the first) back to
             <hostid>B</hostid>. In the meantime,
             <hostid>B</hostid> sends back two more ACKs in response to
             the two additional REQs sent by <hostid>A</hostid>
             before <hostid>B</hostid> started up.
             <hostid>B</hostid> then receives the first ACK from
             <hostid>A</hostid> and enters the
             <acronym>OPENED</acronym> state.
             <hostid>A</hostid> receives the second ACK from
             <hostid>B</hostid> and goes back to the
             <acronym>REQ-SENT</acronym> state, sending another (forth) REQ
             as per the RFC. It then receives the third ACK and enters the
             <acronym>OPENED</acronym> state. In the meantime,
             <hostid>B</hostid> receives the forth REQ from
             <hostid>A</hostid>, resulting in it reverting to the
             <acronym>ACK-SENT</acronym> state and sending
             another (second) REQ and (forth) ACK as per the RFC.
             <hostid>A</hostid> gets the REQ, goes into
             <acronym>REQ-SENT</acronym> and sends another REQ. It
             immediately receives the following ACK and enters
             <acronym>OPENED</acronym>.</para>
 
           <para>This goes on until one side figures out that they are
             getting nowhere and gives up.</para>
 
           <para>The best way to avoid this is to configure one side to be
             <literal>passive</literal> - that is, make one side
             wait for the other to start negotiating.  This can be done
             with the</para>
 
           <programlisting>set openmode passive</programlisting>
 
           <para>command.  Care should be taken with this option.  You
             should also use the</para>
 
           <programlisting>set stopped N</programlisting>
 
           <para>command to limit the amount of time that
             &man.ppp.8; waits for the peer to begin
             negotiations.  Alternatively, the</para>
 
           <programlisting>set openmode active N</programlisting>
 
           <para>command (where <replaceable>N</replaceable> is the
             number of seconds to wait before starting negotiations) can be
             used.  Check the manual page for details.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-shell-test-lockup">
           <para>Why does &man.ppp.8; lock up when I shell out to test
             it?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>When you execute the <command>shell</command> or
             <command>!</command> command, &man.ppp.8; executes a
             shell (or if you have passed any arguments,
             &man.ppp.8; will execute those arguments). Ppp will
             wait for the command to complete before continuing. If you
             attempt to use the PPP link while running the command, the link
             will appear to have frozen. This is because
             &man.ppp.8; is waiting for the command to
             complete.</para>
 
           <para>If you wish to execute commands like this, use the
             <command>!bg</command> command instead.  This will execute
             the given command in the background, and &man.ppp.8; can
             continue to service the link.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-nullmodem">
           <para>Why does &man.ppp.8; over a null-modem cable never exit?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>There is no way for &man.ppp.8; to
             automatically determine that a direct connection has been
             dropped.  This is due to the lines that are used in a
             null-modem serial cable.  When using this sort of connection,
             LQR should always be enabled with the line</para>
 
           <programlisting>enable lqr</programlisting>
 
           <para>LQR is accepted by default if negotiated by the peer.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-auto-noreasondial">
           <para>Why does &man.ppp.8; dial for no reason in -auto mode?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para>If &man.ppp.8; is dialing unexpectedly, you must
             determine the cause, and set up Dial filters (dfilters) to
             prevent such dialing.</para>
 
           <para>To determine the cause, use the following line:</para>
 
           <programlisting>set log +tcp/ip</programlisting>
 
           <para>This will log all traffic through the connection.  The
             next time the line comes up unexpectedly, you will see the
             reason logged with a convenient timestamp next to
             it.</para>
 
           <para>You can now disable dialing under these circumstances.
             Usually, this sort of problem arises due to DNS lookups.
             To prevent DNS lookups from establishing a connection
             (this will <emphasis>not</emphasis> prevent &man.ppp.8;
             from passing the packets through an established
             connection), use the following:</para>
 
           <programlisting>set dfilter 1 deny udp src eq 53
 set dfilter 2 deny udp dst eq 53
 set dfilter 3 permit 0/0 0/0</programlisting>
 
           <para>This is not always suitable, as it will effectively
             break your demand-dial capabilities - most programs will
             need a DNS lookup before doing any other network related
             things.</para>
 
           <para>In the DNS case, you should try to determine what is
             actually trying to resolve a host name.  A lot of the
             time, &man.sendmail.8; is the culprit.  You should make
             sure that you tell <application>sendmail</application> not to do any DNS lookups in
             its configuration file.  See the section on <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/smtp-dialup.html">using email with a
             dialup connection</ulink> in the FreeBSD Handbook for
             details on how to create your own configuration file and
             what should go into it.  You may also want to add the
             following line to your <filename>.mc</filename>
             file:</para>
 
           <programlisting>define(`confDELIVERY_MODE', `d')dnl</programlisting>
 
           <para>This will make <application>sendmail</application> queue everything until the
             queue is run (usually, sendmail is invoked with
             <option>-bd -q30m</option>, telling it to run the queue
             every 30 minutes) or until a <command>sendmail
             -q</command> is done (perhaps from your ppp.linkup
             file).</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ccp-errors">
           <para>What do these CCP errors mean?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>I keep seeing the following errors in my log file:</para>
 
           <programlisting>CCP: CcpSendConfigReq
 CCP: Received Terminate Ack (1) state = Req-Sent (6)</programlisting>
 
           <para>This is because &man.ppp.8; is trying to negotiate Predictor1
             compression, and the peer does not want to negotiate any
             compression at all.  The messages are harmless, but if you
             wish to remove them, you can disable Predictor1 compression
             locally too:</para>
 
           <programlisting>disable pred1</programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-connectionspeed">
           <para>Why does &man.ppp.8; not log my connection speed?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>In order to log all lines of your modem
             <quote>conversation</quote>, you must enable the
             following:</para>
 
           <programlisting>set log +connect</programlisting>
 
           <para>This will make &man.ppp.8; log
             everything up until the last requested <quote>expect</quote>
             string.</para>
 
           <para>If you wish to see your connect speed and are using PAP
             or CHAP (and therefore do not have anything to
             <quote>chat</quote> after the CONNECT in the dial script - no
             <literal>set login</literal> script), you must make sure that
             you instruct &man.ppp.8; to <quote>expect</quote> the whole CONNECT
             line, something like this:</para>
 
           <programlisting>set dial "ABORT BUSY ABORT NO\\sCARRIER TIMEOUT 4 \
   \"\" ATZ OK-ATZ-OK ATDT\\T TIMEOUT 60 CONNECT \\c \\n"</programlisting>
 
           <para>Here, we get our CONNECT, send nothing, then expect a
             line-feed, forcing &man.ppp.8; to read
             the whole CONNECT response.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-ignores-backslash">
           <para>Why does &man.ppp.8; ignore the <literal>\</literal> character
             in my chat script?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para>Ppp parses each line in your config files so that it can
             interpret strings such as
             <literal>set phone "123 456 789"</literal> correctly and
             realize that the number is actually only
             <emphasis>one</emphasis> argument. In order to specify a
             <literal>&quot;</literal> character, you must escape it
             using a backslash (<literal>\</literal>).</para>
 
           <para>When the chat interpreter parses each argument, it
             re-interprets the argument in order to find any special
             escape sequences such as <literal>\P</literal> or
             <literal>\T</literal> (see the manual page).  As a result of this
             double-parsing, you must remember to use the correct number of
             escapes.</para>
 
           <para>If you wish to actually send a <literal>\</literal>
             character to (say) your modem, you would need something
             like:</para>
 
           <programlisting>set dial "\"\" ATZ OK-ATZ-OK AT\\\\X OK"</programlisting>
 
           <para>resulting in the following sequence:</para>
 
           <programlisting>ATZ
 OK
 AT\X
 OK</programlisting>
 
           <para>or</para>
 
           <programlisting>set phone 1234567
 set dial "\"\" ATZ OK ATDT\\T"</programlisting>
 
           <para>resulting in the following sequence:</para>
 
           <programlisting>ATZ
 OK
 ATDT1234567</programlisting>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-segfault-nocore">
           <para>Why does &man.ppp.8; get a seg-fault, but I see no
             <filename>ppp.core</filename> file?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Ppp (or any other program for that matter) should
             never dump core.  Because &man.ppp.8; runs with an
             effective user id of 0, the operating system will not
             write &man.ppp.8;'s core image to disk before terminating
             it.  If, however &man.ppp.8; is actually terminating due
             to a segmentation violation or some other signal that
             normally causes core to be dumped,
             <emphasis>and</emphasis> you are sure you are using the
             latest version (see the start of this section), then you
             should do the following:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>tar xfz ppp-*.src.tar.gz</userinput>
 &prompt.user; <userinput>cd ppp*/ppp</userinput>
 &prompt.user; <userinput>echo STRIP= &gt;&gt;Makefile</userinput>
 &prompt.user; <userinput>echo CFLAGS+=-g &gt;&gt;Makefile</userinput>
 &prompt.user; <userinput>make clean all</userinput>
 &prompt.user; <userinput>su</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>make install</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>chmod 555 /usr/sbin/ppp</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>You will now have a debuggable version of &man.ppp.8;
             installed.  You will have to be <username>root</username>
             to run &man.ppp.8; as all of its privileges have been
             revoked.  When you start &man.ppp.8;, take a careful note
             of what your current directory was at the time.</para>
 
           <para>Now, if and when &man.ppp.8; receives the segmentation
             violation, it will dump a core file called
             <filename>ppp.core</filename>.  You should then do the
             following:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>su</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>gdb /usr/sbin/ppp ppp.core</userinput>
 <prompt>(gdb)</prompt> <userinput>bt</userinput>
 .....
 <prompt>(gdb)</prompt> <userinput>f 0</userinput>
 ....
 <prompt>(gdb)</prompt> <userinput>i args</userinput>
 ....
 <prompt>(gdb)</prompt> <userinput>l</userinput>
 .....</screen>
 
           <para>All of this information should be given alongside your
             question, making it possible to diagnose the problem.</para>
 
           <para>If you are familiar with &man.gdb.1;, you may wish to find out some
             other bits and pieces such as what actually caused the dump and
             the addresses &amp; values of the relevant variables.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-autodialprocess-noconnect">
           <para>Why does the process that forces a dial in auto mode never
             connect?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This was a known problem with
             &man.ppp.8; set up to negotiate a
             dynamic local IP number with the peer in auto mode.  It is
             fixed in the latest version - search the manual page for
             <literal>iface</literal>.</para>
 
           <para>The problem was that when that initial program calls
             &man.connect.2;, the IP number of the tun interface is assigned
             to the socket endpoint. The kernel creates the first outgoing
             packet and writes it to the tun device.
             &man.ppp.8; then reads the packet and
             establishes a connection. If, as a result of
             &man.ppp.8;'s dynamic IP assignment, the
             interface address is changed, the original socket endpoint will
             be invalid. Any subsequent packets sent to the peer will
             usually be dropped. Even if they are not, any responses will
             not route back to the originating machine as the IP number is
             no longer owned by that machine.</para>
 
           <para>There are several theoretical ways to approach this
             problem. It would be nicest if the peer would re-assign the
             same IP number if possible <literal>:-)</literal>
             The current version of &man.ppp.8; does
             this, but most other implementations do not.</para>
 
           <para>The easiest method from our side would be to never
             change the tun interface IP number, but instead to change
             all outgoing packets so that the source IP number is
             changed from the interface IP to the negotiated IP on the
             fly. This is essentially what the
             <literal>iface-alias</literal> option in the latest
             version of &man.ppp.8; is doing (with the help of
             &man.libalias.3; and &man.ppp.8;'s <option>-nat</option>
             switch) - it is maintaining all previous interface
             addresses and NATing them to the last negotiated
             address.</para>
 
           <para>Another alternative (and probably the most reliable) would
             be to implement a system call that changes all bound sockets
             from one IP to another.  &man.ppp.8; would
             use this call to modify the sockets of all existing programs
             when a new IP number is negotiated. The same system call could
             be used by dhcp clients when they are forced to re-bind() their
             sockets.</para>
 
           <para>Yet another possibility is to allow an interface to be
             brought up without an IP number. Outgoing packets would be
             given an IP number of 255.255.255.255 up until the first
             SIOCAIFADDR ioctl is done. This would result in fully binding
             the socket. It would be up to &man.ppp.8;
             to change the source IP number, but only if it is set to
             255.255.255.255, and only the IP number and IP checksum would
             need to change. This, however is a bit of a hack as the kernel
             would be sending bad packets to an improperly configured
             interface, on the assumption that some other mechanism is
             capable of fixing things retrospectively.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ppp-nat-games">
           <para>Why do most games not work with the -nat switch?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The reason games and the like do not work when libalias
             is in use is that the machine on the outside will try to open a
             connection or send (unsolicited) UDP packets to the machine on
             the inside. The NAT software does not know that it should send
             these packets to the interior machine.</para>
 
           <para>To make things work, make sure that the only thing
             running is the software that you are having problems with, then
             either run tcpdump on the tun interface of the gateway or
             enable &man.ppp.8; tcp/ip logging (<literal>set log +tcp/ip</literal>)
             on the gateway.</para>
 
           <para>When you start the offending software, you should see
             packets passing through the gateway machine. When
             something comes back from the outside, it will be dropped
             (that is the problem). Note the port number of these
             packets then shut down the offending software. Do this a
             few times to see if the port numbers are consistent. If
             they are, then the following line in the relevant section
             of <filename>/etc/ppp/ppp.conf</filename> will make the
             software functional:</para>
 
           <programlisting>nat port <replaceable>proto</replaceable> <replaceable>internalmachine</replaceable>:<replaceable>port</replaceable> <replaceable>port</replaceable></programlisting>
 
           <para>where <replaceable>proto</replaceable> is either
             <literal>tcp</literal> or <literal>udp</literal>,
             <replaceable>internalmachine</replaceable> is the machine that
             you want the packets to be sent to and
             <replaceable>port</replaceable> is the destination port number
             of the packets.</para>
 
           <para>You will not be able to use the software on other machines
             without changing the above command, and running the software
             on two internal machines at the same time is out of the question
             - after all, the outside world is seeing your entire internal
             network as being just a single machine.</para>
 
           <para>If the port numbers are not consistent, there are three
             more options:</para>
 
           <orderedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para>Submit support in libalias. Examples of
                 <quote>special cases</quote> can be found in
                 <filename>/usr/src/lib/libalias/alias_*.c</filename>
                 (<filename>alias_ftp.c</filename> is a good
                 prototype). This usually involves reading certain
                 recognised outgoing packets, identifying the
                 instruction that tells the outside machine to initiate
                 a connection back to the internal machine on a
                 specific (random) port and setting up a
                 <quote>route</quote> in the alias table so that the
                 subsequent packets know where to go.</para>
 
               <para>This is the most difficult solution, but it is the
                 best and will make the software work with multiple
                 machines.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Use a proxy.  The application may support socks5
                 for example, or (as in the <quote>cvsup</quote> case)
                 may have a <quote>passive</quote> option that avoids
                 ever requesting that the peer open connections back to
                 the local machine.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>Redirect everything to the internal machine using
                 <literal>nat addr</literal>.  This is the
                 sledge-hammer approach.</para>
             </listitem>
           </orderedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="useful-port-numbers">
           <para>Has anybody made a list of useful port numbers?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para>Not yet, but this is intended to grow into such a list
             (if any interest is shown).  In each example,
             <replaceable>internal</replaceable> should be replaced with
             the IP number of the machine playing the game.</para>
 
           <itemizedlist>
             <listitem>
               <para><application>Asheron's Call</application></para>
 
               <para><literal>nat port udp
                 <replaceable>internal</replaceable>
                 :65000 65000</literal></para>
 
               <para>Manually change the port number within the game to
                 65000. If you have got a number of machines that you wish
                 to play on assign a unique port number for each (i.e.
                 65001, 65002, etc) and add a <literal>nat port</literal>
                 line for each one.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para><application>Half Life</application></para>
 
               <para><literal>nat port udp
                 <replaceable>internal</replaceable>:27005
                 27015</literal></para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para><application>PCAnywhere 8.0</application></para>
 
               <para><literal>nat port udp
                 <replaceable>internal</replaceable>:5632
                 5632</literal></para>
 
               <para><literal>nat port tcp
                 <replaceable>internal</replaceable>:5631
                 5631</literal></para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para><application>Quake</application></para>
 
               <para><literal>nat port udp
                 <replaceable>internal</replaceable>:6112
                 6112</literal></para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para><application>Quake 2</application></para>
 
               <para><literal>nat port udp
                 <replaceable>internal</replaceable>:27901
                 27910</literal></para>
               <para><literal>nat port udp
                 <replaceable>internal</replaceable>:60021
                 60021</literal></para>
               <para><literal>nat port udp
                 <replaceable>internal</replaceable>:60040
                 60040</literal></para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para><application>Red Alert</application></para>
 
               <para><literal>nat port udp
                 <replaceable>internal</replaceable>:8675
                 8675</literal></para>
 
               <para><literal>nat port udp
                 <replaceable>internal</replaceable>:5009
                 5009</literal></para>
             </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="fcs-errors">
           <para>What are FCS errors?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>FCS stands for <literal>F</literal>rame
             <literal>C</literal>heck <literal>S</literal>equence.
             Each PPP packet has a checksum attached to ensure that the
             data being received is the data being sent.  If the FCS of
             an incoming packet is incorrect, the packet is dropped and
             the HDLC FCS count is increased.  The HDLC error values
             can be displayed using the <literal>show hdlc</literal>
             command.</para>
 
           <para>If your link is bad (or if your serial driver is dropping
             packets), you will see the occasional FCS error.  This is not
             usually worth worrying about although it does slow down the
             compression protocols substantially.  If you have an external
             modem, make sure your cable is properly shielded from
             interference - this may eradicate the problem.</para>
 
           <para>If your link freezes as soon as you have connected and you
             see a large number of FCS errors, this may be because your link
             is not 8 bit clean. Make sure your modem is not using software
             flow control (XON/XOFF). If your datalink
             <emphasis>must</emphasis> use software flow control, use the
             command <literal>set accmap 0x000a0000</literal> to tell
             &man.ppp.8; to escape the <literal>^Q</literal> and
             <literal>^S</literal> characters.</para>
 
           <para>Another reason for seeing too many FCS errors may be
             that the remote end has stopped talking
             <acronym>PPP</acronym>. You may want to enable
             <literal>async</literal> logging at this point to
             determine if the incoming data is actually a login or
             shell prompt. If you have a shell prompt at the remote
             end, it is possible to terminate &man.ppp.8; without
             dropping the line by using the <literal>close
             lcp</literal> command (a following <literal>term</literal>
             command will reconnect you to the shell on the remote
             machine.</para>
 
           <para>If nothing in your log file indicates why the link might
             have been terminated, you should ask the remote administrator
             (your ISP?) why the session was terminated.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry id=PPPoEwithNAT>
         <question id="macos-win98-pppoe-freeze">
           <para>Why do &macos; and &windows; 98 connections freeze when
             running PPPoE on the gateway?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Thanks to Michael Wozniak
             <email>mwozniak@netcom.ca</email> for figuring this out and
             Dan Flemming <email>danflemming@mac.com</email> for the Mac
             solution:</para>
 
           <para>This is due to what is called a <quote>Black Hole</quote>
             router.  &macos; and &windows; 98 (and maybe other Microsoft OSs)
             send TCP packets with a requested segment size too big to fit
             into a PPPoE frame (MTU is 1500 by default for Ethernet)
             <emphasis>and</emphasis> have the <quote>do not
             fragment</quote> bit set (default of TCP) and the Telco router
             is not sending ICMP <quote>must fragment</quote> back to the
             www site you are trying to load.  (Alternatively, the router is
             sending the ICMP packet correctly, but the firewall at the www
             site is dropping it.)  When the www server is sending
             you frames that do not fit into the PPPoE pipe the Telco router
             drops them on the floor and your page does not load (some
             pages/graphics do as they are smaller than a MSS.) This seems
             to be the default of most Telco PPPoE configurations (if only
             they knew how to program a router... sigh...)</para>
 
           <para>One fix is to use regedit on your 95/98 boxes to add the
             following registry entry...</para>
 
           <programlisting>HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\System\CurrentControlSet\Services\Class\NetTrans\0000\MaxMTU</programlisting>
 
           <para>It should be a string with a value
             <quote>1436</quote>, as some ADSL routers are reported to
             be unable to deal with packets larger than this.  This
             registry key has been changed to
             <literal>Tcpip\Parameters\Interfaces\<replaceable>ID for
             adapter</replaceable>\MTU</literal> in &windows; 2000 and
             becomes a DWORD.</para>
 
           <para>Refer to the Microsoft Knowledge Base documents <ulink
             url="http://support.microsoft.com/support/kb/articles/Q158/4/74.asp">Q158474
             - Windows TCPIP Registry Entries</ulink> and <ulink
             url="http://support.microsoft.com/support/kb/articles/Q120/6/42.asp">Q120642
             - TCPIP & NBT Configuration Parameters for &windowsnt;
             </ulink> for more information on changing &windows; MTU to
             work with a NAT router.</para>
 
           <para>Another regedit possibility under &windows; 2000 is to
             set the
             <literal>Tcpip\Parameters\Interfaces\<replaceable>ID for
             adapter</replaceable>\EnablePMTUBHDetect</literal> DWORD
             to 1 as mentioned in the Microsoft document 120642
             mentioned above.</para>
 
           <para>Unfortunately, &macos; does not provide an interface for
             changing TCP/IP settings. However, there is commercial software
             available, such as OTAdvancedTuner (OT for OpenTransport, the
             &macos; TCP/IP stack) by <ulink
             url="http://www.softworks.com/">Sustainable Softworks</ulink>,
             that will allow users to customize TCP/IP settings. &macos; NAT
             users should select <literal>ip_interface_MTU</literal> from
             the drop-down menu, enter <literal>1450</literal> instead of
             <literal>1500</literal> in the box, click the box next to
             <literal>Save as Auto Configure</literal>, and click
             <literal>Make Active</literal>.</para>
 
           <para>The latest version of &man.ppp.8;
             (2.3 or greater) has an <command>enable tcpmssfixup</command>
             command that will automatically adjust the MSS to an appropriate
             value.  This facility is enabled by default.  If you are stuck
             with an older version of &man.ppp.8;, you
             may want to look at the <application>tcpmssd</application>
             port.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="desperation">
           <para>None of this helps - I am desperate!  What can I do?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If all else fails, send as much information as you can,
             including your config files, how you are starting
             &man.ppp.8;, the relevant parts of your
             log file and the output of the <command>netstat -rn</command>
             command (before and after connecting) to the &a.questions; or
             the <ulink url="news:comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc">
             comp.unix.bsd.freebsd.misc</ulink> news group, and someone
             should point you in the right direction.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="serial">
     <title>Serial Communications</title>
 
     <para>This section answers common questions about serial
       communications with FreeBSD.  PPP and SLIP are covered in the
       <link linkend="networking">Networking</link> section.</para>
 
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="found-serial">
           <para>How do I tell if FreeBSD found my serial ports?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>As the FreeBSD kernel boots, it will probe for the serial
             ports in your system for which the kernel was configured.
             You can either watch your system closely for the messages it
             prints or run the command</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>dmesg | grep sio</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>after your system is up and running.</para>
 
           <para>Here is some example output from the above command:</para>
 
           <programlisting>sio0 at 0x3f8-0x3ff irq 4 on isa
 sio0: type 16550A
 sio1 at 0x2f8-0x2ff irq 3 on isa
 sio1: type 16550A</programlisting>
 
           <para>This shows two serial ports.  The first is on irq 4, is
             using port address <literal>0x3f8</literal>, and has a
             16550A-type UART chip.  The second uses the same kind of chip
             but is on irq 3 and is at port address <literal>0x2f8</literal>.
             Internal modem cards are treated just like serial ports &mdash; except
             that they always have a modem <quote>attached</quote> to the
             port.</para>
 
           <para>The <filename>GENERIC</filename> kernel includes support
             for two serial ports using the same irq and port address
             settings in the above example.  If these settings are not
             right for your system, or if you have added modem cards or have
             more serial ports than your kernel is configured for, just
             reconfigure your kernel.  See section
             <link linkend="make-kernel">about building a kernel</link> for
             more details.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="found-modem">
           <para>How do I tell if FreeBSD found my modem cards?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Refer to the answer to the previous question.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="access-serial-ports">
           <para>How do I access the serial ports on FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The third serial port, <devicename>sio2</devicename>
             (see &man.sio.4;, known as <devicename>COM3</devicename> in DOS), is on
             <devicename>/dev/cuaa2</devicename> for dial-out devices,
             and on <devicename>/dev/ttyd2</devicename> for dial-in
             devices.  What is the difference between these two classes
             of devices?</para>
 
           <para>You use
             <devicename>ttyd<replaceable>X</replaceable></devicename>
             for dial-ins.  When opening
             <devicename>/dev/ttyd<replaceable>X</replaceable></devicename>
             in blocking mode, a process will wait for the
             corresponding
             <devicename>cuaa<replaceable>X</replaceable></devicename>
             device to become inactive, and then wait for the carrier
             detect line to go active.  When you open the
             <devicename>cuaa<replaceable>X</replaceable></devicename>
             device, it makes sure the serial port is not already in
             use by the
             <devicename>ttyd<replaceable>X</replaceable></devicename>
             device. If the port is available, it <quote>steals</quote>
             it from the
             <devicename>ttyd<replaceable>X</replaceable></devicename>
             device. Also, the
             <devicename>cuaa<replaceable>X</replaceable></devicename>
             device does not care about carrier detect. With this
             scheme and an auto-answer modem, you can have remote users
             log in and you can still dial out with the same modem and
             the system will take care of all the conflicts.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="enable-multiport-serial">
           <para>How do I enable support for a multiport serial
             card?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Again, the section on kernel configuration provides
             information about configuring your kernel. For a multiport
             serial card, place an &man.sio.4; line for each serial
             port on the card in the kernel configuration file. But
             place the irq and vector specifiers on only one of the
             entries. All of the ports on the card should share one
             irq.  For consistency, use the last serial port to specify
             the irq.  Also, specify the
             <literal>COM_MULTIPORT</literal> option.</para>
 
           <para>The following example is for an AST 4-port serial card on
             irq 7:</para>
 
           <programlisting>options "COM_MULTIPORT"
 device sio4 at isa? port 0x2a0 tty flags 0x781
 device sio5 at isa? port 0x2a8 tty flags 0x781
 device sio6 at isa? port 0x2b0 tty flags 0x781
 device sio7 at isa? port 0x2b8 tty flags 0x781 irq 7 vector siointr</programlisting>
 
           <para>The flags indicate that the master port has minor number 7
             (<literal>0x700</literal>), diagnostics enabled during probe
             (<literal>0x080</literal>), and all the ports share an irq
             (<literal>0x001</literal>).</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="multiport-serial-share-irq">
           <para>Can FreeBSD handle multiport serial cards sharing
             irqs?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Not yet. You will have to use a different irq for each
             card.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="default-serial-params">
           <para>Can I set the default serial parameters for a
             port?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The
             <devicename>ttyd<replaceable>X</replaceable></devicename>
             (or
             <devicename>cuaa<replaceable>X</replaceable></devicename>)
             device is the regular device you will want to open for
             your applications.  When a process opens the device, it
             will have a default set of terminal I/O settings. You can
             see these settings with the command</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>stty -a -f /dev/ttyd1</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>When you change the settings to this device, the settings
             are in effect until the device is closed.  When it is reopened,
             it goes back to the default set.  To make changes to the
             default set, you can open and adjust the settings of the
             <quote>initial state</quote> device. For example, to turn on
             <acronym>CLOCAL</acronym> mode, 8 bits, and
             <acronym>XON/XOFF</acronym> flow control by default for
             ttyd5, do:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>stty -f /dev/ttyid5 clocal cs8 ixon ixoff</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>A good place to do this is in
             <filename>/etc/rc.serial</filename>. Now, an application
             will have these settings by default when it opens
             <filename>ttyd5</filename>.  It can still change these
             settings to its liking, though.</para>
 
           <para>You can also prevent certain settings from being
             changed by an application by making adjustments to the
             <quote>lock state</quote> device.  For example, to lock
             the speed of <devicename>ttyd5</devicename> to 57600 bps,
             do</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>stty -f /dev/ttyld5 57600</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Now, an application that opens
             <devicename>ttyd5</devicename> and tries to change the
             speed of the port will be stuck with 57600 bps.</para>
 
           <para>Naturally, you should make the initial state and lock
             state devices writable only by
             <username>root</username>. The &man.MAKEDEV.8; script does
             <emphasis>NOT</emphasis> do this when it creates the
             device entries.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="enable-dialup">
           <para>How can I enable dialup logins on my modem?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>So you want to become an Internet service provider, eh?
             First, you will need one or more modems that can auto-answer.
             Your modem will need to assert carrier-detect when it detects a
             carrier and not assert it all the time. It will need to hang up
             the phone and reset itself when the data terminal ready
             (<acronym>DTR</acronym>) line goes from on to off. It should
             probably use <filename>RTS/CTS</filename> flow control or no
             local flow control at all. Finally, it must use a constant
             speed between the computer and itself, but (to be nice to your
             callers) it should negotiate a speed between itself and the
             remote modem.</para>
 
           <para>For many Hayes command-set--compatible modems, this
             command will make these settings and store them in
             nonvolatile memory:</para>
 
           <programlisting>AT &amp;C1 &amp;D3 &amp;K3 &amp;Q6 S0=1 &amp;W</programlisting>
 
           <para>See the section <link linkend="direct-at">on sending AT
             commands</link> below for information on how to make these
             settings without resorting to an &ms-dos; terminal program.</para>
 
           <para>Next, make an entry in <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>
             (see &man.ttys.5;) for the modem.  This file lists all the
             ports on which the operating system will await logins.
             Add a line that looks something like this:</para>
 
           <programlisting>ttyd1 "/usr/libexec/getty std.57600" dialup on insecure</programlisting>
 
           <para>This line indicates that the second serial port
             (<devicename>/dev/ttyd1</devicename>) has a modem
             connected running at 57600 bps and no parity
             (<literal>std.57600</literal>, which comes from the file
             <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>, see &man.gettytab.5;).
             The terminal type for this port is
             <literal>dialup</literal>.  The port is
             <literal>on</literal> and is
             <literal>insecure</literal> &mdash; meaning
             <username>root</username> logins on the port are not
             allowed. For dialin ports like this one, use the
             <devicename>ttyd<replaceable>X</replaceable></devicename>
             entry.</para>
 
           <para>It is common practice to use <literal>dialup</literal>
             as the terminal type. Many users set up in their
             <filename>.profile</filename> or
             <filename>.login</filename> files a prompt for the actual
             terminal type if the starting type is dialup. The example
             shows the port as insecure. To become
             <username>root</username> on this port, you have to login
             as a regular user, then &man.su.1; to become
             <username>root</username>. If you use
             <literal>secure</literal> then <username>root</username>
             can login in directly.</para>
 
           <para>After making modifications to
             <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>, you need to send a hangup
             or <acronym>HUP</acronym> signal to the &man.init.8;
             process:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>kill -HUP 1</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>This forces the &man.init.8; process to reread
             <filename>/etc/ttys</filename>.  The init process will
             then start getty processes on all <literal>on</literal>
             ports.  You can find out if logins are available for your
             port by typing</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>ps -ax | grep '[t]tyd1'</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>You should see something like:</para>
 
           <programlisting>747 ??  I      0:00.04 /usr/libexec/getty std.57600 ttyd1</programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="dumb-terminal">
           <para>How can I connect a dumb terminal to my FreeBSD
             box?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you are using another computer as a terminal into your
             FreeBSD system, get a null-modem cable to go between the two
             serial ports.  If you are using an actual terminal, see its
             accompanying instructions.</para>
 
           <para>Then, modify <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> (see
             &man.ttys.5;), like above.  For example, if you are
             hooking up a WYSE-50 terminal to the fifth serial port,
             use an entry like this:</para>
 
           <programlisting>ttyd4 "/usr/libexec/getty std.38400" wyse50 on secure</programlisting>
 
           <para>This example shows that the port on
             <devicename>/dev/ttyd4</devicename> has a wyse50 terminal
             connected at 38400 bps with no parity
             (<literal>std.38400</literal> from
             <filename>/etc/gettytab</filename>, see &man.gettytab.5;)
             and <username>root</username> logins are allowed
             (<literal>secure</literal>).</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="cannot-tip">
           <para>Why can I not run <command>tip</command> or
             <command>cu</command>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>On your system, the programs &man.tip.1; and
             &man.cu.1; are probably executable only by
             <username>uucp</username> and group
             <groupname>dialer</groupname>.  You can use the group
             <groupname>dialer</groupname> to control who has access to
             your modem or remote systems.  Just add yourself to group
             dialer.</para>
 
           <para>Alternatively, you can let everyone on your system run
             &man.tip.1; and &man.cu.1; by typing:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>chmod 4511 /usr/bin/cu</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>chmod 4511 /usr/bin/tip</userinput></screen>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="hayes-unsupported">
           <para>My stock Hayes modem is not supported &mdash; what
             can I do?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Actually, the manual page for &man.tip.1; is out of
             date.  There is a generic Hayes dialer already built in.
             Just use <literal>at=hayes</literal> in your
             <filename>/etc/remote</filename> (see &man.remote.5;)
             file.</para>
 
           <para>The Hayes driver is not smart enough to recognize some of
             the advanced features of newer modems &mdash; messages like
             <literal>BUSY</literal>, <literal>NO DIALTONE</literal>, or
             <literal>CONNECT 115200</literal> will just confuse it. You
             should turn those messages off when you use &man.tip.1;
             (using <literal>ATX0&amp;W</literal>).</para>
 
           <para>Also, the dial timeout for &man.tip.1; is 60
             seconds.  Your modem should use something less, or else tip
             will think there is a communication problem.  Try
             <literal>ATS7=45&amp;W</literal>.</para>
 
           <para>Actually, as shipped &man.tip.1; does not yet
             support it fully. The solution is to edit the file
             <filename>tipconf.h</filename> in the directory
             <filename>/usr/src/usr.bin/tip/tip</filename>.  Obviously you
             need the source distribution to do this.</para>
 
           <para>Edit the line <literal>#define HAYES 0</literal>
             to <literal>#define HAYES 1</literal>. Then
             <command>make</command> and <command>make install</command>.
             Everything works nicely after that.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="direct-at">
           <para>How am I expected to enter these AT commands?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Make what is called a <quote>direct</quote> entry in
             your <filename>/etc/remote</filename> file (see
             &man.remote.5;).  For example, if your modem is hooked up
             to the first serial port,
             <devicename>/dev/cuaa0</devicename>, then put in the
             following line:</para>
 
           <programlisting>cuaa0:dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#19200:pa=none</programlisting>
 
           <para>Use the highest bps rate your modem supports in the br
             capability.  Then, type <command>tip
             <devicename>cuaa0</devicename></command> (see &man.tip.1;)
             and you will be connected to your modem.</para>
 
           <para>If there is no <devicename>/dev/cuaa0</devicename> on your
             system, do this:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cd /dev</userinput>
 &prompt.root; <userinput>sh MAKEDEV cuaa0</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Or use cu as <username>root</username> with the
             following command:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.root; <userinput>cu -l<replaceable>line</replaceable> -s<replaceable>speed</replaceable></userinput></screen>
 
           <para>with <replaceable>line</replaceable> being the serial
             port (e.g.  <devicename>/dev/cuaa0</devicename>) and
             <replaceable>speed</replaceable> being the speed
             (e.g.<literal>57600</literal>).  When you are done
             entering the AT commands hit <literal>~.</literal> to
             exit.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="gt-failure">
           <para>Why does the <literal>&lt;@&gt;</literal> sign for the pn
             capability not work?</para></question><answer>
 
           <para>The <literal>&lt;@&gt;</literal> sign in the phone
             number capability tells tip to look in
             <filename>/etc/phones</filename> for a phone number.  But
             the <literal>&lt;@&gt;</literal> sign is also a special
             character in capability files like
             <filename>/etc/remote</filename>.  Escape it with a
             backslash:</para>
 
           <programlisting>pn=\@</programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="dial-command-line">
           <para>How can I dial a phone number on the command
             line?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para>Put what is called a <quote>generic</quote> entry in
             your <filename>/etc/remote</filename> file (see
             &man.remote.5;).  For example:</para>
 
           <programlisting>tip115200|Dial any phone number at 115200 bps:\
         :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#115200:at=hayes:pa=none:du:
 tip57600|Dial any phone number at 57600 bps:\
         :dv=/dev/cuaa0:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:</programlisting>
 
           <para>Then you can do something like <command>tip -115200
             5551234</command>.  If you prefer &man.cu.1; over
             &man.tip.1;, use a generic cu entry:</para>
 
           <programlisting>cu115200|Use cu to dial any number at 115200bps:\
         :dv=/dev/cuaa1:br#57600:at=hayes:pa=none:du:</programlisting>
 
           <para>and type <command>cu 5551234 -s 115200</command>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="set-bps">
           <para>Do I have to type in the bps rate every time I do
             that?</para>
         </question><answer>
 
           <para>Put in an entry for <literal>tip1200</literal> or
             <literal>cu1200</literal>, but go ahead and use whatever
             bps rate is appropriate with the br capability.
             &man.tip.1; thinks a good default is 1200 bps which is why
             it looks for a <literal>tip1200</literal> entry. You do
             not have to use 1200 bps, though.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="terminal-server">
           <para>How can I more easily access a number of hosts through a
             terminal server?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Rather than waiting until you are connected and typing
             <literal>CONNECT <replaceable>host</replaceable></literal>
             each time, use tip's <literal>cm</literal> capability. For
             example, these entries in
             <filename>/etc/remote</filename> (see &man.remote.5;):</para>
 
           <programlisting>pain|pain.deep13.com|Forrester's machine:\
         :cm=CONNECT pain\n:tc=deep13:
 muffin|muffin.deep13.com|Frank's machine:\
         :cm=CONNECT muffin\n:tc=deep13:
 deep13:Gizmonics Institute terminal server:\
         :dv=/dev/cuaa2:br#38400:at=hayes:du:pa=none:pn=5551234:</programlisting>
 
           <para>will let you type <command>tip pain</command> or
             <command>tip muffin</command> to connect to the hosts
             <hostid>pain</hostid> or <hostid>muffin</hostid>; and
             <command>tip deep13</command> to get to the terminal
             server.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="tip-multiline">
           <para>Can tip try more than one line for each site?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>This is often a problem where a university has several
             modem lines and several thousand students trying to use
             them...</para>
 
           <para>Make an entry for your university in
             <filename>/etc/remote</filename> (see &man.remote.5;) and
             use <literal>&lt;\@&gt;</literal> for the
             <literal>pn</literal> capability:</para>
 
           <programlisting>big-university:\
         :pn=\@:tc=dialout
 dialout:\
         :dv=/dev/cuaa3:br#9600:at=courier:du:pa=none:</programlisting>
 
           <para>Then, list the phone numbers for the university in
             <filename>/etc/phones</filename> (see &man.phones.5;):</para>
 
           <programlisting>big-university 5551111
 big-university 5551112
 big-university 5551113
 big-university 5551114</programlisting>
 
           <para>&man.tip.1;
             will try each one in the listed order, then give
             up.  If you want to keep retrying, run &man.tip.1;
             in a while loop.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="multi-controlp">
           <para>Why do I have to hit <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>P</keycap></keycombo>
             twice to send <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>P</keycap></keycombo>
             once?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para><keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>P</keycap></keycombo>
             is the default <quote>force</quote> character, used to
             tell &man.tip.1; that the next character is literal data.
             You can set the force character to any other character
             with the <literal>~s</literal> escape, which means
             <quote>set a variable</quote>.</para>
 
           <para>Type <literal>~sforce=<replaceable>single-char
             </replaceable></literal> followed by a newline.
             <replaceable>single-char</replaceable> is any single
             character.  If you leave out
             <replaceable>single-char</replaceable>, then the force
             character is the nul character, which you can get by
             typing <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>2</keycap></keycombo>
             or <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>SPACE</keycap></keycombo>.
             A pretty good value for
             <replaceable>single-char</replaceable> is <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>SHIFT</keycap><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>6</keycap></keycombo>,
             which I have seen only used on some terminal
             servers.</para>
 
           <para>You can have the force character be whatever you want
             by specifying the following in your
             <filename>$HOME/.tiprc</filename> file:</para>
 
           <programlisting>force=<replaceable>single-char</replaceable></programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="uppercase">
           <para>Why is everything I type suddenly in UPPER CASE?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You must have pressed <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>A</keycap></keycombo>,
             &man.tip.1; <quote>raise character</quote>, specially
             designed for people with broken <keycap>Caps Lock</keycap>
             keys. Use <literal>~s</literal> as above and set the
             variable <quote>raisechar</quote> to something reasonable.
             In fact, you can set it to the same as the force
             character, if you never expect to use either of these
             features.</para>
 
           <para>Here is a sample .tiprc file perfect for Emacs users
             who need to type <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>2</keycap></keycombo>
             and <keycombo
             action="simul"><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>A</keycap></keycombo>
             a lot:</para>
 
           <programlisting>force=^^
 raisechar=^^</programlisting>
 
 <para>The ^^ is <keycombo action="simul"><keycap>SHIFT</keycap><keycap>CTRL</keycap><keycap>6</keycap></keycombo>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="tip-filetransfer">
           <para>How can I do file transfers with
             <command>tip</command>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>If you are talking to another &unix; system, you can
             send and receive files with <literal>~p</literal> (put)
             and <literal>~t</literal> (take).  These commands run
             &man.cat.1; and &man.echo.1; on the remote system to
             accept and send files.  The syntax is:</para>
 
           <programlisting>~p &lt;local-file&gt; [&lt;remote-file&gt;]
 ~t &lt;remote-file&gt; [&lt;local-file&gt;]</programlisting>
 
           <para>There is no error checking, so you probably should use
             another protocol, like zmodem.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="zmodem-tip">
           <para>How can I run zmodem with
             <application>tip</application>?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>First, install one of the zmodem programs from the
             ports collection (such as one of the two from the comms
             category, <application>lrzsz</application> or
             <application>rzsz</application>.</para>
 
           <para>To receive files, start the sending program on the
             remote end.  Then, press enter and type <literal>~C
             rz</literal> (or <literal>~C lrz</literal> if you
             installed <application>lrzsz</application>) to begin
             receiving them locally.</para>
 
           <para>To send files, start the receiving program on the
             remote end.  Then, press enter and type <literal>~C sz
             <replaceable>files</replaceable></literal> (or <literal>~C
             lsz <replaceable>files</replaceable></literal>) to send
             them to the remote system.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="misc">
     <title>Miscellaneous Questions</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="more-swap">
           <para>FreeBSD uses far more swap space than &linux;. Why?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>FreeBSD only appears to use more swap than &linux;.  In
             actual fact, it does not. The main difference between FreeBSD
             and &linux; in this regard is that FreeBSD will proactively move
             entirely idle, unused pages of main memory into swap in order
             to make more main memory available for active use. &linux; tends
             to only move pages to swap as a last resort. The perceived
             heavier use of swap is balanced by the more efficient use of
             main memory.</para>
 
           <para>Note that while FreeBSD is proactive in this regard, it
             does not arbitrarily decide to swap pages when the system is
             truly idle.  Thus you will not find your system all paged
             out when you get up in the morning after leaving it idle
             overnight.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="top-freemem">
           <para>Why does <command>top</command> show very little free
             memory even when I have very few programs running?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The simple answer is that free memory is wasted
             memory.  Any memory that your programs do not actively
             allocate is used within the FreeBSD kernel as disk
             cache.  The values shown by &man.top.1; labeled as
             <literal>Inact</literal>, <literal>Cache</literal>, and
             <literal>Buf</literal> are all cached data at different
             aging levels.  This cached data means the system does
             not have to access a slow disk again for data it has
             accessed recently, thus increasing overall performance.
             In general, a low value shown for <literal>Free</literal>
             memory in &man.top.1; is good, provided it is not
             <emphasis>very</emphasis> low.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="chmod-symlinks">
           <para>Why will <command>chmod</command> not change the
             permissions on symlinks?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Symlinks do not have permissions, and by default,
             &man.chmod.1; will not follow symlinks to change the
             permissions on the target file. So if you have a file,
             <filename>foo</filename>, and a symlink to that file,
             <filename>bar</filename>, then this command will always
             succeed.</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>chmod g-w bar</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>However, the permissions on <filename>foo</filename> will
             not have changed.</para>
 
           <para>You have to use either <option>-H</option> or
             <option>-L</option> together with the <option>-R</option>
             option to make this work.  See the &man.chmod.1; and
             &man.symlink.7; manual pages for more info.</para>
 
             <warning>
               <para>The <option>-R</option> option does a
                 <emphasis>RECURSIVE</emphasis> &man.chmod.1;.  Be
                 careful about specifying directories or symlinks to
                 directories to &man.chmod.1;.  If you want to change
                 the permissions of a directory referenced by a
                 symlink, use &man.chmod.1; without any options and
                 follow the symlink with a trailing slash
                 (<filename>/</filename>).  For example, if
                 <filename>foo</filename> is a symlink to directory
                 <filename>bar</filename>, and you want to change the
                 permissions of <filename>foo</filename> (actually
                 <filename>bar</filename>), you would do something
                 like:</para>
 
               <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>chmod 555 foo/</userinput></screen>
 
               <para>With the trailing slash, &man.chmod.1; will follow
                 the symlink, <filename>foo</filename>, to change the
                 permissions of the directory,
                 <filename>bar</filename>.</para>
             </warning>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="dos-binaries">
           <para>Can I run DOS binaries under FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes, you can use <filename
             role="package">emulators/doscmd</filename>, a DOS emulation
             program, available in the &os; Ports Collection.</para>
 
 	  <note>
             <para>The <application>doscmd</application> program used to be an
               integrated part of &os;, but was removed before the release of
               &os; 5.3.</para>
 	  </note>
 
           <para>If <application>doscmd</application> will not suffice,
             the add-on utility <filename
             role="package">emulators/pcemu</filename> emulates an 8088 and
             enough BIOS services to run many DOS text mode
             applications.  It requires the X Window System.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="translation">
           <para>What do I need to do to translate a FreeBSD document into
             my native language?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>See the <ulink url="&url.books.fdp-primer;/translations.html">
             Translation FAQ</ulink> in the FreeBSD Documentation Project
             Primer.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="freebsd-mail-bounces">
 	  <para>Why does my email to any address at FreeBSD.org bounce?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>The FreeBSD.org mail system implements some of the
 	    stricter Postfix checks on incoming mail and rejects mail that is
             either misconfigured or is potential spam.  Your mail
             might bounce for one of the following reasons:</para>
 
 	  <itemizedlist>
 	    <listitem>
               <para>The email is being sent from a known spam
                 domain or IP block.</para>
 
               <para>The FreeBSD mail servers reject email from known
                 spam sources.  If you have service through a company
                 or domain who generates or relays spam, please switch
                 to a service provider who does not.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>The body of the email only contains HTML.</para>
 
               <para>Mail should be sent in plain text only.  Please
                 configure your mail user agent to send plain
                 text.</para>
             </listitem>
 
             <listitem>
               <para>The mailer at FreeBSD.org cannot resolve the IP
                 address of the connecting host back to a symbolic
                 name.</para>
 
               <para>Working reverse DNS is a standard requirement for
                 accepting mail from a host. Set up reverse DNS for
                 your mail server's IP address.  Many home services
                 (DSL, cable, dialup, etc.) will not give you this
                 option.  In this case, relay your email through your
                 service provider's mail server.</para>
             </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>The hostname given in the EHLO/HELO part of the SMTP
 		exchange cannot be resolved to an IP address.</para>
 
 	      <para>A fully qualified, resolvable host name is necessary
 		in this part of the SMTP dialogue before mail will be
 		accepted.  If you do not have a host name that is registered
 		in the DNS, then you should use your service provider's mail
 		server to relay your mail.</para>
 	    </listitem>
 
 	    <listitem>
 	      <para>Your message had a message ID ending with the string
 		<quote>localhost</quote>.</para>
 
 	      <para>Some mail user agents generate bad message IDs which will
 		not be accepted.  You will need to persuade your mail user
 		agent to generate a valid message ID or else configure your
 		mail transfer agent to rewrite them.</para>
 	    </listitem>
           </itemizedlist>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="free-account">
           <para>Where can I find a free FreeBSD account?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>While FreeBSD does not provide open access to any of their
             servers, others do provide open access &unix; systems.  The
             charge varies and limited services may be available.</para>
 
           <para><ulink url="http://www.arbornet.org/">Arbornet,
             Inc</ulink>, also known as M-Net, has been providing open
             access to &unix; systems since 1983.  Starting on an Altos
             running System III, the site switched to BSD/OS in 1991.  In
             June of 2000, the site switched again to FreeBSD.  M-Net can be
             accessed via telnet and SSH and provides basic access to the
             entire FreeBSD software suite.  However, network access is
             limited to members and patrons who donate to the system, which
             is run as a non-profit organization.  M-Net also provides an
             bulletin board system and interactive chat.</para>
 
           <para><ulink url="http://www.grex.org/">Grex</ulink> provides a
             site very similar to M-Net including the same bulletin board
             and interactive chat software.  However, the machine is a &sun;
             4M and is running &sunos;.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="sup-define">
           <para>What is <command>sup</command>, and how do I use
             it?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para><ulink url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/cgi/ports.cgi?^sup">
             SUP</ulink> stands for Software Update Protocol, and was
             developed by CMU for keeping their development trees in sync.
             We used it to keep remote sites in sync with our central
             development sources.</para>
 
           <para>SUP is not bandwidth friendly, and has been retired.
             The current recommended method to keep your sources up to
             date is <ulink url="&url.books.handbook;/synching.html#CVSUP">
             CVSup</ulink></para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="daemon-name">
           <para>What is the cute little red guy's name?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>He does not have one, and is just called <quote>the BSD
             daemon</quote>.  If you insist upon using a name, call him
             <quote>beastie</quote>.  Note that <quote>beastie</quote>
             is pronounced <quote>BSD</quote>.</para>
 
           <para>You can learn more about the BSD daemon on his <ulink
             url="http://www.mckusick.com/beastie/index.html">home
             page</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="use-beastie">
           <para>Can I use the BSD daemon image?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Perhaps.  The BSD daemon is copyrighted by Marshall
             Kirk McKusick.  You will want to check his <ulink
             url="http://www.mckusick.com/beastie/mainpage/copyright.html">Statement
             on the Use of the BSD Daemon Figure</ulink> for detailed
             usage terms.</para>
 
           <para>In summary, you are free to use the image in a tasteful
             manner, for personal use, so long as appropriate credit is
             given.  If you want to use him commercially, you must
             contact Kirk McKusick.  More details are available on the
             <ulink
             url="http://www.mckusick.com/beastie/index.html">BSD
             Daemon's home page</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="daemon-images">
           <para>Do you have any BSD daemon images I could use?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>You will find eps and Xfig drawings under
             <filename>/usr/share/examples/BSD_daemon/</filename>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="glossary">
           <para>I have seen an acronym or other term on the mailing
 	  lists and I do not understand what it means.  Where should
 	  I look?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 	  <para>Please see the <ulink
 	    url="&url.books.handbook;/freebsd-glossary.html">
 	    &os Glossary</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="bikeshed-painting">
           <para>Why should I care what color the bikeshed is?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The really, really short answer is that you should not.
             The somewhat longer answer is that just because you are
             capable of building a bikeshed does not mean you should stop
             others from building one just because you do not like the
             color they plan to paint it.  This is a metaphor indicating
             that you need not argue about every little feature just
             because you know enough to do so.  Some people have
             commented that the amount of noise generated by a change is
             inversely proportional to the complexity of the
             change.</para>
 
           <para>The longer and more complete answer is that after a very
             long argument about whether &man.sleep.1; should take
             fractional second arguments, &a.phk; posted a long
             message entitled <quote><ulink
             url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/cgi/getmsg.cgi?fetch=506636+517178+/usr/local/www/db/text/1999/freebsd-hackers/19991003.freebsd-hackers">A bike
             shed (any color will do) on greener grass...</ulink></quote>.
             The appropriate portions of that message are quoted
             below.</para>
 
           <blockquote>
             <attribution>&a.phk; on freebsd-hackers, October
               2, 1999</attribution>
 
             <para>
               <quote>What is it about this bike shed?</quote> Some
               of you have asked me.</para>
 
             <para>It is a long story, or rather it is an old story, but
               it is quite short actually.  C. Northcote Parkinson wrote
               a book in the early 1960s, called <quote>Parkinson's
               Law</quote>, which contains a lot of insight into the
               dynamics of management.</para>
 
             <para>[snip a bit of commentary on the book]</para>
 
             <para>In the specific example involving the bike shed, the
               other vital component is an atomic power-plant, I guess
               that illustrates the age of the book.</para>
 
             <para>Parkinson shows how you can go into the board of
               directors and get approval for building a multi-million or
               even billion dollar atomic power plant, but if you want to
               build a bike shed you will be tangled up in endless
               discussions.</para>
 
             <para>Parkinson explains that this is because an atomic
               plant is so vast, so expensive and so complicated that
               people cannot grasp it, and rather than try, they fall
               back on the assumption that somebody else checked all the
               details before it got this far.  Richard P. Feynmann
               gives a couple of interesting, and very much to the point,
               examples relating to Los Alamos in his books.</para>
 
             <para>A bike shed on the other hand.  Anyone can build one
               of those over a weekend, and still have time to watch the
               game on TV.  So no matter how well prepared, no matter how
               reasonable you are with your proposal, somebody will seize
               the chance to show that he is doing his job, that he is
               paying attention, that he is
               <emphasis>here</emphasis>.</para>
 
             <para>In Denmark we call it <quote>setting your
               fingerprint</quote>.  It is about personal pride and
               prestige, it is about being able to point somewhere and
               say <quote>There!  <emphasis>I</emphasis> did that.</quote>
               It is a strong trait in politicians, but present in most
               people given the chance.  Just think about footsteps in
               wet cement.</para>
           </blockquote>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="funnies">
     <title>The FreeBSD Funnies</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="very-very-cool">
           <para>How cool is FreeBSD?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Q. Has anyone done any temperature testing while
             running FreeBSD? I know &linux; runs cooler than DOS, but have
             never seen a mention of FreeBSD. It seems to run really
             hot.</para>
 
           <para>A. No, but we have done numerous taste tests on
             blindfolded volunteers who have also had 250 micrograms of
             LSD-25 administered beforehand. 35% of the volunteers said that
             FreeBSD tasted sort of orange, whereas &linux; tasted like purple
             haze. Neither group mentioned any significant variances in
 	    temperature.  We eventually had to throw the
             results of this survey out entirely anyway when we found that
             too many volunteers were wandering out of the room during the
             tests, thus skewing the results.  We think most of the volunteers
             are at Apple now, working on their new <quote>scratch and
             sniff</quote> GUI. It is a funny old business we are in!</para>
 
           <para>Seriously, both FreeBSD and &linux; use the
             <acronym>HLT</acronym> (halt) instruction when the system is
             idle thus lowering its energy consumption and therefore the
             heat it generates. Also if you have APM (advanced power
             management) configured, then FreeBSD can also put the CPU into
             a low power mode.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="letmeoutofhere">
           <para>Who is scratching in my memory banks??</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Q. Is there anything <quote>odd</quote> that FreeBSD
             does when compiling the kernel which would cause the memory to
             make a scratchy sound? When compiling (and for a brief moment
             after recognizing the floppy drive upon startup, as well), a
             strange scratchy sound emanates from what appears to be the
             memory banks.</para>
 
           <para>A. Yes!  You will see frequent references to
             <quote>daemons</quote> in the BSD documentation, and what most
             people do not know is that this refers to genuine, non-corporeal
             entities that now possess your computer. The scratchy sound
             coming from your memory is actually high-pitched whispering
             exchanged among the daemons as they best decide how to deal
             with various system administration tasks.</para>
 
           <para>If the noise gets to you, a good
             <command>fdisk /mbr</command> from DOS will get rid of them,
             but do not be surprised if they react adversely and try to stop
             you. In fact, if at any point during the exercise you hear the
             satanic voice of Bill Gates coming from the built-in speaker,
             take off running and do not ever look back! Freed from the
             counterbalancing influence of the BSD daemons, the twin demons
             of DOS and &windows; are often able to re-assert total control
             over your machine to the eternal damnation of your soul.
 	    Now that you know, given a choice you would probably prefer to get
 	    used to the scratchy noises, no?</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="changing-lightbulbs">
           <para>How many FreeBSD hackers does it take to change a
             lightbulb?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>One thousand, one hundred and sixty-nine:</para>
 
           <para>Twenty-three to complain to -CURRENT about the lights
             being out;</para>
 
           <para>Four to claim that it is a configuration problem, and
             that such matters really belong on -questions;</para>
 
           <para>Three to submit PRs about it, one of which is misfiled
             under doc and consists only of <quote>it's dark</quote>;</para>
 
           <para>One to commit an untested lightbulb which breaks
             buildworld, then back it out five minutes later;</para>
 
           <para>Eight to flame the PR originators for not including
             patches in their PRs;</para>
 
           <para>Five to complain about buildworld being broken;</para>
 
           <para>Thirty-one to answer that it works for them, and they
             must have cvsupped at a bad time;</para>
 
           <para>One to post a patch for a new lightbulb to -hackers;</para>
 
           <para>One to complain that he had patches for this three years
             ago, but when he sent them to -CURRENT they were just ignored,
             and he has had bad experiences with the PR system; besides,
             the proposed new lightbulb is non-reflexive;</para>
 
           <para>Thirty-seven to scream that lightbulbs do not belong in
             the base system, that committers have no right to do things
             like this without consulting the Community, and WHAT IS
             -CORE DOING ABOUT IT!?</para>
 
           <para>Two hundred to complain about the color of the bicycle
             shed;</para>
 
           <para>Three to point out that the patch breaks &man.style.9;;</para>
 
           <para>Seventeen to complain that the proposed new lightbulb is
             under GPL;</para>
 
           <para>Five hundred and eighty-six to engage in a flame war
             about the comparative advantages of the GPL, the BSD
             license, the MIT license, the NPL, and the personal hygiene
             of unnamed FSF founders;</para>
 
           <para>Seven to move various portions of the thread to -chat
             and -advocacy;</para>
 
           <para>One to commit the suggested lightbulb, even though it
             shines dimmer than the old one;</para>
 
           <para>Two to back it out with a furious flame of a commit
             message, arguing that FreeBSD is better off in the dark than
             with a dim lightbulb;</para>
 
           <para>Forty-six to argue vociferously about the backing out
             of the dim lightbulb and demanding a statement from
             -core;</para>
 
           <para>Eleven to request a smaller lightbulb so it will fit
             their Tamagotchi if we ever decide to port FreeBSD to that
             platform;</para>
 
           <para>Seventy-three to complain about the SNR on -hackers and
             -chat and unsubscribe in protest;</para>
 
           <para>Thirteen to post <quote>unsubscribe</quote>,
             <quote>How do I unsubscribe?</quote>, or <quote>Please
             remove me from the list</quote>, followed by the usual
             footer;</para>
 
           <para>One to commit a working lightbulb while everybody is too
             busy flaming everybody else to notice;</para>
 
           <para>Thirty-one to point out that the new lightbulb would shine
             0.364% brighter if compiled with TenDRA (although it will have
             to be reshaped into a cube), and that FreeBSD should therefore
             switch to TenDRA instead of GCC;</para>
 
           <para>One to complain that the new lightbulb lacks
             fairings;</para>
 
           <para>Nine (including the PR originators) to ask
             <quote>what is MFC?</quote>;</para>
 
           <para>Fifty-seven to complain about the lights being out two
             weeks after the bulb has been changed.</para>
 
           <para><emphasis>&a.nik; adds:</emphasis></para>
 
           <para><emphasis>I was laughing quite hard at
             this.</emphasis></para>
 
           <para><emphasis>And then I thought, <quote>Hang on,
             shouldn't there be '1 to document it.' in that list
             somewhere?</quote></emphasis></para>
 
           <para><emphasis>And then I was enlightened :-)</emphasis></para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
       
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="dev-null">
           <para>Where does data written to <filename>/dev/null</filename>
 	    go?</para>
         </question>
         <answer>
           <para>It goes into a special data sink in the CPU where it
             is converted to heat which is vented through the heatsink
             / fan assembly.  This is why CPU cooling is increasingly
             important; as people get used to faster processors, they
             become careless with their data and more and more of it
             ends up in <filename>/dev/null</filename>, overheating
             their CPUs.  If you delete <filename>/dev/null</filename>
             (which effectively disables the CPU data sink) your CPU
             may run cooler but your system will quickly become
             constipated with all that excess data and start to behave
             erratically.  If you have a fast network connection you
             can cool down your CPU by reading data out of
             <filename>/dev/random</filename> and sending it off
             somewhere; however you run the risk of overheating your
             network connection and <filename>/</filename> or angering
             your ISP, as most of the data will end up getting
             converted to heat by their equipment, but they generally
             have good cooling, so if you do not overdo it you should be
             OK.</para>
 
 	  <para><emphasis>Paul Robinson adds:</emphasis></para>
 
 	  <para>There are other methods. As every good sysadmin knows,
             it is part of standard practice to send data to the screen
             of interesting variety to keep all the pixies that make up
             your picture happy. Screen pixies (commonly mis-typed or
             re-named as <quote>pixels</quote> are categorized by the type of hat
             they wear (red, green or blue) and will hide or appear
             (thereby showing the color of their hat) whenever they
             receive a little piece of food. Video cards turn data into
             pixie-food, and then send them to the pixies - the more
             expensive the card, the better the food, so the better
             behaved the pixies are. They also need constant stimulation
             - this is why screen savers exist.</para>
 
           <para>To take your suggestions further, you could just throw
             the random data to console, thereby letting the pixies
             consume it. This causes no heat to be produced at all,
             keeps the pixies happy and gets rid of your data quite
             quickly, even if it does make things look a bit messy on
             your screen.</para>
 
           <para>Incidentally, as an ex-admin of a large ISP who
             experienced many problems attempting to maintain a stable
             temperature in a server room, I would strongly discourage
             people sending the data they do not want out to the
             network. The fairies who do the packet switching and
             routing get annoyed by it as well.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="advanced">
     <title>Advanced Topics</title>
 
     <qandaset>
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="learn-advanced">
           <para>How can I learn more about FreeBSD's internals?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>At this time, there is only one book on FreeBSD-specific OS
             internals, namely <quote>The Design and Implementation of the
             FreeBSD Operating System</quote> by Marshall Kirk McKusick and
             George V. Neville-Neil, ISBN 0-201-70245-2, which 
             focuses on version 5.X of FreeBSD.</para>
 
           <para>Additionally, much general &unix; knowledge is directly
             applicable to FreeBSD.</para>
 
           <para>For a list of relevant books, please check the Handbook's <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/bibliography-osinternals.html">Operating
             System Internals Bibliography</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="how-to-contribute">
 	  <para>How can I contribute to FreeBSD?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>Please see the article on <ulink
 	    url="&url.articles.contributing;/article.html">Contributing
 	    to FreeBSD</ulink> for specific advice on how to do this.
 	    Assistance is more than welcome!</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="define-snap-release">
           <para>What are SNAPs and RELEASEs?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>There are currently three active/semi-active branches
             in the FreeBSD <ulink
             url="http://www.FreeBSD.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi"> CVS
             Repository</ulink>. (Earlier branches are only changed
             very rarely, which is why there are only three active
             branches of development):</para>
 
             <itemizedlist>
               <listitem>
                 <para><literal>RELENG_5</literal>     AKA
                   <emphasis>5-STABLE</emphasis></para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para><literal>RELENG_6</literal>      AKA
                   <emphasis>6-STABLE</emphasis></para>
               </listitem>
 
               <listitem>
                 <para><literal>HEAD</literal>         AKA
                   <emphasis>-CURRENT</emphasis>  AKA
                   <emphasis>7.X-CURRENT</emphasis></para>
               </listitem>
 
             </itemizedlist>
 
           <para><literal>HEAD</literal> is not an actual branch tag,
             like the other two; it is simply a symbolic constant for
             <quote><emphasis>the current, non-branched development
             stream</emphasis></quote> which we simply refer to as
             <quote>-CURRENT</quote>.</para>
 
           <para>Right now, <quote>-CURRENT</quote> is the 7.X development
             stream; the <literal>5-STABLE</literal> branch,
             <symbol>RELENG_5</symbol>, forked off from
             <quote>-CURRENT</quote> in October 2004, and
             the <literal>6-STABLE</literal> branch,
             <symbol>RELENG_6</symbol>, forked off from
             <quote>-CURRENT</quote> in November 2005.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="custrel">
           <para>How do I make my own custom release?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Please see the <ulink
             url="&url.articles.releng;/article.html">
             Release Engineering</ulink> article.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="makeworld-clobbers">
           <para>Why does <command>make world</command> clobber my existing
             installed binaries?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes, this is the general idea; as its name might suggest,
             <command>make world</command> rebuilds every system binary from
             scratch, so you can be certain of having a clean and consistent
             environment at the end (which is why it takes so long).</para>
 
           <para>If the environment variable <literal>DESTDIR</literal>
             is defined while running <command>make world</command> or
             <command>make install</command>, the newly-created binaries
             will be deposited in a directory tree identical to the
             installed one, rooted at <literal>${DESTDIR}</literal>.
             Some random combination of shared libraries modifications and
             program rebuilds can cause this to fail in <command>make
             world</command> however.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
 	<question id="cvsup-round-robin">
 	  <para>Why isn't cvsup.FreeBSD.org a round robin DNS entry to
 	  share the load amongst the various CVSup servers?</para>
 	</question>
 
 	<answer>
 	  <para>While CVSup mirrors update from the master CVSup
 	    server hourly, this update might happen at any time during
 	    the hour.  This means that some servers have newer code
 	    than others, even though all servers have code that is
 	    less than an hour old.  If <hostid role="fqdn">cvsup.FreeBSD.org</hostid> was a round
 	    robin DNS entry that simply redirected users to a random
 	    CVSup server, running CVSup twice in a row could download
 	    code older than the code already on the system.</para>
 	</answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="bus-speed-defaulted">
           <para>Why does my system say <quote>(bus speed
             defaulted)</quote> when it boots?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
           <para>The Adaptec 1542 SCSI host adapters allow the user to
             configure their bus access speed in software. Previous versions
             of the 1542 driver tried to determine the fastest usable speed
             and set the adapter to that. We found that this breaks some
             users' systems, so you now have to define the
             <symbol>TUNE_1542</symbol> kernel configuration option in order
             to have this take place. Using it on those systems where it
             works may make your disks run faster, but on those systems
             where it does not, your data could be corrupted.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="ctm">
           <para>Can I follow -CURRENT with limited Internet access?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Yes, you can do this <emphasis>without</emphasis>
             downloading the whole source tree by using the <ulink
             url="&url.books.handbook;/synching.html#CTM">CTM facility</ulink>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="split-240k">
           <para>How did you split the distribution into 240k files?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Newer BSD based systems have a <option>-b</option>
             option to &man.split.1; that allows them to split files on arbitrary
             byte boundaries.</para>
 
           <para>Here is an example from
             <filename>/usr/src/Makefile</filename>.</para>
 
           <programlisting>bin-tarball:
 (cd ${DISTDIR}; \
 tar cf - . \
 gzip --no-name -9 -c | \
 split -b 240640 - \
 ${RELEASEDIR}/tarballs/bindist/bin_tgz.)</programlisting>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="submitting-kernel-extensions">
           <para>I have written a kernel extension, who do I send it
             to?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>Please take a look at the article on <ulink
             url="&url.articles.contributing;/article.html">Contributing
             to FreeBSD</ulink> to learn how to submit code.</para>
 
           <para>And thanks for the thought!</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="pnp-initialize">
           <para>How are Plug N Play ISA cards detected and
             initialized?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>By: Frank Durda IV
             <email>uhclem@nemesis.lonestar.org</email></para>
 
           <para>In a nutshell, there a few I/O ports that all of the
             PnP boards respond to when the host asks if anyone is out
             there. So when the PnP probe routine starts, it asks if there
             are any PnP boards present, and all the PnP boards respond with
             their model # to a I/O read of the same port, so the probe
             routine gets a wired-OR <quote>yes</quote> to that question. At
             least one bit will be on in that reply. Then the probe code is
             able to cause boards with board model IDs (assigned by
             Microsoft/Intel) lower than X to go <quote>off-line</quote>. It
             then looks to see if any boards are still responding to the
             query. If the answer was <literal>0</literal>, then there are
             no boards with IDs above X. Now probe asks if there are any
             boards below <literal>X</literal>. If so, probe knows there are
             boards with a model numbers below X. Probe then asks for boards
             greater than X-(limit/4) to go off-line. If repeats the query.
             By repeating this semi-binary search of IDs-in-range enough
             times, the probing code will eventually identify all PnP boards
             present in a given machine with a number of iterations that is
             much lower than what 2^64 would take.</para>
 
           <para>The IDs are two 32-bit fields (hence 2&circ;64) + 8 bit
             checksum. The first 32 bits are a vendor identifier. They never
             come out and say it, but it appears to be assumed that
             different types of boards from the same vendor could have
             different 32-bit vendor ids. The idea of needing 32 bits just
             for unique manufacturers is a bit excessive.</para>
 
           <para>The lower 32 bits are a serial #, Ethernet address,
             something that makes this one board unique. The vendor must
             never produce a second board that has the same lower 32 bits
             unless the upper 32 bits are also different. So you can have
             multiple boards of the same type in the machine and the full 64
             bits will still be unique.</para>
 
           <para>The 32 bit groups can never be all zero.  This allows the
             wired-OR to show non-zero bits during the initial binary
             search.</para>
 
           <para>Once the system has identified all the board IDs present,
             it will reactivate each board, one at a time (via the same I/O
             ports), and find out what resources the given board needs, what
             interrupt choices are available, etc. A scan is made over all
             the boards to collect this information.</para>
 
           <para>This info is then combined with info from any ECU files
             on the hard disk or wired into the MLB BIOS. The ECU and BIOS
             PnP support for hardware on the MLB is usually synthetic, and
             the peripherals do not really do genuine PnP. However by
             examining the BIOS info plus the ECU info, the probe routines
             can cause the devices that are PnP to avoid those devices the
             probe code cannot relocate.</para>
 
           <para>Then the PnP devices are visited once more and given
             their I/O, DMA, IRQ and Memory-map address assignments. The
             devices will then appear at those locations and remain there
             until the next reboot, although there is nothing that says you
             cannot move them around whenever you want.</para>
 
           <para>There is a lot of oversimplification above, but you
             should get the general idea.</para>
 
           <para>Microsoft took over some of the primary printer status
             ports to do PnP, on the logic that no boards decoded those
             addresses for the opposing I/O cycles. I found a genuine IBM
             printer board that did decode writes of the status port during
             the early PnP proposal review period, but MS said
             <quote>tough</quote>. So they do a write to the printer status
             port for setting addresses, plus that use that address +
             <literal>0x800</literal>, and a third I/O port for reading that
             can be located anywhere between <literal>0x200</literal> and
             <literal>0x3ff</literal>.</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="major-numbers">
           <para>Can you assign a major number for a device driver I have
             written?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
 
 	  <para>&os.current; after February 2003 has a facility for
 	    dynamically and automatically allocating major numbers for
 	    device drivers at runtime.  This mechanism is highly
 	    preferred to the older procedure of statically allocating
 	    device numbers.  Some comments on this subject can be
 	    found in <filename>src/sys/conf/majors</filename>.</para>
 
 	  <para>If you are forced for some reason to use a static
 	    major number, the procedure for obtaining one depends on
 	    whether or not you plan on making the driver publicly
 	    available. If you do, then please send us a copy of the
 	    driver source code, plus the appropriate modifications to
 	    <filename>files.i386</filename>, a sample configuration
 	    file entry, and the appropriate &man.MAKEDEV.8; code to
 	    create any special files your device uses. If you do not,
 	    or are unable to because of licensing restrictions, then
 	    character major number 32 and block major number 8 have
 	    been reserved specifically for this purpose; please use
 	    them. In any case, we would appreciate hearing about your
 	    driver on the &a.hackers;.</para>
 
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="alternate-directory-layout">
           <para>What about alternative layout policies for
             directories?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>In answer to the question of alternative layout policies
             for directories, the scheme that is currently in use is
             unchanged from what I wrote in 1983. I wrote that policy for
             the original fast filesystem, and never revisited it. It works
             well at keeping cylinder groups from filling up. As several of
             you have noted, it works poorly for find. Most filesystems are
             created from archives that were created by a depth first search
             (aka ftw). These directories end up being striped across the
             cylinder groups thus creating a worst possible scenario for
             future depth first searches. If one knew the total number of
             directories to be created, the solution would be to create
             (total / fs_ncg) per cylinder group before moving on.
             Obviously, one would have to create some heuristic to guess at
             this number. Even using a small fixed number like say 10 would
             make an order of magnitude improvement. To differentiate
             restores from normal operation (when the current algorithm is
             probably more sensible), you could use the clustering of up to
             10 if they were all done within a ten second window. Anyway, my
             conclusion is that this is an area ripe for
             experimentation.</para>
 
           <para>Kirk McKusick, September 1998</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="kernel-panic-troubleshooting">
           <para>How can I make the most of the data I see when my kernel
             panics?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para><emphasis>[This section was extracted from a mail
             written by &a.wpaul; on the freebsd-current
             <link linkend="mailing">mailing list</link> by &a.des;, who
             fixed a few typos and added the bracketed comments]
             </emphasis></para>
 
           <programlisting>From: Bill Paul &lt;wpaul@skynet.ctr.columbia.edu&gt;
 Subject: Re: the fs fun never stops
 To: Ben Rosengart
 Date: Sun, 20 Sep 1998 15:22:50 -0400 (EDT)
 Cc: current@FreeBSD.org</programlisting>
 
           <para><emphasis>Ben Rosengart posted the following
             panic message]</emphasis></para>
 
           <programlisting>&gt; Fatal trap 12: page fault while in kernel mode
 &gt; fault virtual address   = 0x40
 &gt; fault code              = supervisor read, page not present
 &gt; instruction pointer     = 0x8:0xf014a7e5
                                 ^^^^^^^^^^
 &gt; stack pointer           = 0x10:0xf4ed6f24
 &gt; frame pointer           = 0x10:0xf4ed6f28
 &gt; code segment            = base 0x0, limit 0xfffff, type 0x1b
 &gt;                         = DPL 0, pres 1, def32 1, gran 1
 &gt; processor eflags        = interrupt enabled, resume, IOPL = 0
 &gt; current process         = 80 (mount)
 &gt; interrupt mask          =
 &gt; trap number             = 12
 &gt; panic: page fault</programlisting>
 
           <para>[When] you see a message like this, it is not enough to just
             reproduce it and send it in. The instruction pointer value that
             I highlighted up there is important; unfortunately, it is also
             configuration dependent. In other words, the value varies
             depending on the exact kernel image that you are using. If
             you are using a GENERIC kernel image from one of the snapshots,
             then it is possible for somebody else to track down the
             offending function, but if you are running a custom kernel then
             only <emphasis>you</emphasis> can tell us where the fault
             occurred.</para>
 
           <para>What you should do is this:</para>
 
             <procedure>
               <step>
                 <para>Write down the instruction pointer value. Note that
                   the <literal>0x8:</literal> part at the beginning is not
                   significant in this case: it is the
                   <literal>0xf0xxxxxx</literal> part that we want.</para>
               </step>
 
               <step>
                 <para>When the system reboots, do the following:
 
                   <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>nm -n /kernel.that.caused.the.panic | grep f0xxxxxx</userinput></screen>
 
                   where <literal>f0xxxxxx</literal> is the instruction
                   pointer value. The odds are you will not get an exact
                   match since the symbols in the kernel symbol table are
                   for the entry points of functions and the instruction
                   pointer address will be somewhere inside a function, not
                   at the start. If you do not get an exact match, omit the
                   last digit from the instruction pointer value and try
                   again, i.e.:
 
                   <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>nm -n /kernel.that.caused.the.panic | grep f0xxxxx</userinput></screen>
 
                    If that does not yield any results, chop off another
                    digit. Repeat until you get some sort of output. The
                    result will be a possible list of functions which caused
                    the panic. This is a less than exact mechanism for
                    tracking down the point of failure, but it is better than
                    nothing.</para>
               </step>
             </procedure>
 
           <para>I see people constantly show panic messages like this
             but rarely do I see someone take the time to match up the
             instruction pointer with a function in the kernel symbol
             table.</para>
 
           <para>The best way to track down the cause of a panic is by
             capturing a crash dump, then using &man.gdb.1; to generate
             a stack trace on the crash dump.</para>
 
           <para>In any case, the method I normally use is this:</para>
 
             <procedure>
               <step>
                 <para>Set up a kernel config file, optionally adding
                   <literal>options DDB</literal> if you think you need
                   the kernel debugger for something. (I use this mainly
                   for setting breakpoints if I suspect an infinite loop
                   condition of some kind.)</para>
               </step>
 
               <step>
                 <para>Use <command>config -g
                   <replaceable>KERNELCONFIG</replaceable></command> to set
                   up the build directory.</para>
               </step>
 
               <step>
                 <para><command>cd /sys/compile/<replaceable>KERNELCONFIG</replaceable>; make</command></para>
               </step>
 
               <step>
                 <para>Wait for kernel to finish compiling.</para>
               </step>
 
               <step>
                 <para><command>make install</command></para>
               </step>
 
               <step>
                 <para>reboot</para>
               </step>
             </procedure>
 
           <para>The &man.make.1; process will have built two kernels.
             <filename>kernel</filename> and
             <filename>kernel.debug</filename>.
             <filename>kernel</filename> was installed as
             <filename>/kernel</filename>, while
             <filename>kernel.debug</filename> can be used as the
             source of debugging symbols for &man.gdb.1;.</para>
 
           <para>To make sure you capture a crash dump, you need edit
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename> and set
             <literal>dumpdev</literal> to point to your swap
             partition. This will cause the &man.rc.8; scripts to use
             the &man.dumpon.8; command to enable crash dumps. You can
             also run &man.dumpon.8; manually.  After a panic, the
             crash dump can be recovered using &man.savecore.8;; if
             <literal>dumpdev</literal> is set in
             <filename>/etc/rc.conf</filename>, the &man.rc.8; scripts
             will run &man.savecore.8; automatically and put the crash
             dump in <filename>/var/crash</filename>.</para>
 
             <note>
               <para>FreeBSD crash dumps are usually the same size as the
                 physical RAM size of your machine. That is, if you have
                 64MB of RAM, you will get a 64MB crash dump. Therefore you
                 must make sure there is enough space in
                 <filename>/var/crash</filename> to hold the dump.
                 Alternatively, you run &man.savecore.8;
                 manually and have it recover the crash dump to another
                 directory where you have more room. It is possible to limit
                 the size of the crash dump by using <literal>options
                 MAXMEM=(foo)</literal> to set the amount of memory the
                 kernel will use to something a little more sensible. For
                 example, if you have 128MB of RAM, you can limit the
                 kernel's memory usage to 16MB so that your crash dump size
                 will be 16MB instead of 128MB.</para>
             </note>
 
           <para>Once you have recovered the crash dump, you can get a
             stack trace with &man.gdb.1; as follows:</para>
 
           <screen>&prompt.user; <userinput>gdb -k /sys/compile/KERNELCONFIG/kernel.debug /var/crash/vmcore.0</userinput>
 <prompt>(gdb)</prompt> <userinput>where</userinput></screen>
 
           <para>Note that there may be several screens worth of
             information; ideally you should use
             &man.script.1; to capture all of them. Using the
             unstripped kernel image with all the debug symbols should show
             the exact line of kernel source code where the panic occurred.
             Usually you have to read the stack trace from the bottom up in
             order to trace the exact sequence of events that lead to the
             crash. You can also use &man.gdb.1; to print out
             the contents of various variables or structures in order to
             examine the system state at the time of the crash.</para>
 
           <para>Now, if you are really insane and have a second computer,
             you can also configure &man.gdb.1; to do remote
             debugging such that you can use &man.gdb.1; on
             one system to debug the kernel on another system, including
             setting breakpoints, single-stepping through the kernel code,
             just like you can do with a normal user-mode program. I have not
             played with this yet as I do not often have the chance to set up
             two machines side by side for debugging purposes.</para>
 
           <para><emphasis>[Bill adds: "I forgot to mention one thing: if
             you have DDB enabled and the kernel drops into the debugger,
             you can force a panic (and a crash dump) just by typing 'panic'
             at the ddb prompt. It may stop in the debugger again during the
             panic phase. If it does, type 'continue' and it will finish the
             crash dump." -ed]</emphasis></para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="dlsym-failure">
           <para>Why has dlsym() stopped working for ELF executables?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>The ELF toolchain does not, by default, make the symbols
             defined in an executable visible to the dynamic linker.
             Consequently <function>dlsym()</function> searches on handles
             obtained from calls to <function>dlopen(NULL,
             flags)</function> will fail to find such symbols.</para>
 
           <para>If you want to search, using
             <function>dlsym()</function>, for symbols present in the
             main executable of a process, you need to link the
             executable using the <option>-export-dynamic</option>
             option to the ELF linker (&man.ld.1;).</para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
 
       <qandaentry>
         <question id="change-kernel-address-space">
           <para>How can I increase or reduce the kernel address space?</para>
         </question>
 
         <answer>
           <para>By default, the kernel address space is 256 MB on
             FreeBSD 3.X and 1 GB on FreeBSD 4.X. If you run a
             network-intensive server (e.g. a large FTP or HTTP server),
             you might find that 256 MB is not enough.</para>
 
           <para>So how do you increase the address space? There are two
             aspects to this. First, you need to tell the kernel to reserve
             a larger portion of the address space for itself. Second, since
             the kernel is loaded at the top of the address space, you need
             to lower the load address so it does not bump its head against
             the ceiling.</para>
 
           <para>The first goal is achieved by increasing the value of
             <literal>NKPDE</literal> in
             <filename>src/sys/i386/include/pmap.h</filename>. Here is what
             it looks like for a 1 GB address space:</para>
 
           <programlisting>#ifndef NKPDE
 #ifdef SMP
 #define NKPDE                   254     /* addressable number of page tables/pde's */
 #else
 #define NKPDE                   255     /* addressable number of page tables/pde's */
 #endif  /* SMP */
 #endif</programlisting>
 
           <para>To find the correct value of <literal>NKPDE</literal>,
             divide the desired address space size (in megabytes) by four,
             then subtract one for UP and two for SMP.</para>
 
           <para>To achieve the second goal, you need to compute the
             correct load address: simply subtract the address space size
             (in bytes) from 0x100100000; the result is 0xc0100000 for a 1
             GB address space. Set <symbol>LOAD_ADDRESS</symbol> in
             <filename>src/sys/i386/conf/Makefile.i386</filename> to that
             value; then set the location counter in the beginning of the
             section listing in
             <filename>src/sys/i386/conf/kernel.script</filename> to the
             same value, as follows:</para>
 
           <programlisting>OUTPUT_FORMAT("elf32-i386", "elf32-i386", "elf32-i386")
 OUTPUT_ARCH(i386)
 ENTRY(btext)
 SEARCH_DIR(/usr/lib); SEARCH_DIR(/usr/obj/elf/home/src/tmp/usr/i386-unknown-freebsdelf/lib);
 SECTIONS
 {
   /* Read-only sections, merged into text segment: */
   . = 0xc0100000 + SIZEOF_HEADERS;
   .interp     : { *(.interp)    }</programlisting>
 
           <para>Then reconfig and rebuild your kernel. You will
             probably have problems with &man.ps.1; &man.top.1; and the
             like; <command>make world</command> should take care of it
             (or a manual rebuild of <filename>libkvm</filename>,
             &man.ps.1; and &man.top.1; after copying the patched
             <filename>pmap.h</filename> to
             <filename>/usr/include/vm/</filename>.</para>
 
           <para>NOTE: the size of the kernel address space must be a
             multiple of four megabytes.</para>
 
           <para>[&a.dg; adds: <emphasis>I think the kernel address space
             needs to be a power of two, but I am not certain about that. The
           old(er) boot code used to monkey with the high order address bits
           and I think expected at least 256MB
           granularity.]</emphasis></para>
         </answer>
       </qandaentry>
     </qandaset>
   </chapter>
 
   <chapter id="acknowledgments">
     <title>Acknowledgments</title>
 
     <para>This innocent little Frequently Asked Questions document has
       been written, rewritten, edited, folded, spindled, mutilated,
       eviscerated, contemplated, discombobulated, cogitated,
       regurgitated, rebuilt, castigated, and reinvigorated over the
       last decade, by a cast of hundreds if not thousands.
       Repeatedly.</para>
 
     <para>We wish to thank every one of the people responsible, and we
       encourage you to to <ulink
       url="&url.articles.contributing;/article.html">join them</ulink>
       in making this FAQ even better.</para>
 
   </chapter>
 
   &bibliography;
 </book>